Learning
7-9% of the AP Psychology exam
Thursday, December 3
Sit with your
group from
yesterday’s
test review!
Learning
 Learning- a systematic, relatively permanent change in behavior
that occurs through experience
 Behaviorism- focuses only on observable learning or behaviors
3 Types of Learning
 Associative Learning- making connections between events
 Classical conditioning (Pavlov, Watson)
 Operant conditioning (Skinner)
 Cognitive learning
 Observational learning- learning that occurs when a person observes
and imitates another’s behavior (Bandura)
Classical Conditioning
 A type of learning where one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events
Key People
Key Processes and Characteristics
 Timing: the CS must directly proceed the UCS and alert the
organism that the UCS will occur soon
 Responses are involuntary!
Acquisition
 The initial learning of the connection between the CS and the UCS;
the CS is repeatedly presented followed by the UCS
 Example:
Generalization
 The tendency of a new stimulus that is similar to the original CS to
elicit a response similar to the CR
 Example:
Discrimination
 Learning to respond to the certain stimuli and not others
 Example:
Extinction
 The weakening of the CR when the UCS is absent
 Example:
Spontaneous Recovery
 The process by which the CR can recur after a time delay without
further conditioning
 Example:
Classical Conditioning in Humans
 Fear Learning- Watson and Baby Albert
 Counterconditioning/Aversive Conditioning- pairing a stimulus with
an unpleasant stimulus to change its association
 Treating alcoholism with a medication that induces nausea
Classical Conditioning in Humans
 Placebo Effect
 Association of “getting better” with taking a pill
 The actually conditioning occurs with the immune response inside the
body
Classical Conditioning in Humans
 Placebo Effect
 Usually only requires one paring to form a strong association
 Adaptive/evolutionary significance
Classical Conditioning in Humans
 Drug Habituation
 Habituation: decreased response to a stimulus after repeated
presentations
Habituation
OPERANT CONDITIONING
 Key People: B.F. Skinner (rats) and Thorndike (Law of Effect- Cats)
B.F. Skinner and Operant Conditioning
Thorndike’s Law of Effect
 Behaviors followed by positive outcomes are strengthened;
behaviors followed by negative outcomes are weakened
Operant Conditioning, Reinforcement,
Punishment
Types of Reinforcers
PRIMARY
 Innately satisfying
 Food, water, sexual satisfaction
SECONDARY
 Acquires value through
conditioning
 A’s, a paycheck, recognition
Continuous Reinforcers
CONTINUOUS
PARTIAL
 Reward is given after every
time a behavior occurs
 Reward follows the behavior
only a portion of the time
 Organism learns rapidly
 Organism’s learning occurs
more slowly
 Extinction takes place quickly
 Extinction is rare or slower to
occur
Schedules of Reinforcement
 Ratio Schedules- involve the number of behaviors that must be performed prior
to a reward
 Interval Schedules- involve the amount of time that must pass before a behavior
is rewarded
 Fixed Schedule- the number (of behavior) or amount (of time) is always the
same; predictable
 Variable Schedule- the number (of behaviors) or amount (of time) change;
unpredictable
Types of Reinforcement Schedules
 Fixed-ratio
 Fixed-Interval
 Variable-Ratio
 Variable- Interval
Key Processes and Characteristics
 Timing- reinforcement or punishment should immediately follow the
behavior to be most effective
 Shaping- rewarding approximations to a desired behavior; training
progress toward a goal
Key Processes and Timing
 Responses are VOLUNTARY!
 Generalization- performing a reinforced behavior in
a different situation
 Discrimination- responding appropriately to stimuli
that signal that a behavior will or will not be
reinforced
 Extinction- a behavior decreases in frequency
because it is no longer reinforced
Cognition’s Influence on Operant
Conditioning
 Cognitive Maps
 Latent Learning
 Insight
 Intrinsic motivation
 Extrinsic motivation
Problems with Operant Conditioning
 Avoidance Learning
Occurs when an organism learns that by making a particular
response, it can avoid negative stimuli all together
Behaviors are maintained even when aversive stimuli are absent
Example: avoidant personality disorder
Problems with Operant Conditioning
 Learned Helplessness
Occurs when an organism learns through experience that it has
no control over negative stimuli
The organism perceives a lack of control
Example: depression due to traumatic life events
Observational Learning
 Observational Learning- learning that occurs when a person
observes and imitates the behaviors of others
 Also called imitation learning or modeling
 Key People: Bandura (Bobo doll and aggression)
Bandura’s Model of Learning
OBSERVATIONAL
LEARNING
ATTENTION
RETENTION
MOTOR
REPRODUCTION
REINFORCEMENT
Warm, powerful,
unique people
command more
attention
Encoding and
keeping
information in
memory
Attempting the
behavior
Involves vicarious
reinforcement or
punishment
Cognitive Factors in Observational Learning
Latent Learning
 Information is often stored even without physical expression of the
behaviors
Insight Learning
 A form of problem solving in which an organism develops a sudden
insight into or understanding of a problem’s solution
 Seemingly requires no trial and error
Insight Learning
Biological Constraints
 Instinctive Drift- resorting to a primitive response that interferes with
learning
 Preparedness- species-specific biological predisposition to learn in
certain ways but not others
 Both due to strong evolutionary associations