Effective Practices Notebook
Effective Practices Notebook
Shannon Waite
Oakland University
(SE401 – Ruegg)
Effective Practices Notebook
Table of Contents
1. Learning Disabilities
1. Mnemonics (4 – 6)
2. Differentiated Instruction (7 – 8)
2. Speech and Language Impairments
1. Augmentative and Alternative Communication (AAC) (9 - 10)
2. Graphic Organizer (11)
3. Hearing Impairments
1. Assistive Listening Device (12-13)
2. Visual Aids (14)
4. Autism
1. Positive Behavior Support (15 – 16)
2. Floor Time (17 – 18)
5. ADHD
1. Effortless Learning (19 – 20)
2. Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAI) (21 – 22)
6. Emotional Impairments
1. Service Learning (23 – 24)
2. Positive Behavior Support (PBS) (25)
7. Visual Impairments
1. Tactile and Kinesthetic Learning (26)
2. Audio-Supported Reading (ASP) (27)
8. POHI
1. Self Awareness (28 – 29)
2. How to monitor for seizures (30 – 31)
9. Cognitive Impairments
1. Community-Based Instruction (32 – 33)
2. Self-Determined Learning Model of Instruction (34 – 35)
Effective Practices Notebook
10.
Learning Disabilities
IDEA: Specific Learning Disability means a disorder in one or more of the
four basic psychological processes involved in understanding or in using
language, spoken or written, which may manifest itself in an imperfect ability to
listen, think, speak, read, write, spell or do math.
EP #1. Mnemonics:
Description/Background: A mnemonic or mnemonic device is a learning technique that helps
students with their memories. Often times, mnemonics are verbal, but they may also be visual,
kinesthetic or auditory. Mnemonics rely on associating constructs that are easy to remember to
specific words or topics that need to be remembered. This is based on the principle that the
typical human mind much more easily remembers spatial, personal, surprising, sexual, humorous
or otherwise meaningful information than seemingly arbitrary sequences.
The word mnemonic is derived from the Ancient Greek word μνημονικός mnēmonikós (meaning
"of memory") and is related to Mnemosyne ("remembrance"), which is the name of the goddess
of memory in Greek mythology. Back in 1967, from a study by Gerald R. Miller, it has been
learned that mnemonics increase recall. He found that students who regularly used mnemonic
devices increased test scores up to 77%.
In order to use a specific mnemonic, association, one needs to do the following:
Steps:
Step 1. Be sure you understand the item (new information) before you create an association.
Once you understand the item, actively search for a familiar word, object, picture, or concept
that you can link or associate with the item.
Step 2. Visualize the shape and colors of items you plan to use in your association. You can
also add sounds and smells to the association when appropriate. Change the actual
proportions by exaggerating some part of an object by making it larger than its real size. If
you are visualizing letters, use large, bold capital letters.
Step 3. Visually link both items together by blending the two images in the association into
one integrated picture.
Step 4. When possible, put action into your image to create a "mini-movie" instead of a still
shot.
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Ways to Use Associations
To use associations effectively, you need to actively look for and think about ways to create
simple associations that will be easy to remember and use to recall information. The following
examples show several kinds of associations you can create to learn factual information.
1. Recall a person's name: Associate the name with an object.
For example, you want to remember the name of a new classmate, Annie Carpenter.
Picture Annie as a carpenter wearing a carpenter's apron and holding a hammer in one
hand. The name ANNIE is printed boldly across the carpenter's apron filled with tools.
2. Recall a person's name: Think of another person you know with that same name.
For example, you want to remember the name of William Herschel, an English
astronomer who discovered the planet Uranus in 1781. First you think of your uncle
William, who was an avid football fan. Then you think of Herschel Walker, a great NFL
running back, who retired from the NFL in 1997. Finally, you create an image of your
Uncle William with his arms draped over Herschel Walker's shoulders as the two gaze up
into the evening sky, wishing they could see Uranus.
3. Define a new term: Associate the meaning with an object that has a similar
characteristic.
For example, you have had problems remembering the difference between a waxing
moon and a waning moon. You know that one term means that the illuminated portion of
the moon gets larger and that the other term means that the illuminated portion gets
smaller. You begin by focusing on the term waxing. You immediately think about waxing
your car. The more you wax, the shinier it becomes. The shine increases; a waxing moon
also increases. This association makes it easy to remember that the illuminated surface of
a waxing moon increases, and thus, the illuminated surface of the waning moon
decreases.
4. Spell a word correctly: Create associations by using specific letters within the word.
For example, to avoid spelling confusions between the words dessert and desert, just
remember that the word with ss (dessert) is so sweet. Also, the plural desserts spelled
backwards spells stressed. To avoid confusion between the homonyms principal and
principle, remember that the only time you use principle is when you are referring to a
rule or a standard, such as the principles of accounting or living your life by your own
principles. You can also remember that a principal of a school is your pal, but you would
also need to remember that there are other meanings of principal, such as a principal on a
loan or a principal part in a play. To use the correct homonym piece or peace, remember
that piece is a portion of something, such as a piece of pie.
5. Remember a specific number: Find number patterns to use in an association.
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For example, you want to remember that Mount Fuji in Japan is 12,389 feet high. Twelve
reminds you of 12 months in a year. There are 365 days in a year. You subtract 365 from
389 and get a remainder of 24. There are 24 hours in a day. The association to recall the
height of Mount Fuji is 12,365 + 24 = 12,389 feet.
6. Remember a specific task to do: Associate the task with an object you will encounter.
For example, you are in bed when you remember you need to get your gym clothes out of
the dryer before you go to school. Since you always begin your day with coffee, you
create a clear mental picture of your gym clothes stuffed inside your coffee pot. In the
morning when you see your coffee pot, you receive the reminder to get your gym clothes.
7. Remember a cause-effect relationship: Blend two items into an image of action.
For example, you want to remember that fertilizer is a petroleum product. You imagine
yourself holding a gas can, and as you pour out the contents, you pour fertilizer, not gas.
As another example, you want to remember that for some people, rising quickly from bed
can cause sudden fainting due to a drop in blood pressure. You picture someone rising
quickly, fainting, and dropping to the floor. You can link this to dropping blood on the
floor
No special materials are needed: Reminding students how to use mnemonics (and reinforcing
the use) as well as possibly having posters up may help, however, all they take are memory so
nothing is needed in order to employ them.
References:
Essential Study Skill
http://college.cengage.com/collegesurvival/wong/essential_study/6e/assets/students/protected/wo
ng_ch06_in-depthmnemonics.html
Mnemonics
http://www.princeton.edu/~achaney/tmve/wiki100k/docs/Mnemonic.html
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EP #2. Differentiated Instruction:
Description/Background: In December 1953, Educational Leadership devoted an issue to the
theme "The Challenge of Individual Difference." Teachers have long been looking at ways to
serve their different students better with instruction.
The purpose for differentiating instruction is to increase the quality and quantity of instruction
that students received in order to ensure effective support for their learning. Survey data from
administrators and teachers indicates that they have not received training or professional
development that develops their expertise for differentiating instruction effectively for students
with increasingly diverse needs (Shanahan, 2008; Stanovich & Stanovich, 2008; Tilly, 2003).
Minimal guidance has been provided for evaluating quality teaching and practice, or for
monitoring or supporting differentiating instruction (Chen & Chang, 2006; Lyon, 2009). It can
be used in classes, however, to help students focus on what they individually need to focus on so
that they can learn the most effectively.
In order to use differentiated instruction one needs to do the following:
Steps:
Step 1. Data is collected and used to inform decision-making (identifying needs, setting
an instructional purpose, selecting curriculum and practice activities).
Step 2. Students are assigned to small group memberships, usually by similar skill
strengths and needs for instruction.
Step 3. Small group guided practice activities utilize mixed skill groupings allowing
students to benefit from collaborative “study group” support.
Step 4. Daily schedules are adjusted to include 15–20 minute time periods for whole
class and small group instruction.
Step 5. Whole class activities are used for introduction, overview and quick review with
students often responding in unison or to a partner to increase interactions and provide
more practice opportunities.
Step 6. Small group activities are used for explicit instruction at the students’
instructional level for TEACHING, which is a performance level higher than students can
work independently.
Step 7. Guided practice activities and written assignments include content and skills that
have been previously taught and the work is not graded (students may earn points for
completing the work); Readability (level of difficulty) is lowered to allow more working
memory for applying skills; thus teachers assign slightly less difficult leveled readers for
guided practice activities.
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Step 8. Independent work is completed AFTER students receive teacher-led instruction
in small group and collaborative, guided practice; this work is typically assessed for
grades.
Materials needed: In order to keep track of data, one should be organized and have some way to
contain the data (be that through paper worksheets, or an electronic way). Also, separate
instruction tools/materials will be needed (such as different worksheets for different groups,
different books, etc.).
References:
A Brief History of Differentiated Instruction
http://www.ascd.org/ascd-express/vol4/425-mybackpages.aspx
Differentiating Instruction and Practice: Practical Steps for Implementation
http://www.cdl.org/resourcelibrary/articles/differentiating%20instruction%20and%20practice.phpa
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11.
Speech and Language Impairments
IDEA: Speech and Language Impairments means a communication
disorder, such as stuttering, impaired articulation, and language impairment,
which adversely affects educational functioning.
Alternate Definitions ASHA: same as IDEA but also discusses: Form, Content, Function, Dialect, &
Assistive technology.
MI Rule: R. 340. 1710: …means a communication disorder that adversely
affects educational performance, such as language impairment, articulation
impairment, fluency impairments, or voice impairment.
EP #1. Augmentative and Alternative Communication (AAC):
Description/Background: In 1963, the first piece of technology specifically designed for
communication by individuals with severe physical disabilities was introduced. It was called
POSSUM and was developed by Maling and Clarkson. POSSUM combined a typewriter with a
switch controlled scanning device. This was just the beginning of the development of other AAC
devices that are now used today.
An augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) system is a group of components,
including the symbols, aids, strategies, and techniques used by individuals with severe speech
and language disabilities to enhance their communication. An AAC system is used to aid any
other form of communication the person may use (gestures, spoken, or written).
In order to use AAC one needs to do the following:
Steps:
Step 1. Students must already know/be learning how to read and writing in order to us their
AAC.
Step 2. The use of the AAC should be modeled.
Step 3. They must then be trained how to use their communication boards (which can
include pictures, symbols, the alphabet, and words). There is an assortment of computer
software available to help create picture and symbol boards. Otherwise, pictures, symbols,
letters, and words can be represented and organized in many different ways according to the
user for speech generating devices.
Step 4. Expose students to more symbols than they will use at any one time. Typically
developing children are exposed to language that they might not use right way.
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Special materials needed: The AAC device will be needed, as well as the programs to develop
the boards that an AAC may need. Someone who understands the program will also be needed
in order to model and help train the student with the program.
References:
AAC Resource Guide for Teachers
http://aac-rerc.psu.edu/documents/aac_serc.pdf
Communication Facts: Special Populations: Augmentative and Alternative
Communication
http://www.asha.org/research/reports/aac/
History of AAC
http://www.myaac.org/introduction/a-brief-history-of-aac
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EP #2. Graphic Organizer:
Description/Background: Graphic organizers help students comprehend and write more
effectively. They help students because they provide a visual representation of the writing for
them, in an organized framework. They can be used to assess students’ understanding of what
they are reading, and observe their thinking process on what the class read, as a group, or
independently. They are good resources to use in differentiated instruction.
In order to use Graphic Organizers one needs to do the following:
Steps:
Step 1. Decide which organizer will best meet the desired curriculum outcome (story map,
web organizer, feature matrix, etc.)
Step 2. Consider how students will participate when completing and using a graphic
organizer and what adaptations they may need.
Step 3. Create the graphic organizer; this can be done on a classroom computer, by hand, or
by using a premade one offline or from a book.
Special materials needed: All one needs to use a graphic organizer is a graphic organizer
template/hand out and a pencil.
References:
Exceptional Lives: Special Education in Today’s Schools
(Textbook)
Graphic Organizers for Reading Comprehension
http://www.scholastic.com/teachers/lesson-plan/graphic-organizers-reading-comprehension
Effective Practices Notebook
12.Hearing Impairments
IDEA: Hearing Impairments Means a hearing loss whether permanent or
fluctuating, which adversely affects a child’s educational performance,
including deafness.
EP #1. Assistive Listening Devices:
Description/Background: The first assistive listening device was the Simple Ear Trumpet with
the first model being used in the 1700s. This device continued evolving well into the 1900s
where hearing aids were made. Digital Processing Hearing Aids were larger than analog models,
but they allowed for great clarity and users could program them to access the most useful range
of tonality.
The most common assistive listening device is the hearing aid. They are the most common,
however, hearing aids just amplify sound. An FM Unit though works where the teacher wears a
wireless mic headset that transmits sounds directly to the student’s unit bypassing other noises.
Lastly, a cochlear implant can be used. This is where the cochlear is replaced and requires major
surgery but does not restore normal hearing. Any of these devices does making hearing
possible/improved though.
In order to use assistive listening devices (such as a hearing aid type) one needs to do the
following:
Steps:
Step 1. Make sure that the device is in the ear and turned on.
Step 2. The device will then: Capture the sound. Use high-quality microphones to capture
the sound as close to the source as possible.
Step 3. Transmit the sound. The sound captured by the microphone is converted to a signal
and broadcast to the covered area
Step 4. Receive the sound. The person using the system has a receiver that picks up
the signal sent by the transmitter. The receiver may be one that is purchased
as part of the system and distributed by the venue or it may be the patron’s
own hearing device if that device has a telecoil built into it. The receivers may
or may not have built-in headphones, and there are several kinds of coupling
devices, such as induction neckloops, earbuds and headphones.
Special materials needed: An assistive listening device will be needed in order to use it,
otherwise there are no other materials that are needed.
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References:
2012 KC ALD Booklet
http://www.kennedy-center.org/accessibility/education/lead/2012_KC_ALD_Booklet.pdf
Sound and Fury – Cochlear Implants
http://www.pbs.org/wnet/soundandfury/cochlear/hearingaids.html
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EP #2. Visual Aids:
Description/Background: Visual aids should be implemented in instruction when involving a
student with hearing impairment. Not only should the student be provided with written
information, but he or she should also be able to fully see information visually as well. This is
why it is important to include visual aids in a lesson as well as verbal or written materials.
Semantic mapping is one visual aid that can be used in the class room. Its purpose to help
students identify important ideas and how these ideas fit together.
In order to use visual aids (such as semantic mapping) one needs to do the following:
Steps:
Step 1. Make sure that a core question or concept is identified. This is a key word or
phrase that is the main focus of the map.
Step 2. Strands should be given. These are subordinate ideas that help explain or clarify
the main concept. These can be generated by the students.
Step 3. Lastly, the supports: details, inferences and generalization that are related to
each strand. Supports clarify the strands and distinguish one strand from another. Have the
students brainstorm supporting ideas.
Special materials needed: The instructor needs a way to display the map that he or she is
drawing. This can be done using a whiteboard and dry erase markers, or by using paper, pens,
and an Elmo, or even using a word processor and a projector.
References:
Semantic Mapping
http://literacy.kent.edu/eureka/strategies/semantic_mapping.pdf
Effective Practices Notebook
13.
Autism Spectrum Disorder - ASD
IDEA: Autism means a developmental disability significantly affecting
verbal and nonverbal communication and social interaction, generally evident
before age 3 that adversely affects educational performance.
EP #1. Positive Behavior Support:
IDEA (of ’97) defines Positive Behavior Support as: the recommended form of
intervention for dealing with challenging behavior in children with disabilities.
Description/Background: PBS was designed in the 1980’s and is a part of Functional Behavioral
Assessments. Over the last 15 years, studies have shown that PBS can be used to promote
positive behavior in students and in schools by giving a strategy to educators to help maintain
appropriate social behavior. PBS focuses on the student as well as changing things such as the
physical setting, task demands, curriculum, instructional pace and individualized reinforcement
within the school setting. Because of all of these variables, it’s shown to be successful with a
wide range of students, in a wide range of contexts, with a wide range of behaviors. PBS blends
behavioral science, empirically validated procedures, durable system changes, and adds
emphasis on socially important outcomes.
In order to create a PBS plan, one needs to do the following:
Steps:
Step 1. Define the problem.
As specifically as possible, describe the problem(s) that you are concerned about.
Label them according to their seriousness (destructive, disruptive, or distracting).
Circle the behavior(s) you want to work on first.
Step 2. Answer key questions.
Who is present when the behavior tends to occur? When it almost never occurs?
What is going on when the behavior tends to occur? almost never occurs?
When does the behavior tend to occur? Almost never occur?
Where does the behavior tend to occur? Almost never occur?
How often does the behavior occur per hour?______ per day?_____ per week?______
How long does the behavior occur per episode_____?
Step 3. Observe and record antecedents, behavior(s), and consequences.
When? (Time, day, date)
What happened before the behavior occurred?
Describe the behavior. Include how intense, how long, how many.
What happened after the behavior occurred?
Step 4. Develop a theory.
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Decide what purpose the behavior is serving for the child. Use the who-what where-when
information to think about situations in which the behavior occurs.
Do you see any consistent patterns?
You may also find the checklist below to be helpful in developing your theory. Remember,
behaviors may serve more than one purpose.
The purpose of the behavior may be ATTENTION if...
___It occurs when you’re not paying attention to the child
___It occurs when you stop paying attention to the child.
The purpose of the behavior may be ESCAPE/AVOIDANCE
if...
___It occurs when you ask the child to do somethings/he doesn’t like/want to do.
___It stops after you stop “making demands.”
The purpose of the behavior may be GETTING SOMETHING
if...
___It occurs when you take away a favorite item or activity.
___It stops soon after you give the child an item or activity s/he likes or has recently
requested.
___It occurs when the child can’t have an item or activity s/he has requested.
2
The purpose of the behavior may be SELF-REGULATION if...
___It tends to be performed over and over again, in a rhythmic or cyclical manner. 7
___It tends to happen when there is either a lot going on in the area or very little
___The child can still do other things at the same time as the behavior.
The purpose of the behavior may be PLAY if...
___It occurs over and over again in a rhythmic or cyclical manner.
___It would occur repeatedly when no one else is around.
___The child seems to enjoy performing the behavior.
___The child seems to be in his or her own world when performing the behavior and s/he can’t
do other things at the same time.
Step 5. Make a plan.
A good plan will usually have three parts:
Preventing: How will you change the situations (who-what when-where) that seem to be
associated with the problem behavior(s)?
Teaching: What other behavior or skill will you (or others) teach the child/adult that will meet
his or her purpose in a more acceptable way?
Reacting: How will you react when the problem behavior occurs in a way that does not “feed
into” the child/adult’s purpose, cause you greater upset or stress, or punish the child/adult?
Step 6. Use the plan.
What arrangements to you need to make to follow-through with the plan? What is
your timeline for getting materials and help from others, and starting the plan?
Child Task Date to initiate/complete
Step 7. Reconsider the plan.
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At this point, carefully consider your success at both following through with the plan, and how
successful it has been in preventing or changing the problem behavior you are working on. Have
you been able to follow the plan you wrote?
___For preventing? ___For teaching? ___For reacting?
___Do you still feel that your theory about the purpose of the behavior was correct?
___What positive changes have you seen?
___What areas of the plan do you need to continue to work on using as planned?
___What areas of the plan need to be changed?
No special materials are needed: Filling out paperwork will help with organizing the plan and
keeping records, but nothing is necessary to conduct the Positive Behavior Support as it is more
of a way of teaching.
References:
Overview and History of Positive Behavior Support
http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007%2F978-0-387-09632-2_1#page-2
Positive Behavioral Supports: Information for Educators
http://www.nasponline.org/resources/factsheets/pbs_fs.aspx
Summary of the Steps of Positive Behavior Support
http://www.spannj.org/keychanges/FBAPBSGuide2007.pdf
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EP #2. Floor Time:
Description/Background: Floortime has a history of over 50 years of study and research,
which is what drives its principals. This research comes from the study of child development in
the fields of psychology, medicine, and education, and includes the areas of language, attention,
mental health, attachment, infant development, sensory processing, and motor development.
It involves getting down to a student’s “level” and experiencing things the way that they do, with
them. This way we can show that we recognize and respect the way that they are responding to
their environment while interacting with them in a way that will help them use their emotions,
therefore building their capacity to engage and communicate.
The way to measure effectiveness of this intervention is to determine the factors that are going to
be measured. Generally, behavioral approaches measure specific targeted behaviors of the
student.
Developmental approaches seek to measure changes in an individual’s capacity for:

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



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Shared attention
Ability to form warm intimate and trusting relationships
The ability to initiate(rather than respond) using intentful actions and social engagement;
spontaneous communication
The ability to participate in reciprocal (two-way, mutual) interactions while in a range of
different emotional states
Problem solving through a process of co-regulation, reading, responding and adapting to
the feelings of others
Creativity
Thinking logically about motivations and perspective of others
Developing an internal personal set of values
This is because these developmental measures are more closely aligned to the diagnostic criteria
for PDD/autism than those often used in older research such as IQ, performance on early
academic skills and responsive behaviors.
In order to use floor time appropriately, one needs to do the following:
Steps:
Step 1. Acknowledge and excite the child’s interests. Get down on their level to help with their
“emotional flow.”
Step 2. Challenge the child to be creative and spontaneous. Give opportunities that involve
actions that will force the child to respond and come up with a different move next. He or she
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will be required to think creatively and use problem solving skills to get around the obstacle you
created.
Step 3. Expand on the child’s actions to include multiple senses and motor skills while staying
emotionally connected. The goal is to keep a continuous emotional flow.
* Modification for inclusive classroom settings: This would not be able to be used in a group
setting or on the hard floor of some schools. Rather, this should be individual (with someone
such as a para pro) and on a soft setting.
Special materials needed:
Comfortable floor space
Items that may prompt creativity (crayons and paper, toys, etc.)
References:
Evidence Base for the DIR/Floortime approach
http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=1&cad=rja&ved=0CC8Q
FjAA&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pasadenachilddevelopment.org%2Farticles%2FEvidence_Ba
se_for_the_DIR-2-2011.doc&ei=3iydUpHBFzFsASwkoDICA&usg=AFQjCNHCf61SsGTf2fAW8_FVtGuprC9FQ&sig2=TcxVcSPpl9WMGCL6cyH85g&bvm=bv.57155469,d.cWc
How to Administer DIR or Floortime Therapy
http://www.chicagospeechtherapy.com/how-to-administer-dir-or-floortime-therapy-dirfloortime/
Effective Practices Notebook
14.ADHD
OHI: Conditions that require ongoing medical attention, chronic or acute,
that limit strength, vitality and *alertness and adversely affect education.
**Includes a heightened awareness to environmental stimuli, which results
in limited alertness (ADHD).
The Diagnostic Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) criteria:
• A) Persistent pattern of inattention and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity (not
typical)
• B) before age 7
• C) in at least 2 settings
• D) Interferes with development (including education development)
• E) not a Psych disorder or mental disorder (rule out EI)
DSM’s ADHD types:
• Inattentive (ADD)- day dreamer, careless worker, can’t follow through,
trouble with organization, distractible but not disruptive, forgetful, internally
focused-lost in thought, “hypoactive” (these kids are often overlooked as
lazy or lethargic)
• Hyperactive-Impulsive (HD)- fidgeting, squirming, excessive talking,
blurting out, rude, interruptive, easily frustrated, trouble playing quietly,
impulsive, risk taking, careless errors, accident prone, not aware of
consequences, we notice these kids cause they are disruptive
• Combined (ADHD)- a little bit of both
EP #1. Effortless Learning:
Description/Background: The use of instruction designed to prevent errors or incorrect
responses. Typically prompts (artificial cues that provide assistance to the learner about the
correct response) are presented so that an individual engages in a behavior that is being targeted.
Once the individual is engaging in the behavior appropriately, then these prompts are faded or
removed slowly and systematically so that the correct behavior is made with few or no errors.
Errorless learning/teaching techniques are a well established learning principle and these
techniques have been shown to be effective in teaching
This practice is done by continuing to ask the student the same question without denying their
response. Instead, it is best to give them another prompt to suggest that there is a correct answer
still needed to be found.
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In order to use effortless learning, one needs to do the following:
Steps:
Step 1. Identify a task the student can reasonably perform without a prompt.
Step2. Determine how best to present the discriminative stimulus, what level of prompt to
use, and when to present the prompt.
Step 3. Typically a most-to-least prompting strategy is used.
No special materials are needed: This practice does not require special materials. It is simply a
way of presenting questions and prompts to the students, so as long as the questions are
scaffolded correctly, then nothing else is needed.
References:
Effortless Learning/Teaching
http://www.asatonline.org/treatment/procedures/errorless
Exceptional Lives: Special Education in Today’s Schools
(Textbook)
Effective Practices Notebook
EP #2. Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAI):
Description/Background: Computers have been used in education since the 1960s. For
the purpose of instruction, they either are used to provide a straightforward presentation of data
or they fill a tutorial role where the student is tested on comprehension. In this case, a CAI is a
program of instructional material presented by means of a computer or computer systems. The
computer has a tutorial program where the student types in an answer to a given question and
then gets an immediate response. If the answer is correct, the student is given more challenging
problems; if the answer is incorrect, then the computer will bypass the challenging questions
until the student has proven mastery in that area.
The positive aspect about CAIs are that it teaches while assessing so it act as one-on-one
interaction.
In order to use floor time appropriately, one needs to do the following:
Steps:
Step 1. Identify the skills or behavior that is wanted to be taught via the computer. The learner’s
IEP will specify priorities and specific goals. From a review of the listed goals and discussion
with learners and their families and team members, a specific skill or behavior should be
identified as the target of instruction.
Step 2. Collect baseline data appropriate for the targetd skill. This data can be gathered from
various sources. Many computer programs have built in data collection features that track
learners’ progress.
Step 3. Identify technology support. Before proceeding with the purchase of computer software,
identify and contact persons in your building who provide computer support.
Step 4. Identify available computers for use.
Step 5. Identify appropriate software.
Step 6. Selecting and installing appropriate software.
Step 7. Learning the software; it should be tried out by adults before introduced to the students.
Step 8. Completing a task analysis of steps for using the software should be done.
Step 9. The software should be taught to others who also support the learner.
Step 10. Teach the learner basic computer skills if needed, then introduce the learner to the
software.
Step 11. Provide learners with multiple opportunities to use the computer.
Effective Practices Notebook
Step 12. Provide ongoing support to the learner.
Step 13. Collect data on acquisition of the target skill.
Special materials needed:
In order to use CAI programs, one would need an appropriate computer (and location for the
computer) that can access the software, access to the software itself, and someone in the tech
department who can help install the software. It also needs to be made sure that the student can
access/use the computer.
References:
Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAI) – Encyclopedia Britannica
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/130589/computer-assisted-instruction-CAI
Steps for Implementation: Computer Aided Instruction
http://autismpdc.fpg.unc.edu/sites/autismpdc.fpg.unc.edu/files/CAI_Steps_0.pdf
Effective Practices Notebook
15.Emotional Impairments
IDEA: Emotional Impairments means a condition exhibiting one or more of
the following characteristics over a long period of time and to a marked degree,
which adversely affects educational performance.
The “following definition characteristics”
•
•
•
•
•
Learning
Relationships
Inappropriate behavior
Mood
Physical symptoms
Everyone meets these criteria:
What separates EBD from others is:
• Chronicity
• Severity
•
Difficulty in school
EP #1. Service Learning:
Description/Background: In 1903, the University of Cincinnati created the Cooperative
Education Movement where students combine service, learning and career. Later in the century,
John Dewey and William James were then the first to combine experiential learning and service
to the community into the educational system.
Service learning refers to instructional activities that integrate teaching activities with
community service. It teaches students civic responsibility, and also reinforces lessons that are
learned in the class room out in real life.
Service learning is shown to give students greater social responsibility, career awareness, and
acceptance of cultural diversity. They also show enhanced leadership and communication skills
as well as greater self-esteem. The community also sees that students with EBD can contribute.
In order to use service learning, one needs to do the following:
Steps:
Step 1. Identify the Curriculum Where You Want to Integrate Service Learning
Step 2. Select a Service Learning Project Idea
Effective Practices Notebook
Step 3. Develop Goals and Objectives
Step 4. Connect to National and State Standards
Step 5. Plan for the Project
Step 6. Develop Pre and Post Reflection Activities
Step 7. Develop Assessment
Step 8. Do the Project
Step 9. Plan a Demonstration/Celebration
Special materials needed: A location for the service project (and a possible “audience”) will
have to be identified in order to complete the project. Transportation will also need to be secured
in order to do it. Activities for students to complete before and after the project will need to be
acknowledged, as well as the assessment that will be given.
References:
Exceptional Lives: Special Education in Today’s Schools
(Textbook)
History of Service Learning
http://www.brightimpact.com/history-of-service-learning/
Service Learning Frameworks
http://www.facingthefuture.org/Portals/0/Documents/Service%20Learning/Microsoft%20Word
%20-%20Service%20Learning%20Framework.pdf
Effective Practices Notebook
EP #2. Positive Behavior Support (PBS):
Description/Background: Over the past dozen years or more, an approach to delivery of behavioral
services known as positive behavior support (PBS) has emerged as a high-ly visible movement.
It emerged from the controversy surrounding the use of aversive consequences with people with
developmental disabilities.
PBS has emerged in the last thirty years or so. In 1987 the development of PBS was
strengthened. Now, PBS is recognized as a well researched best practice.
It is an approach influenced by applied behavior analysis, that refers to a set of research based
strategies intended to decrease problem behaviors.
In order to use positive behavior support, one needs to do the following:
Steps:
Step 1. Determine the definition of the student’s interfering behavior.
Step 2. Determine the function of the behavior.
Step 3. Develop a positive behavior support plan.
Step 4. Implement the plan.
Step 5. Monitor and evaluate.
Special materials needed: In order to apply positive behavioral support, a functional behavioral
assessment must be given to the student.
References:
Positive Behavior Support and Applied Behavior Analysis
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2223172/pdf/bhan-29-01-51.pdf
VCU Autism Center for Excellence
http://www.vcuautismcenter.org/resources/content.cfm/977
Effective Practices Notebook
16.Visual Impairments
IDEA: Visual impairment means vision loss which, even with correction,
adversely affects a child’s educational performance. The term includes children
with blindness and partial vision.
Educational Definitions:
• Functional Blindness
• Low Vision/Partial vision
• Totally blind
EP #1. Tactile and Kinesthetic Learning:
Description/Background: In order to learn when one is visually impaired, touch is very common.
In order to touch things, students must have something physical to do so with and, therefore,
teachers should make sure that any materials that are usually visible can be altered in order to be
touched. This student will benefit from a ‘hands on’ activity.
In order to use tactile and kinesthetic learning, one needs to do the following:
Steps:
Step 1. Anything in the lesson that can be turned into something tactile should be modified into
something tactile (such as through the use of a prop, like a stuffed animal when talking about an
actual animal).
Step 2. Give the student a chance to touch the object. It is preferable if this is done before class
so that the student can focus on the lesson during class when it is being taught.
Special materials needed: Any material that is being used that the student may touch would be
the material that is needed. This will vary depending on the lesson and materials being
used/modified.
References:
Effective Classroom Adaptations for Students with Visual Impairments
http://cec.metapress.com/content/p8t8m218h40286l3/
Effective Practices Notebook
EP #2. Audio-Supported Reading (ASP):
Description/Background: Students who are blind or visually impaired were among the first
students with disabilities to be educated in the United States. From the early 1800s with
residential schools to the early 1900s with public day school classes. Audio-supported reading
(ASR) can be used as a powerful means of accessing and making productive use of text when
looking for resources for students who have visual impairments. Often times, as students
progress further into the upper grades, they are either encouraged or explicitly taught to use
audio systems (human readers, talking books, synthesized speech) to supplement their Braille (if
they know how to read it) or print access to text. ASP can help students access material at a
quicker rate than Braille, and/or in addition to Braille or other reading materials.
In order to use Audio-Supported Reading, one needs to do the following:
Steps:
Step 1. Access the literature on CD (for example, many popular English class novels can be
found being read on CD).
Step 2. Decide whether or not the class will listen to the material on CD (English class rooms
often times have students follow along with the novel while listening to the CD) or if the student
should listen to the material alone.
Step 3. Make sure that the student has a way to listen to the material (ie: CD player and
headphones)
Special materials needed: The literature being read on a CD will be needed, as well as a way to
listen to the CD.
References:
Audio-Supported Reading for Students Who are Blind or Visually Impaired
http://aim.cast.org/learn/practice/future/audio_supported_reading#.Up6Ct-KYGSo
Effective Practices Notebook
17.
POHI
IDEA:
Physical Disability:
Acquired or congenital impairments of the body’s neurological or muscular
systems that affect basic movement functions and educational performance.
Other Health Impairment:
Conditions that require ongoing medical attention, chronic or acute that limit
strength and vitality and adversely affect education.
Michigan (physical impairment): Means severe orthopedic impairment that
adversely affects a student’s educational performance.
Michigan (other health): Means having limited strength, vitality or alertness,
including a heightened alertness to environmental stimuli, which results in limited
alertness with respect to the educational environment and is due to chronic or acute
health problems such as any of the following: asthma, ADD, ADHD, diabetes,
epilepsy, heart conditions, hemophilia, lead poisoning, leukemia, nephritis,
rheumatic fever, sickle cell.
EP #1. Self Awareness:
Description/Background: Self Awareness in reference to a student’s understanding of one’s self
as an individual. This term is often used with the term Disability Awareness too. This is where
a student understands one’s own abilities as a function of a specific disabling condition. This
idea often times only comes into play when a student realizes what he or she cannot do because
of his or her disability and therefore becomes something negative. Promoting self awareness can
help encourage students to think about what they can do and not what they cannot do due to their
disability awareness.
In order to use self awareness, one needs to do the following:
Steps:
Step 1. The student must be used as a catalyst for their own change. He or she must identify his
or her interests, abilities, strengths, and unique learning needs.
Step 2. Once the student has identified these areas, they need to apply these understandings to
identify the strategies and supports that will help them overcome any struggles or limitations.
Effective Practices Notebook
Step 3. Once they realize that the abilities can be applied to their struggles, a plan should be
made in order to initiate the application.
Special materials needed: While this does not require any special, physical materials, the student
definitely needs to be in the right mindset in order to successfully complete this. It also may be
helpful to sketch out a plan so that the student can visually see what he or she needs to do in
order to achieve his or her goal.
References:
Exceptional Lives: Special Education in Today’s Schools
(Textbook)
Effective Practices Notebook
EP #2. How to monitor for seizures:
Description/Background: For a student who has epilepsy, it will be necessary to have a plan of
action in order to help the student in case he or she starts having a seizure. Seizures often times
seem like they last a long time, but they usually do not last more than 60 to 90 seconds. During
this time, it is imperative though to help the student as much as possible.
In order to help with seizing, one needs to do the following:
Steps:
Step 1. Once the seizure starts, make sure to start timing it. If it lasts longer than 3 minutes then
911 needs to be called immediately.
Step 2. Protect the person from injury. Keep him or her from falling if possible by gently
guiding the student to the floor.
Step 3. Try to position the student on his or her side so that fluid cn leak out of the mouth (and
not back into the throat). Try not to apply too much pressure to the body.
Step 4. Move any furniture or other objects out of the way if they may injure the person during
the seize.
Step 5. Do not force anything into the person’s mouth, and do not hold down the person.
Step 6. Once the seizure has stopped, check the person for injuries.
Step 7. If the person is having trouble breathing, use your finger to gently clear his or her mouth
of any vomit or saliva. If this does not work, call for emergency help.
Step 8. Provide a safe area where the person can res.
Step 9. Do not give the student anything to eat or drink until he or she is fully awake and alert.
Step 10. Stay with the student until he or she is awake and familiar with the surroundings.
Step 11. During the seizure, keep track of:





How the person's body moved.
How long the seizure lasted.
How the person acted before the seizure.
How the person acted immediately after the seizure.
Whether the person suffered any injuries from the seizure.
Effective Practices Notebook
No Special materials are needed: No special materials are needed in order to help a student who
is seizing, however, it is important to pay attention to the seize and try and remember the specific
details (such as time lasted, how the person was acting, injuries, etc.).
References:
Helping a Person During an Epileptic Seizure
http://www.webmd.com/epilepsy/tc/helping-a-person-during-an-epileptic-seizure-topic-overview
Effective Practices Notebook
18.
Cognitively Impaired – CI/MR
IDEA: Intellectual disability means significantly sub average intellectual
functioning existing concurrently with deficits in adaptive behavior and manifest
during the developmental period, which adversely affects a child’s educational
performance.
EP #1. Community-Based Instruction:
Description/Background: Community-based instruction is designed to help students learn
functioning in the places that the functioning needs to occur. Since students with intellectual
disabilities tend to learn fewer skills than other students their age do, it is important to make sure
that they learn the skills that they will need to function and that is where community-based
instruction works. Community-based instruction is very individualized and can provide support
in these four areas: domestic, vocational, community, and recreation and leisure.
The oldest known example of community-based instruction is that of Belgian people, in the fifth
century, accepting other people with mental illnesses into their homes in order to help work with
them. In the 1980’s, community-based instruction became a term commonly used in the field of
education. This idea uses the philosophy of normalization.
In order to facilitate community-based instruction the following should be done:
Steps:
Step 1. Select the instructional domain (e.g., vocational, recreation-leisure, independent living,
etc.)
Step 2. Identify current and future environments in this domain where the student needs to learn
skills to succeed
Step 3. Prioritize the need for instruction in specific sub environments in each environment.
Step 4. Identify activities within each sub environment.
Step 5. Task-analyze the priority activities into their component skills.
In order to minimize any incorrect responding, teachers should do the following:
Step 1. Identify errors made in the community environment attributable to failure to respond to
natural cues
Effective Practices Notebook
Step 2. Decide whether to allow natural correction to occur; determine whether it endangers the
safety of the student and whether it occurs with sufficient magnitude and immediacy to be
considered an educationally sound instructional procedure,
Step 3. Select relevant natural cues and their salient features.
Step 4. Determine teaching and reinforcement procedures to use in the natural environment.
Step 5. Fade instructional cues.
Community-based instruction is best completed when done on an ecological inventory and in
order to do that, one should asked herself:
Will you train in a natural or stimulated setting, how can you plan for generalization, what
chaining procedure will you use, what prompting procedure will you use, and will you train
individually or in a group?
Special materials needed:
It will be necessary to have a way to relocate students to the location in which they are learning.
Paperwork will surely need to be filled out in order to keep things organized.
If the decision is made to individually train students, then having access to other people/teachers
in order to help each student will be necessary.
References:
Community-Based Instruction: Its Origin and Description
http://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED344389
Community-Based Instruction (CBI) Program
http://www.nn.k12.va.us/sped/community-instruction.html
Exceptional Lives: Special Education in Today’s Schools
(Textbook)
Effective Practices Notebook
EP #2. Self-Determined Learning Model of Instruction:
Description/Background: This model engages students in self-determination, built on the
principles of self-determination. The SDLMI was derived, however, from the Adaptability
Instruction Model forwarded by Mithaug, Martin, and Agran (1987) and Mithaug, Martin,
Agran, and Rusch (1988). This model promotes students’ progress in achieving their educational
goals. It has three phases involving problems that the student has to solve. In order to solve
these questions, students are given four other questions for each phase that they need to solve.
This is student driven, and they are the ones setting the goals and trying to achieve the goals
while the teacher just facilitates.
In order to facilitate self-determined model of instruction, the following should be done:
Steps:
Allow the students to direct the phases. These are the types of questions they should be asking
and answering:
Phase 1. What is my goal?
1. Identify the problem (What do I want to learn?)
2. Identify potential solutions to the problem (What do I know about it now?)
3. Identify barriers to solving the problem (What must change for me to learn what I don’t
know?)
4. Identify consequences of each solution (What can I do to make this happen?)
Ultimately: Set an instructional goal.
Phase 2. What is my plan?
1. Identify the problem (What can I do to learn what I don’t know?)
2. Identify potential solutions to the problem (What could keep me from taking this action?)
3. Identify barriers to solving the problem (What can I do to remove these barriers?)
4. Identify consequences of each solution (When will I take action?)
Ultimately; design a plan for achieving their goal (and self monitor their progress)
Phase 3. What have I learned?
1. Identify the problem (What actions have I taken?)
2. Identify potential solutions to the problem (What barriers have been removed?)
3. Identify barriers to solving the problem (What has changed about what I don’t know?)
4. Identify consequences of each solution (Do I know what I want to know?)
Ultimately: evaluate data from their self monitoring and adjust plans if they need to
Special materials needed:
A way to chart the plan
A way to record and self-evaluate data
Effective Practices Notebook
References:
Exceptional Lives: Special Education in Today’s Schools
(Textbook)
The Self–Determined Learning Model of Instruction
http://www.beachcenter.org/wisdom_based_action/the_selfdetermined_learning_model_of_instruction/default.aspx?JScript=1