Anatomy and Physiology I Outline Fall 2011
This is the outline I use for my lectures in A&PI. Use your own lecture notes, this
outline and the objectives after each section in the outline as a study guide. You might
find it helpful to put your own notes into outline order. Test questions will come from
material covered in lecture.
Chapters, but not specific pages are referenced on the course syllabus to help you
locate and read about the material covered in class. It is best to at least look over the
material before you come to class so that you are familiar with the topics I will be
covering. Other review and practice materials will be discussed in class.
Chapter 2 is a good review of basic chemistry. Chapter 3 is a good review of the cell. I
will expect that you understand the structure and function of the plasma membrane and
that you are familiar with biologically important ions and molecules.
I. Introduction and Overview (Selections from Chapters 1 and 4 in the text)
A. Some Definitions
1. Anatomy and Anatomy Topics
2. Physiology and Physiology Topics
B. Levels of Structural Organization
1. Chemical Level
2. Cell
3. Tissues
a. embryonic
b. adult - see Chapter 4 in the text
o epithelial
o connective
o muscle
o nervous
4. Organs
5. Organ Systems
6. Organism
D. Some Common Themes
1. Structure-Function Relationships or Complementarity
2. Homeostasis
E. Homeostatic Control Mechanisms
1. Variable, Receptor, Control Center, Effector
2. Negative Feedback
3. Positive Feedback
F. Cell Membrane Specializations
1. Microvilli
2. Gap Junctions
3. Tight Junctions
4. Desmosomes
G. Cell -Environment Interactions
1. The Glycocalyx
2. Cell Adhesion Molecules
3. Membrane Receptors
a. contact signaling
b. chemical signaling - ligands and receptors
c. electrical signaling
Objectives
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Define anatomy and physiology and describe related areas of study.
Describe the relationship between structure and function. Give examples.
Name the levels of organization.
Describe common tissue types including structure and characteristics
Define homeostasis and general characteristics of control mechanisms.
Describe negative and positive feedback systems and give examples.
Describe the glycocalyx and relate to cell-environment interactions.
Describe microvilli, gap junctions, tight junctions and desmosomes.
Describe types of cell-environment interactions, including cell adhesion molecules,
membrane receptors, cell signaling., and electrical signaling.
II. Integumentary System - Chapter 5 in the text
A. Skin
1. General Characteristics
2. Epidermis
a. cell types and characteristics
- keratinocytes
- melanocytes
- Langerhans' cells or epidermal dendritic cells
- Merkel cells
b. layers
- thick skin (5)
- thin skin (4)
3. Dermis
a. cell types and characteristics - typical of connective tissue
b. layers (2)
4. Skin Color
a. melanin
b. carotene
c. hemoglobin
B. Skin Derivatives
1. Sweat Glands
2. Sebaceous Glands
3. Hair and Hair Follicles
a. hair and hair follicle
b. growth patterns
4. Nails
C. Functions of the Integumentary System
1. Protection
a. chemical barrier
b. physical barrier
c. biological barrier
2. Excretion
3. Temperature Regulation
4. Cutaneous Sensation
5. Vitamin D and other Metabolic Functions
6. Blood Reservoir
Objectives
1. Describe the structure of the skin. Be able to compare and contrast the dermis and
the epidermis. Relate the structure of the skin to its function.
2. Describe the role of the hypodermis
3. Describe the structure of a hair and hair follicle.
4. Explain how hair and nails grow.
5. Describe the location, secretion type, secretion mechanism and function of the
sweat glands.
6. Briefly explain reasons for differences in skin color.
7. List the functions of the integumentary system.
III. General Structure and Function of the Skeletal System - Chapter 6 in the text.
A. Function
1. Support
2. Protection
3. Movement
4. Mineral and Growth Factor Storage
5. Blood Cell Formation - hematopoiesis
B. Bone Structure
1. Gross Anatomy - Long Bone
2. Gross Anatomy - Flat Bone
3. Hematopoietic Tissue
4. Microscopic Structure - Compact Bone
5. Microscopic Structure - Spongy Bone
C. Chemical Composition
1. Organic Components - cells and osteoid
2. Inorganic Salts - mostly hydroxyapatites
D. Bone Development
1. Formation of Bony Skeleton
a. intramembranous ossification
b. endochondral ossification
2. Postnatal Bone Growth
a. length
b. width
c. hormonal regulation - GH, TH, estrogen and testosterone
E. Remodeling
a. PTH and Calcitonin
b. mechanical stress
F. Bone Repair
G. Organization of the Skeleton - Chapter 7 in the text.
1. Axial
a. skull
b. vertebral column
c. bony thorax
2. Appendicular Skeleton
a. pectoral girdle
b. upper limb
c. pelvic girdle
d. lower limb
3. Pelvic Structure and Childbearing
Objectives
1. List functions of bones. Relate to structure.
2. Describe gross anatomy of typical long and flat bones
3. Describe location and function of yellow marrow, red marrow, periosteum,
endosteum, and articular cartilage.
4. Compare and contrast the histology of compact and spongy bone.
5. Describe the chemical composition of bone. Distinguish between organic and
inorganic components.
6. Compare and contrast intramembranous and endochondral ossification.
7. Describe the controls of bone remodeling.
8. Distinguish between simple and compound fractures and describe the stages of
fracture repair.
9. Identify the bones in the attached figure of the human skeleton.
10. Describe the organization of the axial and appendicular skeletons. (Note: Selected
bones will be discussed in class - questions about these bones may appear on the test.)
11. Describe the development of vertebral curvatures; discuss abnormalities.
12. Compare and contrast the male and female pelvis. Describe modifications for
childbearing.
IV. Joints or Articulations - Chapter 8 in the text.
A. Classification
1. Structural
a. fibrous
b. cartilaginous
c. synovial
2. Functional
a. synarthroses
b. amphiarthroses
c. diarthroses
B. Fibrous Joints
1. Characteristics
2. Types
a. sutures
b. syndesmoses
(c. gomphoses)
C. Cartilaginous Joints
1. Characteristics
2. Types
a. symphyses
b. synchondroses
D. Synovial Joints
1. General Structure
a. articular cartilage
b. joint or synovial cavity
c. articular capsule
d. synovial fluid
e. reinforcing ligaments
2. Associated Structures
a. bursae
b. tendon sheaths
3. Factors Influencing Stability
a. articular surfaces
b. ligaments
c. muscle tone
4. Movements at Synovial Joints
a. gliding
b. angular
-flexion/extension
-abduction/adduction
-circumduction
c. rotation
d. special movements
5. Types of Synovial Joints
a. plane joints
b. uniaxial
- hinge
- pivot
c. biaxial
- condyloid (ellipsoidal)
- saddle
d. multiaxial
- ball-and-socket
Objectives
1. Define joint or articulation and describe the criteria used to classify joints structurally
and functionally.
2. Describe the general structure of a fibrous joint and give examples.
3. Describe the general structure of a cartilaginous joint and give examples.
4. Name and describe the characteristics of a synovial joint.
5. List factors, which contribute to the stability of a synovial joint.
6. Describe the structure and function of bursae and tendon sheaths.
7. Describe common types of body movements.
8. Describe movement of and give examples of plane, hinge, pivot, condyloid, saddle,
and ball-and-socket joints.
V. Muscles and Muscle Tissue - Chapter 9 in the text
A. Overview
1. Muscle Types
a. cardiac
b. smooth
c. skeletal
2. Function
a. movement
b. posture
c. heat
3. Characteristics (Functional)
a. excitability or responsiveness
b. contractility
c. extensibility
d. elasticity
B. Skeletal Muscle (Muscles of the Muscle System)
1. Gross Anatomy
a. connective tissue
b. nerve and blood supply
c. attachments
2. Microscopic Anatomy
a. length and diameter of cell
b. cell components
3.
4.
5.
6.
- sarcolemma
- sarcoplasm
- myofibrils
- thick filaments
- thin filaments
- sarcoplasmic reticulum
- transverse (T) tubules
Contraction
a. sliding filament theory
b. physiology of a skeletal muscle cell or fiber
- stimulus and the neuromuscular junction
- destruction of acetylcholine
- generation of action potential
depolarization and repolarization
- excitation-contraction coupling
Contraction of Skeletal Muscle at the Organ Level
a. the motor unit
b. the muscle twitch
- latent period
- period of contraction
- period of relaxation
c. graded muscle responses
- wave summation
unfused and fused tetanus
- multiple motor unit summation
size principle
- asynchronous motor unit activity
d. muscle tone and spinal reflexes
e. isometric contractions
f. isotonic contractions
Metabolism - Energy for Contraction
a. stored ATP and creatine phosphate
b. anaerobic metabolism - glycolysis and lactic acid formation
c. aerobic respiration
d. muscle fatigue
e. oxygen debt
f. heat production
Factors Affecting Force of Contraction
a. number of fibers stimulated
b. relative size of muscle
c. frequency of stimulation
- internal tension vs. external tension
d. degree of stretch - length-tension relationship
7. Factors Affecting Velocity and Duration of Contraction
a. muscle fiber type
- slow oxidative
- fast glycolytic
- fast oxidative
b. load
c. recruitment
8. Effect of Exercise on Muscles
9. Atrophy from Disuse
C. Smooth Muscle
1. Microscopic Structures
2. Mechanism of Contraction
3. Regulation of Contraction
4. Special Features
a. response to stretch - the stress-relaxation response
b. length and tension changes
c. hyperplasia
5. Types
a. single-unit or visceral muscle
b. multiunit
Objectives
1. Compare and contrast general features of three muscle tissue types. Compare and
contrast details of smooth and skeletal muscle anatomy and physiology.
2. List the general functions of muscle tissue.
3. Describe the gross and microscopic structure of skeletal muscle. Discuss the
importance of the sarcomere.
4. Describe the function of the cellular components of skeletal muscle.
5. Explain how muscles contract, including stimulus, excitation-contraction coupling
and relaxation. Understand the role of ATP in the event.
6. Describe the relationship between the structure of the sarcomere and its function.
7. Describe a muscle twitch and the events occurring during each phase.
8. Describe graded contraction and explain how it is achieved.
9. Differentiate between isotonic and isometric contractions.
10. Describe the sources of ATP for contraction.
11. Describe oxygen debt and fatigue.
12. Describe factors influencing force, velocity and duration of contraction.
13. Discuss the effects of exercise and atrophy on muscle.
14. Describe smooth muscle including special properties.
15. Distinguish between the two types of smooth muscle. Understand the relationship
between structure and function.
VI. Fundamentals of the Nervous System - Chapter 11 in the text
A. Organization (Flow Chart) or Figure 11.12
B. Histology
1. Neuroglia or Supporting Cells
a. neuroglia of the CNS
- astrocytes
- microglia
- ependymal cells
- oligodendrocytes
b. neuroglia of the PNS
- Schwann cells
- satellite cells
2. Neurons
a. general characteristics
b. "typical" neuron - using the motor neuron as an example
- cell body
- cell processes
axon
dendrites
- myelin sheath
c. classification
- structural
multipolar - 3 or more processes
bipolar - two processes
unipolar - 1 process with two branches
peripheral process
axon
central process
receptive endings
- functional
sensory
motor
interneurons or association neurons
C. Basic Principles of Electricity
D. Membrane Ion Channels
E. Neurophysiology
1. Resting Membrane Potential
2. Potentials That Act as Signals
a. depolarization and hyperpolarization
b. graded potentials
c. the action potential
- generation
- propagation of action potential (the PAP)
3. Threshold/All-or-None
4. Coding for Intensity
5. Refractory Periods
a. absolute
b. relative
6. Velocity of Conduction
a. axon diameter
b. myelin sheath
F. The Synapse
1. pre- and postsynaptic neurons
2. Electrical - briefly
3. Chemical
a. description of synapse
b. release of the neurotransmitter
c. effect on postsynaptic cell
d. termination of transmitter effects
e. synaptic delay
G. Postsynaptic Potentials and Integration
1. EPSPs
2. IPSPs
3. Summation
a. temporal
b. spatial
4. Neurotransmitters Briefly
a. acetylcholine
b. biogenic amines - produced from amino acids
- dopamine, norepinephrine and epinephrine (tyrosine)
- serotonin (tryptophan)
- histamine (histidine)
c. amino acids
d. peptides
- endorphins (runner's high)
- enkephalins (labor)
- substance P (pain)
- gut-brain peptides
Objectives
1.
2.
3.
4.
Describe the organization of the nervous system.
Describe structure and function of the supporting cells.
Identify the important structures of the typical neuron and relate to function.
Describe the formation and importance of the myelin sheath. Relate to saltatory
conduction.
5. Classify neurons by structure and by function. Give examples of locations.
6. Describe the resting potential. Explain how it is maintained.
7. Differentiate between a resting membrane potential and potentials that are used to
send signals.
8. Describe the chemical and electrical events of a graded potential and describe the
chemical and electrical events of an action potential. (This includes relating events
to tracings of potentials.) Explain how an action potential is propagated.
9. Define absolute and relative refractory period. Relate to membrane events.
10. Describe what happens at a synapse.
11. Compare and contrast EPSPs and IPSPs.
12. Name several types of neurotransmitters.
VII. Central Nervous System - Chapter 12 in the text.
A. The Brain
1. Introduction
a. regions
b. pattern of gray and white matter
c. ventricles
2. Cerebral Hemispheres
a. general comments
b. cerebral cortex
- general comments
- examples of motor areas
primary or somatic motor cortex
premotor cortex
Broca's area
- examples of sensory areas
primary somatosensory cortex
somatosensory association cortex
visual areas
auditory areas
- multimodal association areas
- anterior association area or prefrontal cortex
c. white matter
d. basal nuclei
3. Diencephalon
a. thalamus
b. hypothalamus
c. epithalamus
4. Brain Stem
a. midbrain
b. pons
c. medulla oblongata
5. Cerebellum
B. Functional Brain Systems – briefly if there is time
1. Limbic System
2. Reticular Formation and the Reticular Activating System
C. Meninges of the Brain
1. Dura Mater
2. Arachnoid Mater
3. Pia Mater
D. Cerebrospinal Fluid
E. Spinal Cord
1. Structure and Membranes
2. Horns of the Spinal Cord
3. Roots of the Spinal Cord
4. White Matter (Tracts) - briefly
Objectives
1. Name the major regions of the brain.
2. Locate the major lobes and fissures of the cerebral cortex.
3. Describe the roles of the major functional areas of the cerebral cortex.
4. Locate the gray matter and white matter of the various regions of the brain.
5. Give the general function of the basal nuclei.
6. Know the difference between commissures, association fibers and projection fibers.
7. Describe the functions of the three parts of the diencephalon.
8. Identify the parts of the brain stem and give general functions of each.
9. Describe the structure and general function of the cerebellum.
10. Briefly describe the roles of the limbic system and reticular formation.
11. Trace the route of CS fluid through the brain and spinal cord. Locate the
ventricles in appropriate parts of the brain.
12. Describe the structure of the spinal cord.
13. Compare the meninges of the spinal cord and the brain.
14. Describe the spinal roots and the formation of spinal nerves.
VIII. Peripheral Nervous System - Emphasis on Somatic Branch - Chapter 13 in text.
A. Nerves – General Description
1. connective tissue
2. classification
B. Cranial Nerves
C. Spinal Nerves
1. Introduction
2. Distribution
a. relation to vertebral column
b. major branches
- dorsal ramus
- ventral ramus
3. Plexuses
a. cervical
b. brachial
c. lumbar
d. sacral
4. Reflex Activity
IX. Peripheral Nervous System - Emphasis on Autonomic Branch - Chapter 13 in text
A. Introduction
1. Functions
2. Effectors
3. Pathways
4. Neurotransmitters
B. Sympathetic Division
1. Location of Preganglionic Neurons
2. Pathway
a. to chain ganglia
b. possible pathways at chain ganglia
C. Parasympathetic Division
1. Location of Preganglionic Neurons
2. Pathway
a. preganglionic fibers
b. terminal ganglia
3. Vagus Nerve
4. Pelvic Splanchnic Nerves
D. Neurotransmitters - More Detail
1. Cholinergic and Adrenergic Fibers
2. Receptors
a. cholinergic
- nicotinic
- muscarinic
b. adrenergic
- alpha
- beta
E. Actions of the Autonomic Nervous System
1. Antagonistic
2. Tone
3. Cooperative
4. Localized vs. Diffuse Effects
5. Unique Roles of the Sympathetic System
6. Controls
Objectives for VIII and IX
1. Describe the general structure of a nerve, including connective tissue.
2. Describe the functional classification of nerves.1. List the components of the
peripheral nervous system, including number of pairs of cranial and spinal nerves.
Understand how they are numbered.
3. Describe the formation of a spinal nerve; distinguish between roots and rami.
Describe the general distribution of the ventral and dorsal rami.
4. Name the four plexuses, their sites of origin and major nerves.
5. Define reflex and name the parts of a reflex arc.
6. Compare and contrast the somatic and autonomic nervous systems.
7. Compare and contrast the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems.
8. Describe the CNS origin and fiber pathways of both the sympathetic and
parasympathetic systems.
9. Define cholinergic and adrenergic fibers. Describe different receptor types.
10. Describe the general effects of sympathetic and parasympathetic stimulation on
the body.
11. Describe autonomic nervous system actions.