Chapter Introduction
Section 1: Theories of Motivation
Section 2: Biological and Social
Motives
Section 3: Emotions
Chapter Objectives · Section 1
Theories of Motivation
Explain motivation and why we
experience it in different ways.
Chapter Objectives · Section 2
Biological and Social Motives
Understand that biological needs are
physiological requirements we must
fulfill to survive, whereas social needs
are learned through experience.
Chapter Objectives · Section 3
Emotions
Describe the three parts of
emotions—the physical, cognitive,
and behavioral aspects.
Main Idea
Psychologists explain motivation and why we
experience it in different ways through
instinct, drive-reduction, incentive, and
cognitive theories of motivation.
Vocabulary
• motivation
• extrinsic motivation
• instincts
• intrinsic motivation
• need
• drive
• homeostasis
• incentive
Objectives
• Describe four theories of motivation.
• Discuss the difference between intrinsic
and extrinsic motivation.
Which emotion motivates you the
most?
A. Fear
B. Love
C. Desire
D. Guilt
0%
A
A.
B.
C.
0%
D.
B
A
B
C
0%
D
C
0%
D
Theories of Motivation
• Motivation
– Psychologists infer motivation from goaldirected behavior.
Theories of Motivation (cont.)
• Theories regarding motivation:
– Instinct
– Drive-reduction
– Incentive
– Cognitive
Which theory do you think best
explains motivation?
A. Instinct theory
B. Drive-reduction theory
C. Incentive theory
D. Cognitive
0%
A
A.
B.
C.
0%
D.
B
A
B
C
0%
D
C
0%
D
Instinct Theory
• William McDougall proposed that humans
were motivated by a variety of instincts.
– Instincts are innate tendencies that
determine behavior.
• William James proposed that humans
have instincts such as cleanliness,
curiosity, parental love, sociability, and
sympathy.
Instinct Theory (cont.)
• However, instincts do not explain behavior;
they simply label behavior.
Which psychologist used the instinct
theory to explain motivation?
A. James
B. McDougall
C. Both
D. Neither
0%
A
A.
B.
C.
0%
D.
B
A
B
C
0%
D
C
0%
D
Drive-Reduction Theory
• The thing that motivates us starts with a
need that leads to a drive.
• Need
• Drive
Drive-Reduction Theory (cont.)
• Drive-reduction theory states that
physiological needs drive an organism to
act in either random or habitual ways.
• Biological needs drive an organism to act,
and the organism strives to maintain
homeostasis.
Drive-Reduction Theory (cont.)
• Clark Hull suggested that all human
motives are extensions of basic biological
needs.
• Harry Harlow and others doubted Hull and
proved that other factors, such as
pleasure, also play a role.
• They conducted experiments using baby
monkeys and surrogate mothers.
Do you think disrupting your
homeostasis can be pleasurable?
A. Yes
B. No
C. Not sure
0%
A
A. A
B. B
C.0%C
B
0%
C
Incentive Theory
• Incentive
• People are motivated to obtain positive
incentives and to avoid negative
incentives.
• The cognitive expectations of humans also
guide their behavior.
Which drive motivates you the most?
A. Hunger
B. Sleep
C. Keeping warm
D. Having fun
0%
A
A.
B.
C.
0%
D.
B
A
B
C
0%
D
C
0%
D
Cognitive Theory
• Cognitive psychologists seek to explain
motivation by looking at forces inside and
outside of us that energize us to move.
• According to them, we act in particular
ways at particular times as a result of
extrinsic and intrinsic motivations.
Cognitive Theory (cont.)
• Extrinsic motivation
• Intrinsic motivation
• Sometimes we engage in an activity
because of both types of motivation.
• Overjustification effect: when people are
given more extrinsic motivation than
necessary to perform a task, their intrinsic
motivation declines.
Do you think saving money for a car
is an extrinsic or intrinsic motivation?
A. Extrinsic
B. Intrinsic
C. Both
0%
A
A. A
B. B
C.0%C
B
0%
C
Main Idea
Much of life is spent trying to satisfy
biological and social needs. Biological needs
are physiological requirements that we must
fulfill to survive, whereas social needs are
those that are learned through experience.
Vocabulary
• lateral hypothalamus (LH)
• ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH)
• fundamental needs
• psychological needs
• self-actualization needs
Objectives
• Describe the biological and social needs of
humans.
• Explain Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.
Do you think it is important to be
successful in school?
A. Yes
B. No
C. Not sure
0%
A
A. A
B. B
C.0%C
B
0%
C
Biological Motives
• Some behavior is determined by the
internal, or physiological, state of the
organism.
– The nervous system is constructed in
such a way that dramatic variations in
blood sugar, water, oxygen, salt, or
essential vitamins lead to changes in
behavior designed to return the body to
a condition of chemical balance, or
homeostasis.
Some Biological and
Social Needs
Biological Motives (cont.)
• Several of the drives that motivate
behavior are homeostatic, such as hunger.
– Your body requires food to grow, repair
itself, and to store reserves.
Biological Motives (cont.)
• Lateral hypothalamus (LH)
• Ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH)
• The glucostatic theory—the hypothalamus
monitors the amount of glucose, or ready
energy, available in the blood.
• Set-point—the weight around which your
day-to-day weight tends to fluctuate.
Biological Motives (cont.)
• The hypothalamus interprets at least three
kinds of information:
– The amount of glucose entering the cells
of your body.
– Your set-point.
– Your body temperature.
Biological Motives (cont.)
• Other factors tied to hunger:
– Psychosocial hunger factors—external
cues that can affect eating, such as
where, when, and what we eat.
– Obesity—a genetic component may
predispose some people to obesity.
Percentage of
Overweight Americans
Biological Motives (cont.)
• Stanley Schachter and his colleagues
conducted studies to prove that overweight
people respond to external cues, while
normal-weight people respond to internal
cures.
Do you feel that you only eat when
you are hungry, or that you are also
affected by external cues?
A. Internal cues
B. External cues
C. Both A and B
D. None of the above
0%
A
A.
B.
C.
0%
D.
B
A
B
C
0%
D
C
0%
D
Social Motives
• Social motives are learned from our
interactions with other people.
• The achievement motive concerns the
desire to set challenging goals and to
persist in trying to reach those goals
despite obstacles, frustrations, and setbacks.
Social Motives (cont.)
• David McClelland measured achievement
motivation using the Thematic
Apperception Test (TAT).
– 83% of the entrepreneurs scored high in
achievement, but only 21% of the
nonentrepreneurs scored that high.
Social Motives (cont.)
• Other people are motivated by a fear of
failure.
– People display this fear when they
choose easy tasks offering assured
success or impossible tasks with no
chance of success.
– They often find excuses to explain their
poor performance.
Social Motives (cont.)
• Some people also have a fear of success.
– Matina Horner conducted a study
showing that success involves deep
conflicts for some people.
– Although, it is very difficult to define
success or to tell whether a person who
does not try something is afraid of
success or failure.
Social Motives (cont.)
• Other theories:
– J.W. Atkinson developed an expectancyvalue theory to explain goal-directed
behavior.
– Competency theory—too easy a task or too
difficult a task means we do not learn
anything about how competent we are.
Your Performance
Social Motives (cont.)
• Abraham Maslow believed that all human
beings need to feel competent to win
approval and recognition, and to sense
that they have achieved something.
• He believed that some needs take
precedence over others and that achieving
one level of satisfaction releases new
needs and motivations.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of
Needs
Social Motives (cont.)
• Maslow placed achievement motivation in the
context of a hierarchy of needs:
– Physiological needs (a fundamental need)
– Safety needs (a fundamental need)
– Belongingness and love needs
(a psychological need)
– Esteem needs (a psychological need)
– The need to fulfill one’s potential
(a self-actualization need)
Achieving goals, feeling competent, and
gaining approval and recognition would
all under which need in Maslow’s
hierarchy?
A. Physiological needs
0%
D
A
B
C
0%
D
C
D. Esteem needs
0%
A
C. Belongingness and
love needs
A.
B.
C.
0%
D.
B
B. Safety needs
Main Idea
All emotions consist of three parts—the
physical, cognitive, and behavioral aspects.
Theories of emotion propose that emotions
result from physical changes and/or mental
processes.
Vocabulary
• emotion
Objectives
• Give examples of the physiological
theories of emotion.
• Explain the cognitive theorists’ approach to
the study of emotion.
Do you consider yourself to be an
emotional person?
A. Very much so
B. Somewhat
C. Not very much so
D. Not at all
0%
A
A.
B.
C.
0%
D.
B
A
B
C
0%
D
C
0%
D
Emotions
• We use the words drive or motivation to
emphasize the needs, desires, and mental
calculations that lead to goal-directed
behavior.
• We use the words emotion or affect to
stress the feelings associated with these
decisions and activities.
Emotions (cont.)
• Emotional intelligence is the ability to
perceive, imagine, and understand
emotions and to use that information in
decision making.
What is the ability to perceive,
imagine, and understand emotions?
A. Emotional intelligence
B. Drive
C. Motivation
D. Affect
0%
A
A.
B.
C.
0%
D.
B
A
B
C
0%
D
C
0%
D
Expressing Emotions
• Emotion
The Range of Emotions
Expressing Emotions (cont.)
• Emotions result from four occurrences:
– You must interpret some stimulus.
– You have a subjective feeling, such as
fear or happiness.
– You experience physiological responses,
such as an increased heart rate.
– You display observable behavior, such
as smiling or crying.
Expressing Emotions (cont.)
• All emotions have three parts:
– The physical—how the emotion affects
the physical arousal of an individual.
– The behavioral—outward expression of
the emotion, such as body language,
hand gestures, and tone of voice.
– The cognitive—how we think about or
interpret a situation, which affects our
emotions.
Paul Ekman
Expressing Emotions (cont.)
• Numerous studies have shown that certain
basic facial expressions are innate—or
part of our biological inheritance.
• Learning is also an important factor in
emotional expression.
• James Averill believes that many of our
everyday emotional reactions are the
result of social expectations and
consequences.
Threatening Elements
Expressing Emotions (cont.)
• Theories of emotions:
– The James-Lange Theory
– Facial Feedback Theory
– The Cannon-Bard Theory
– The Schachter-Singer Experiment
– Opponent-Process Theory
Theories of Emotion
Fear and Relief
In which theory does your experience
activate the hypothalamus first?
A. James-Lang
B. Facial Feedback
C. Cannon-Bard
D. Schachter-Singer
0%
A
A.
B.
C.
0%
D.
B
A
B
C
0%
D
C
0%
D
Some Biological and Social Needs
Whereas biological needs are physiological requirements critical to our survival, we
acquire social needs through experience and learning.
Percentage of Overweight Americans
Overweight people face increased risk for heart disease, stroke, high blood pressure,
clogged arteries, adult onset diabetes, and early death.
Your Performance
The Yerkes-Dodson law says that your
performance on a task is an interaction
between the level of physiological arousal
and the difficulty of the task. So on difficult
tasks, you do better if your arousal level is
low.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
According to Maslow, only after
satisfying the lower level of needs is a
person free to progress to the ultimate
need of self-actualization.
The Range of Emotions
Emotions are subjective feelings, so psychologists cannot agree on how many
emotions exist or the exact impact of a specific emotion.
Threatening Elements
When people from various cultures were asked to identify the threatening shapes in
each pair, they consistently selected the triangular and diagonal elements.
Theories of Emotion
These theories of emotion differ
depending on the relationship of
physiological change and cognitive
interpretation of emotion.
Fear and Relief
According to the opponent-process theory, when the stimulus for one emotion is
removed, you feel the opposite emotion.
Paul Ekman
1934–
“The face is the
primary site for the
display of emotions.
Together with the
voice, it may tell the
listener how the
speaker feels about
what is being said. . .”
Chapter Concepts
Transparencies
Factors Affecting Hunger
Physiological Theories of Emotion
Select a transparency to view.
motivation: an internal state that
activates behavior and directs it toward a
goal
instincts: innate tendencies that
determine behavior
need: biological or psychological
requirement of an organism
drive: a state of tension produced by a
need that motivates an organism toward
a goal
homeostasis: the tendency of all
organisms to correct imbalances and
deviations from their normal state
incentive: an external stimulus,
reinforcer, or reward that motivates
behavior
extrinsic motivation: engaging in
activities that either reduce biological
needs or help us obtain external
incentives
intrinsic motivation: engaging in
activities because they are personally
rewarding or because they fulfill our
beliefs and expectations
lateral hypothalamus (LH): the part of
the hypothalamus that produces hunger
signals
ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH):
the part of the hypothalamus that can
cause one to stop eating
fundamental needs: biological drives
that must be satisfied to maintain life
psychological needs: the urge to
belong and to give and receive love, and
the urge to acquire esteem
self-actualization needs: the pursuit of
knowledge and beauty or whatever else
is required for the realization of one’s
unique potential
emotion: a set of complex reactions to
stimuli involving subjective feelings,
physiological arousal, and observable
behavior
To use this Presentation Plus! product:
Click the Forward button to go to the next slide.
Click the Previous button to return to the previous slide.
Click the Home button to return to the Chapter Menu.
Click the Transparency button from the Chapter Menu or Chapter Introduction
slides to access the Concept Transparencies that are relevant to this chapter.
From within a section, click on this button to access the relevant Daily Focus
Skills Transparency.
Click the Return button in a feature to return to the main presentation.
Click the Psychology Online button to access online textbook features.
Click the Exit button or press the Escape key [Esc] to end the
chapter slide show.
Click the Help button to access this screen.
Links to Presentation Plus! features such as Profiles in Psychology and
relevant figures from your textbook are located at the bottom of relevant
screens.
This slide is intentionally blank.