Chapter Summary
By its very definition, emotion—an evaluative response that typically includes some combination of
physiological arousal, subjective experience, and behavioral expression—is challenging to study.
Philosophers and physicians alike have studied emotion for centuries; only very recently has the
scientific study of emotion been undertaken. Although seminal to the study of emotion, the JamesLange and Cannon-Bard theories were both formulated within the context of Western thought, which
leads to an essential and formative question: Do the theories apply cross-culturally?
There are at least two responding schools of thought. The first proposes that all human emotions are
universal, with similar underlying physiological mechanisms. In this view, culture has a limited impact
on emotions. This is supported by consistent cross-cultural similarities in emotion recognition and the
naming of emotions across different languages.
The alternative model emphasizes cultural origin and cultural specificity of emotion; emotions can be
best understood within a particular cultural context. Adherents to this model set forth differences in
the expression of emotional behavior, linguistic variety in the labeling of emotions, and distinct
socialization practices as evidence of their belief.
Determining whether an emotion is similar from one culture to the next is heavily influenced by the
fact that oftentimes emotions are perceived and analyzed from different points of view. It is perhaps
most useful to consider emotion as a multi-componential process made up of a preceding event,
physiological response, assessment, expressive behavior, and change in some element of cognitive
functioning.