SCFI 2010
Topicality
Al Jefferson
___ of ___
Index
*** PROCEDURALS *** ................................................................................................................................. 3
A-Spec 1NC................................................................................................................................................... 4
O-spec 1NC ................................................................................................................................................... 6
Generic Extra T 1NC ..................................................................................................................................... 7
*** SUBSTANTIALLY *** ............................................................................................................................... 8
Substantial = 50% 1NC ................................................................................................................................. 9
Substantial = 50% 2NC ............................................................................................................................... 10
A2: Substantially is Arbitrary ........................................................................................................................ 11
*** REDUCE *** ........................................................................................................................................... 12
Reduce ≠ Eliminate 1NC ............................................................................................................................. 13
Reduce ≠ Preventing Increases 1NC .......................................................................................................... 14
Reduce = Decrease 1NC ............................................................................................................................. 15
*** ITS ***..................................................................................................................................................... 16
Its ≠ TNW 1NC ............................................................................................................................................ 17
Its ≠ TNW 2NC ............................................................................................................................................ 18
A2: You Exclude Turkey .............................................................................................................................. 19
2AC – Its T................................................................................................................................................... 20
PMCs 1NC................................................................................................................................................... 21
AS: PMCs are Agents of USFG ................................................................................................................... 22
A2: PMCs are Presence .............................................................................................................................. 23
A2: Contractors = Police .............................................................................................................................. 24
2AC – PMCs ................................................................................................................................................ 25
*** MILITARY PRESENCE *** ..................................................................................................................... 26
Presence = Troops 1NC .............................................................................................................................. 27
Presence = Troops 2NC .............................................................................................................................. 28
Military Objectives 1NC ............................................................................................................................... 32
Military Objectives 2NC ............................................................................................................................... 33
Noncombat 1NC .......................................................................................................................................... 35
Noncombat 2NC .......................................................................................................................................... 37
A2: Pape Definition ...................................................................................................................................... 40
Permanent Presence 1NC ........................................................................................................................... 41
Visible Presence 1NC .................................................................................................................................. 42
Visible Presence 2NC .................................................................................................................................. 44
Nuclear Umbrella ≠ Visible .......................................................................................................................... 46
Presence ≠ Navy 1NC ................................................................................................................................. 47
Presence ≠ Navy 2NC ................................................................................................................................. 48
A2: “Military” not “Military Presence” ............................................................................................................ 49
*** IN ***....................................................................................................................................................... 50
‘In’ = Throughout 1NC ................................................................................................................................. 51
Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially reduce its military and/or police presence in one or more of the following:
South Korea, Japan, Afghanistan, Kuwait, Iraq, Turkey.
1
SCFI 2010
Al Jefferson
Topicality
___ of ___
*** DEFINITIONS ***.................................................................................................................................... 52
Definitions: Resolved ................................................................................................................................... 53
Definitions: Colon (:) .................................................................................................................................... 54
Definitions: The............................................................................................................................................ 55
Definitions: United States ............................................................................................................................ 56
Definitions: Federal Government ................................................................................................................. 57
Definitions: USFG ........................................................................................................................................ 58
Definitions: Should ....................................................................................................................................... 59
Definitions: Substantially.............................................................................................................................. 60
Definitions: Substantial (Context)................................................................................................................. 64
A2: Mat Qual................................................................................................................................................ 65
Definitions: Its .............................................................................................................................................. 66
Definitions: Military Presence ...................................................................................................................... 67
Definitions: And/Or....................................................................................................................................... 72
Definitions: Police Presence ........................................................................................................................ 73
Definitions: In ............................................................................................................................................... 74
Definitions: South Korea .............................................................................................................................. 75
Definitions: Japan ........................................................................................................................................ 76
Definitions: Afghanistan ............................................................................................................................... 77
Definitions: Kuwait ....................................................................................................................................... 78
MP: Kuwait .................................................................................................................................................. 79
Definitions: Iraq............................................................................................................................................ 80
MP: Iraq/Afghanistan ................................................................................................................................... 81
Definitions – Turkey ..................................................................................................................................... 82
*** VOTERS *** ........................................................................................................................................... 83
Topicality is a Voter ..................................................................................................................................... 84
Extra T Bad.................................................................................................................................................. 85
Effects (FX) T Bad ....................................................................................................................................... 86
A2: “Only our case is topical” ....................................................................................................................... 87
Competing Interpretations Good .................................................................................................................. 88
Topicality Outweighs Theory ....................................................................................................................... 89
AT: K of T 1 / 2 ............................................................................................................................................ 90
AT: K of T 2 / 2 ............................................................................................................................................ 91
A2: Effects (FX) T ........................................................................................................................................ 92
Competing Interpretations Bad .................................................................................................................... 93
Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially reduce its military and/or police presence in one or more of the following:
South Korea, Japan, Afghanistan, Kuwait, Iraq, Turkey.
2
SCFI 2010
Topicality
Al Jefferson
___ of ___
*** PROCEDURALS ***
Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially reduce its military and/or police presence in one or more of the following:
South Korea, Japan, Afghanistan, Kuwait, Iraq, Turkey.
3
SCFI 2010
Topicality
Al Jefferson
___ of ___
A-Spec 1NC
A. Interpretation and violation – the aff must specify which of the 3 branches of the
federal government passes the plan
B. Violation – they specify the ___________
C. This is a voter for Competitive equity
1. Ground – We lose agent specific counter plans and Disads
2. Conditionality – ‘resolved’ means “a firm course of action” - That’s the American
Heritage dictionary – not specifying allows 2AC clarification which decks
predictability – and means they are not topical
3. No solvency – no such actor as the united states federal government, only specific
branches
Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially reduce its military and/or police presence in one or more of the following:
South Korea, Japan, Afghanistan, Kuwait, Iraq, Turkey.
4
SCFI 2010
Topicality
Al Jefferson
___ of ___
A-Spec 2NC
90% of policy education comes from debates about implementation
Elmore ’80 (Prof. Public Affairs at University of Washington, PolySci Quarterly 79-80, p. 605)
The emergence of implementation as a subject for policy analysis coincides closely with the discovery by policy analysts that decisions
are not selfexecuting. Analysis of policy choices matter very little if the mechanism for implementing those choices is poorly
understood in answering the question, "What percentage of the work of achieving a desired governmental action is
done when the preferred analytic alternative has been identified?" Allison estimated that in the normal case, it was about 10 percent, leaving
the remaining 90 percent in the realm of implementation.
No Solvency - The USFG does not exist
Brovero ’94 (Adrienne, Debate Coach, Immigration Policies, http://www.wfu.edu/Studentorganizations/debate/MiscSites/DRGArticles/Brovero1994Immigration.htm)
The problem is not that there is not a plan; this time there is one. The
problem is that there is no agent specified. The federal government
does not enact policies, agents or agencies within the federal government enact policies. The agent enacting a policy is a very
important aspect of the policy. For some of the same reasons the affirmative team should specify a plan of action, the affirmative team should specify an agent of action.
Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially reduce its military and/or police presence in one or more of the following:
South Korea, Japan, Afghanistan, Kuwait, Iraq, Turkey.
5
SCFI 2010
Topicality
Al Jefferson
___ of ___
O-spec 1NC
A. Interpretation and violation – the Aff must defend all three branches of the federal
government – they don’t -- they specify their agent
We have definitional support – ‘the’ is a mass noun
American Heritage ‘2K
Used before a singular noun indicating that the noun is generic: The wolf is an endangered species.
B. Vote negative –
1. Crushes neg ground – allows them to specify down to tiny, unpredictable agents
that we won’t be prepared to debate and they can strategically change
2. Extra-topical – allows them to claim specific agent advantages that go beyond the
scope of the topic. Extra-topicality is voting issue because it proves the resolution
insufficient and is a no-cost burden for the Aff.
Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially reduce its military and/or police presence in one or more of the following:
South Korea, Japan, Afghanistan, Kuwait, Iraq, Turkey.
6
SCFI 2010
Topicality
Al Jefferson
___ of ___
Generic Extra T 1NC
A) Interpretation:
The advantages have to stem from the passage of plan through the USFG – any other
advocacy is extra-topical
B) Violation:
The affirmative garners advantages from their presentation of the affirmative, not just
from the hypothetical passage of the plan.
C) Reasons To Prefer:
1. Predictability: Affirmatives that generate offense from their advocacy outside of
the plan explode the topic because there is an infinite number of things that they
could advocate that are tangentially related to the topic – Affirmatives could stand up
and read movie scripts that barely relate to the topic, and negatives would never be
able to predict them.
2. Bidirectionality: Our interpretation forces affirmatives to affirm the passage of the
plan which means that we would have stable ground like USFG action is bad and
USFG authority is good. Affs like this remove that guarantee and allow affirmatives
that are wholly critical of the topic. This at least doubles the amount of research that
negatives would have to do and decreases the chance that we will get any topic
education.
3. Extra-Topicality is bad: It allows affirmatives to spike out of links and
counterplans. It gives affirmatives advantages that they would otherwise not have. It
disproves the resolution because it shows that it is not sufficient for the advantages.
And, any increased ground that we get is unpredictable and undebatable.
D) Voting Issue for Fairness and Ground
Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially reduce its military and/or police presence in one or more of the following:
South Korea, Japan, Afghanistan, Kuwait, Iraq, Turkey.
7
SCFI 2010
Topicality
Al Jefferson
___ of ___
*** SUBSTANTIALLY ***
Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially reduce its military and/or police presence in one or more of the following:
South Korea, Japan, Afghanistan, Kuwait, Iraq, Turkey.
8
SCFI 2010
Topicality
Al Jefferson
___ of ___
Substantial = 50% 1NC
A. Interpretation – presence refers to the totality of US military power in a country
Blechman et al, 97 – President of DFI International, and has held positions in the Department of Defense, the U.S. Arms Control and Disarmament
Agency, and the Office of Management and Budget (Barry, Strategic Review, Spring, “Military Presence Abroad in a New Era: The Role of Airpower,” p. 14)
The highly complex nature of military presence operations, with manifestations both psychological and physical, makes their effects difficult to identify and
assess. Nonetheless, presence missions (whether employing forces stationed abroad or afloat, temporarily deployed or permanently based overseas, or based
in the United States) are integral parts of U.S. defense strategy. Through routine presence operations, the United States seeks to reinforce alliances and
friendships, make credible security commitments to crucial regions, and nurture cooperative political relations. More episodically, forces engaged in presence
operations can dissuade aggressors from hostile demands, help prevent or contain regional crises, and, when conflict erupts nonetheless, provide an
infrastructure for the transition to war. Given its multifaceted nature, neither practitioners nor scholars have yet settled on a single definition of presence.
Technically, the term refers to both a military posture and a military objective. This study uses the term “presence” to refer to a continuum
of military activities, from a variety of interactions during peacetime to crisis response involving both forces on the scene and those based in the United
States. Our definition follows that articulated by the U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff: “Presence is the totality of U.S.
instruments of power deployed overseas (both permanently and temporarily) along with the requisite infrastructure and sustainment capabilities.”2
A substantial reduction in presence requires at least a 50% decrease
Comprehensive Base Closure Reform and Recovery Act, 92 (1992 H.R. 4421 ; 102 H.R. 4421, text of the Comprehensive
Base Closure Reform and Recovery Act of 1992, introduced by Olympia Snowe, lexis)
TITLE I-ENVIRONMENTAL RESTORATION AT MILITARY INSTALLATIONS TO BE CLOSED
SEC. 101. CLEANUP SCHEDULE FOR CERTAIN BASES ON SUPERFUND NATIONAL
PRIORITIES LIST.
(a) CLEANUP SCHEDULE FOR CERTAIN BASES ON NATIONAL PRIORITIES LIST.-(1)
With respect to each military installation described in subsection (b)(A) before the installation is closed or substantial reductions in its operations have occurred, at least 75 percent of the remedial action required on the
installation pursuant to the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act of 1980 (42 U.S.C. 9601 et seq.) shall be completed; and
(B) not later than two years after the installation is closed or substantial reductions in its operations have occurred, all of the remedial action required on the
installation pursuant to such Act shall be completed.
(2) For purposes of paragraph (1), substantial reductions in the operations of a military installation shall be considered to have
occurred if more than 50 percent of the personnel assigned to the installation, including employees and members of the Armed
Forces, have been reassigned and moved to another installation.
B. Violation – the affirmative is a minor reduction in presence
C. Voting issue –
1. limits – allowing minor reductions allows countless variations of small affs likes
reducing a single type of intelligence gathering or a covert op in Afghanistan or arms
sales to Japan; it makes adequate research impossible
2. negative ground – topic disads won’t link to minor modifications, and generic
ground is vitally important to protect since there are 6 different countries with diverse
literature bases
Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially reduce its military and/or police presence in one or more of the following:
South Korea, Japan, Afghanistan, Kuwait, Iraq, Turkey.
9
SCFI 2010
Topicality
Al Jefferson
___ of ___
Substantial = 50% 2NC
A substantial reduction in military personnel is greater than 50%
THOMAS.gov, 92 – Summary of H.R.4421, the Comprehensive Base Closure Reform and Recovery Act of 1992
(http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-
bin/bdquery/z?d102:HR04421:@@@L&summ2=m&)
Comprehensive Base Closure Reform and Recovery Act of 1992 - Title I: Environmental Restoration At Military Installations To Be
Closed - Requires, with respect to each military installation which is on the National Priorities List (for substantial environmental cleanup) under the
Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act of 1980 and which is to be closed under Federal base closure Acts or otherwise by
the Department of Defense (DOD): (1) that at least 75 percent of the environmental remedial action required under Federal law be completed before the
installation is closed or substantial reductions in its operations have occurred; and (2) that all of the required remedial action be occurred no later than two years
after such installation is closed or substantially reduced. Defines a "substantial reduction" as the reassignment of more than 50
percent of its personnel.
Substantial reduction is at least 50%
Pallone, 3 – US Congressional Representative (Text of H.R. 3189, introduced by Pallone, to amend Title XVII of the Social Security Act,” 9/25,
http://www.theorator.com/bills108/hr3189.html)
`(7) SUBSTANTIAL REDUCTION- The
term `substantial reduction'--
`(A) means, as determined under regulations of the Secretary and with respect to a qualified beneficiary, a reduction in the average actuarial value of
benefits under the plan (through reduction or elimination of benefits, an increase in premiums, deductibles, copayments, and coinsurance, or any combination
thereof), since the date of commencement of coverage of the beneficiary by reason of the retirement of the covered employee (or, if later, January 6, 2004), in an
amount equal to at least 50 percent of the total average actuarial value of the benefits under the plan as of such date (taking into account an
appropriate adjustment to permit comparison of values over time); and
`(B) includes an increase in premiums required to an amount that exceeds the premium level described in the fourth sentence of section 602(3).'
Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially reduce its military and/or police presence in one or more of the following:
South Korea, Japan, Afghanistan, Kuwait, Iraq, Turkey.
10
SCFI 2010
Topicality
Al Jefferson
___ of ___
A2: Substantially is Arbitrary
Substantially must be given meaning even if arbitrary – contextual uses are key
Devinsky, 02
(Paul, IP UPDATE, VOLUME 5, NO. 11, NOVEMBER 2002, “Is Claim "Substantially" Definite? Ask Person of Skill in the Art”,
http://www.mwe.com/index.cfm/fuseaction/publications.nldetail/object_id/c2c73bdb-9b1a-42bf-a2b7-075812dc0e2d.cfm)
In reversing a summary judgment of invalidity, the
U.S. Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit found that the district court, by failing to look
beyond the intrinsic claim construction evidence to consider what a person of skill in the art would understand in a "technologic context," erroneously
concluded the term "substantially" made a claim fatally indefinite.
Verve, LLC v. Crane Cams, Inc., Case No. 01-1417 (Fed. Cir. November 14,
2002). The patent in suit related to an improved push rod for an internal combustion engine. The patent claims a hollow push rod whose overall diameter is larger at the middle than at
the ends and has "substantially constant wall thickness" throughout the rod and rounded seats at the tips. The district court found that the expression "substantially constant wall
thickness" was not supported in the specification and prosecution history by a sufficiently clear definition of "substantially" and was, therefore, indefinite. The district court recognized
that the use of the term "substantially" may be definite in some cases but ruled that in this case it was indefinite because it was not further defined. The Federal Circuit reversed,
concluding that the district court erred in requiring that the meaning of the term "substantially" in a particular "technologic context" be found solely in intrinsic evidence: "While reference
to intrinsic evidence is primary in interpreting claims, the criterion is the meaning of words as they would be understood by persons in the field of the invention." Thus, the
Federal Circuit instructed that "resolution of any ambiguity arising from the claims and specification may be aided by extrinsic
evidence of usage and meaning of a term in the context of the invention." The Federal Circuit remanded the case to the district court with instruction that
"[t]he question is not whether the word 'substantially' has a fixed meaning as applied to 'constant wall thickness,' but how the
phrase would be understood by persons experienced in this field of mechanics, upon reading the patent documents."
Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially reduce its military and/or police presence in one or more of the following:
South Korea, Japan, Afghanistan, Kuwait, Iraq, Turkey.
11
SCFI 2010
Topicality
Al Jefferson
___ of ___
*** REDUCE ***
Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially reduce its military and/or police presence in one or more of the following:
South Korea, Japan, Afghanistan, Kuwait, Iraq, Turkey.
12
SCFI 2010
Topicality
Al Jefferson
___ of ___
Reduce ≠ Eliminate 1NC
A. Interpretation - Reduce excludes eliminate.
Words and Phrases 02 (vol 36B, p. 80)
Mass. 1905. Rev.Laws, c.203, § 9, provides that, if two or more cases are tried together in the superior court, the presiding judge may “reduce” the witness fees
and other costs, but “not less than the ordinary witness fees, and other costs recoverable in one of the cases” which are so tried together shall be allowed. Held
that, in reducing the costs, the amount in all the cases together is to be considered and reduced, providing that there must be left in the aggregate an amount not
The word “reduce,” in its ordinary signification, does not mean to cancel,
destroy, or bring to naught, but to diminish, lower, or bring to an inferior state.—Green v. Sklar, 74 N.E. 595, 188 Mass. 363.
less than the largest sum recoverable in any of the cases.
B. Violation – the affirmative completely eliminates US military or police presence
C. Voting issue –
1. limits – they create six more affirmatives and explode the topic literature base; we
have to be accountable for the entire peace movement and answer critical affs which
require distinct strategies
2. predictability – our evidence signifies the ordinary meaning of reduce; moving
beyond the ordinary meaning of words sets a precedent to interpret the all other
words unpredictably
Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially reduce its military and/or police presence in one or more of the following:
South Korea, Japan, Afghanistan, Kuwait, Iraq, Turkey.
13
SCFI 2010
Topicality
Al Jefferson
___ of ___
Reduce ≠ Preventing Increases 1NC
A. Reduce means to diminish in size – this excludes refusing to accept future
increases
Guy, 91 - Circuit Judge (TIM BOETTGER, BECKY BOETTGER, individually and as Next Friend for their Minor Daughter, AMANDA BOETTGER, PlaintiffsAppellees, v. OTIS R. BOWEN, Secretary of Health and Human Services (89-1832); and C. PATRICK BABCOCK, Director, Michigan Department of Social
Services (89-1831), Defendants-Appellants Nos. 89-1831, 89-1832 UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS FOR THE SIXTH CIRCUIT 923 F.2d 1183; 1991
U.S. App. LEXIS 671)
The district court concluded that the plain meaning of the statutory language does not apply to the termination of employment one obtains on his own. A
termination, the court held, is not a refusal to accept employment. In this case, the plain meaning
of the various words suggests that
"refuse to accept" is not the equivalent of "terminate" and "reduce." As a matter of logic [**18] and common understanding, one cannot
terminate or reduce something that one has not accepted. Acceptance is [*1189] a pre-condition to termination or
reduction. Thus, a refusal to accept is a precursor to, not the equivalent of, a termination or a reduction. n3 n.3 This distinction is
also reflected in the dictionary definitions of the words. "Accept" is defined in anticipatory terms that suggest a precondition ("to undertake the responsibility of"),
whereas "terminate" and "reduce" are defined in conclusory terms ("to bring to end, . . . to discontinue"; "to diminish in size, amount, extent, or number."). See
Webster's New Collegiate Dictionary (9th ed. 1985).
B. Violation – the affirmative prevents a planned deployment, it doesn’t reduce an
existing deployment
C. Voting issue –
1. limits – they explode the topic, they force us to prepare for all current military
presence and every possible proposal to increase presence. Any aff that has a card
saying some deployment is “likely” meets their burden for a new aff
2. negative ground – they destroy our disads, all of our links are to existing
deployments
Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially reduce its military and/or police presence in one or more of the following:
South Korea, Japan, Afghanistan, Kuwait, Iraq, Turkey.
14
SCFI 2010
Topicality
Al Jefferson
___ of ___
Reduce = Decrease 1NC
A. Reduce means decrease – excludes the possibility or result of increasing
Friedman, 99 – Senior Circuit Judge, US Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit (CUNA MUTUAL LIFE INSURANCE COMPANY, Plaintiff-Appellant, v.
UNITED STATES, Defendant-Appellee. 98-5033 UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS FOR THE FEDERAL CIRCUIT 169 F.3d 737; 1999 U.S. App. LEXIS
1832; 99-1 U.S. Tax Cas. (CCH) P50,245; 83 A.F.T.R.2d (RIA) 799 February 9, 1999, Decided, lexis)
B. CUNA's position has another fatal flaw. Section 808 is captioned "Policy Dividends Deduction," and § 808(c) states:
(1) In general
Except as limited by paragraph (2), the deduction for policyholder dividends for any taxable year shall be an amount equal to the policyholder dividends [**15]
paid or accrued during the taxable year.
(2) Reduction in case of mutual companies
In the case of a mutual life insurance company, the deduction for policyholder dividends for any taxable year shall be reduced by the amount determined under
section 809.
"The amount determined" under § 809, by which the policyholder dividend deduction is to be "reduced," is the "excess" specified in § 809(c)(1). Like the word
"excess," the word "reduced" is a common, unambiguous, non-technical term that is given its ordinary meaning. See San Joaquin Fruit & Inv. Co., 297 U.S. at
499. "Reduce" means "to diminish in size, amount, extent, or number." Webster's Third International Dictionary 1905. Under CUNA's
interpretation of "excess" in § 809(c), however, the
result of the "amount determination" under § 809 would be not to reduce the policyholder dividends
word "reduce"
cannot be interpreted, as CUNA would treat it, to mean "increase."
deduction, but to increase it. This would directly contradict the explicit instruction in § 808(c)(2) that the deduction "be reduced." The
B. Violation – the affirmative doesn’t cause a net reduction, they result in an increase
C. Voting issue –
1. limits – allowing the aff to effectually increase military presence explodes our
research burdens
2. negative ground – their affirmative creates a result that destroys all of our disad
links, which stem from the net reduction in presence
Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially reduce its military and/or police presence in one or more of the following:
South Korea, Japan, Afghanistan, Kuwait, Iraq, Turkey.
15
SCFI 2010
Topicality
Al Jefferson
___ of ___
*** ITS ***
Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially reduce its military and/or police presence in one or more of the following:
South Korea, Japan, Afghanistan, Kuwait, Iraq, Turkey.
16
SCFI 2010
Topicality
Al Jefferson
___ of ___
Its ≠ TNW 1NC
A. Interpretation - Its implies ownership
Glossary of English Grammar Terms, 2005
(http://www.usingenglish.com/glossary/possessive-pronoun.html)
Mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, theirs are the possessive pronouns used to
substitute a noun and to show possession or
ownership. EG. This is your disk and that's mine. (Mine substitutes the word disk and shows that it belongs to me.)
B. Violation –
Nuclear weapons in Turkey belong to NATO.
Meier, 4-28-1998 (Oliver, Berlin Information-center for Transatlantic Security statement coordinator, "NATO Nuclear Weapons Transfers,"
http://www.bits.de/public/articles/om280498.htm)
Mr. Chairman, we would like to draw attention to a case of nuclear proliferation that has been moving up the diplomatic and political agenda since 1995. Under
NATO nuclear sharing arrangements, 150-200 US nuclear weapons remain deployed in Belgium, Germany, Greece, Italy, the Netherlands, Turkey, and the
United Kingdom. Under NATO nuclear sharing arrangements, these countries are involved in consultations on the
possible use of these weapons and training for employment of these weapons of mass destruction. It is also clear that the other member states of the
Alliance - Canada, Denmark, Iceland, Luxembourg, Norway, Portugal, and Spain pursue diplomatic policies which support the nuclear policies of the three
nuclear weapon states in NATO, France, the United Kingdom and the United States. The three candidate members, Poland, the Czech Republic and Hungary,
have adopted the same approach. We believe that these arrangements - which enable some non-nuclear weapon states to be actively involved in the nuclear
weapons policies of the Western nuclear powers - are contradicting the intent and possibly the letter of Articles I and II of the NPT. It is therefore timely and
appropriate for these issues to be addressed in the NPT Review Process. NATO nuclear weapons and the associated arrangements represent
a major hurdle to further and substantial steps toward nuclear disarmament. The continued deployment of these weapons in Europe and the continued
practice of nuclear sharing harms the nonproliferation regime in several respects: First, it runs counter to the NPT’s main purpose of limiting access to nuclear
weapons. It actually widens access to nuclear weapons for training purposes in peacetime and use during wartime. NATO’s system of nuclear sharing enlarges
the number of states who participate in nuclear planning. Currently, all NATO member states who wish to do so can participate in discussions on nuclear
planning and doctrine. With the planned enlargement of the Alliance, the number of states eligible to participate in these arrangements will increase. Further, in
case of war, the United States still plans to transfer control over nuclear weapons to Allied countries. Current NATO policy increases the number of countries with
the capability to wage nuclear war. Six states, which claim non-nuclear status under the NPT have that capability. As the distinguished delegate from Turkey said
yesterday in his prepared statement, "Turkey...apart
weapons."
from the nuclear umbrella of NATO Alliance, does not possess nuclear
C. Topicality is a Voting Issues
1. Predictability – No way predict presence not tied to the agent in the resolution.
This invigorates topic precision and education on US foreign policy.
2. Ground – Political capital and legitimacy disads depend on a possessive
connection to the United States. It explodes the research burden to anything dealing
with the military in that country.
Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially reduce its military and/or police presence in one or more of the following:
South Korea, Japan, Afghanistan, Kuwait, Iraq, Turkey.
17
SCFI 2010
Topicality
Al Jefferson
___ of ___
Its ≠ TNW 2NC
NATO’s owns the TNWs.
Claudine Lamond June 2009 (“Tactical Nuclear Weapons in Russian Foreign Policy” “International security report” http://www.atlanticcommunity.org/app/webroot/files/articlepdf/140809_ISR%20-%20Russian%20TNW%20C%20Lamond.pdf)
The stationing of NATO’s TNWs in western European states has been a continued sore point in relations between Russia and the
five host states of Turkey, Belgium, the Netherlands, Germany and Italy. Russia resents the current nuclear sharing arrangement as it believes such actions
are a violation of their obligations to the NPT. Their removal or consolidation would mark an improvement in European‐ Russian relations. U.S. Assistant
Secretary of State Rose Gottemoeller has signalled that America is willing to enter in negotiations with Russia about these deployments and such discussion
could begin as early as December 2009.16
And, TNWs are US made BUT belong to NATO.
Zvi Bar'el Sunday, February 21, 2010 (Haaretz “Iran is regional superpower even without nukes”
http://www.campaigniran.org/casmii/index.php?q=node/9441)
Of course, Netanyahu forgot to mention to Papandreou what he already knows - that
there are about 90 American-made tactical nuclear
weapons in Turkey, part of the NATO arsenal, which no one knows what to do with as Turkey has no aircraft dedicated to this purpose. Saudi
Arabia lacks the scientific infrastructure for nuclear capability, and Egypt has for more than 25 years been debating where it will build its first nuclear reactor. A
nuclear Middle East is still a distant dream.
Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially reduce its military and/or police presence in one or more of the following:
South Korea, Japan, Afghanistan, Kuwait, Iraq, Turkey.
18
SCFI 2010
Topicality
Al Jefferson
___ of ___
A2: You Exclude Turkey
The U.S. has troops in Turkey and are hated. You get an AFF and good ground.
Claudine Lamond and Paul Ingram January 23 2009 (Politics around US tactical nuclear weapons in European host states http://www.atlanticcommunity.org/app/webroot/files/articlepdf/CLamondTNWinNATO.pdf)
There have been public expressions of resentment
towards the US military presence in Turkey ever since the lead up to the US war with
United States insisted on the government allowing American troops to use Turkey as a staging post, despite
overwhelmingly antiwar Turkish public and political opinion. Limited permission was granted after heavy debates and delay in the Turkish
Iraq. The
parliament
Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially reduce its military and/or police presence in one or more of the following:
South Korea, Japan, Afghanistan, Kuwait, Iraq, Turkey.
19
SCFI 2010
Topicality
Al Jefferson
___ of ___
2AC – Its T
We Meet –
Claudine Lamond and Paul Ingram January 23 2009 (Politics around US tactical nuclear weapons in European host states http://www.atlanticcommunity.org/app/webroot/files/articlepdf/CLamondTNWinNATO.pdf)
While exact figures of US tactical nuclear weapons in Europe are classified (NATO does not publish figures on its nuclear arsenals); it is believed there are
approximately 200-350 US tactical nuclear weapons in Europe.2 In Belgium, Germany and the Netherlands there are said to be 10-20 TNW B-61s based at each
of the following airbases: Kliene Brogel, Buchel and Volkel. In Italy around 50 TNW are thought to be based on the Aviano airbase and 20-40 on the Ghedi Torre
airbase. The
United States is believed to hold around 50-90 TNW at the Incirlik airbase in Turkey.
They confuse the literature – Its only US TNWs.
Nikolai Sokov Jul 17, 2009 (“Issue 4 Tactical (Substrategic) Nuclear Weapons”
http://kms1.isn.ethz.ch/serviceengine/Files/ISN/116407/ichaptersection_singledocument/6fdafccc-e91c-4e54-a3ae-5cc30666948c/en/Issue4.pdf.)
When the West speaks about NATO TNW, it means American short-range assets— gravity bombs intended for aircraft. Great
Britain no longer has TNW and French nuclear weapons should be more properly classified as either strategic or intermediate-range. Thus, as far as
NATO is concerned, the issue of TNW is effectively the issue of the limited number of U.S. nuclear weapons in Europe.
Counter Interpretation - Its means associated with
Compact Oxford English Dictionary, 10 (http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/its?view=uk)
its
• possessive determiner 1 belonging to or associated with a thing previously mentioned or easily identified. 2 belonging to or
associated with a child or animal of unspecified sex.
Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially reduce its military and/or police presence in one or more of the following:
South Korea, Japan, Afghanistan, Kuwait, Iraq, Turkey.
20
SCFI 2010
Topicality
Al Jefferson
___ of ___
PMCs 1NC
1. Interpretation – Military is distinct from civilian contractors
1. “Military” means pertaining to soldiers and troops
WORDS AND PHRASES, Vol. 26C, 2003, 527.
Military means of or pertaining to soldiers, arms, or warfare, soldierly, warlike, martial, done supported or carried on
by force of arms; assigned to or occupied by troops. Powell v. U.S., 60 F.Supp. 433.
2. Military: distinct from civilian
WORDS AND PHRASES, Vol. 26C, 2003, 527.
No construction shall be given term military that will include idea of civil use, and hence term military must be given a strict
construction. (Southern Pacific Co. v. U.S., 67 F.Supp. 966, 107)
B. Violation – the aff removes private contractors
C. Prefer our Interpretation –
1. Limits – Contractors explodes the topic creating unpredictable advantages off of
things that aren’t based on military actions
2. Ground – Disads and counterplans are centered around military structure – PMC’s
should be a counterplan that we can read – they kill all core generics and make it
impossible to predict what the affirmative will say
D. Topicality is a voter for fairness and education
Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially reduce its military and/or police presence in one or more of the following:
South Korea, Japan, Afghanistan, Kuwait, Iraq, Turkey.
21
SCFI 2010
Topicality
Al Jefferson
___ of ___
AS: PMCs are Agents of USFG
Private contractors are distinct entities from the federal government
Barbier, 7 – US District Judge (Carl, TIEN VAN COA, ET AL VERSUS GREGORY WILSON, ET AL CIVIL ACTION NO: 07-7464 SECTION: J(1) UNITED
STATES DISTRICT COURT FOR THE EASTERN DISTRICT OF LOUISIANA 2007 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 87653, lexis)
As to federal question jurisdiction, Defendants state that P&J was the prime contractor for USACE and Gregory Wilson was its employee, with both parties acting
under the control and direction of USACE, thus invoking derivative immunity from state tort claims. As such, Plaintiffs' claims should have been brought under the
FTCA and are governed exclusively there under. However, in their motion to remand, Plaintiffs argue that as an independent contractor, P&J is not an employee
of the federal government, and consequently does not enjoy derivative immunity and cannot invoke the FTCA. Plaintiffs cite United States v. New Mexico in
support of the notion that private contractors, whether prime or subcontractors, are not government employees nor are they agents of the federal government.
455 U.S. 720, 102 S. Ct. 1373, 71 L. Ed. 2d 580 (1982). According to the Court, "[t]he congruence of professional interests between the contractors and the
Federal Government is not complete" because "the contractors remained distinct entities pursuing private ends, and their actions remained [*4] commercial
activities carried on for profit." Id. at 740; see also Powell v. U.S. Cartridge Co., 339 U.S. 497, 70 S. Ct. 755, 94 L. Ed. 1017 (1950).
Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially reduce its military and/or police presence in one or more of the following:
South Korea, Japan, Afghanistan, Kuwait, Iraq, Turkey.
22
SCFI 2010
Topicality
Al Jefferson
___ of ___
A2: PMCs are Presence
PMCs are distinct from official US military presence
Scahill, 7 – independent journalist (Jeremy, “Flush with Profits from the Iraq War, Military Contractors See a World of Business Opportunities”, Alter Net,
http://www.alternet.org/world/59571/)
During the 1991 Gulf War, the ratio of troops to private contractors was about 60 to 1. Today, it is the contractors who outnumber U.S. forces in Iraq. As of July
2007, there were more than 630 war contracting companies working in Iraq for the United States. Composed of some 180,000 individual personnel drawn from
more than 100 countries, the
army of contractors surpasses the official U.S. military presence of 160,000 troops.
Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially reduce its military and/or police presence in one or more of the following:
South Korea, Japan, Afghanistan, Kuwait, Iraq, Turkey.
23
SCFI 2010
Topicality
Al Jefferson
___ of ___
A2: Contractors = Police
Police refers to governmental organizations – contractors are private companies
The American
Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 2009, [http://www.thefreedictionary.com/police]
po-lice
n. pl. police
1. The governmental department charged with the regulation and control of the affairs of a community, now chiefly
the department established to maintain order, enforce the law, and prevent and detect crime.
2. a. A body of persons making up such a department trained in methods of law enforcement and crime prevention and detection and authorized to maintain the
peace, safety, and order of the community.
b. A body of persons having similar organization and function: campus police. Also called police force.
CONTEXTUALLY – PRIVATE CONTRACTORS REPLACE US TROOPS
PBS, Frontline,
2005, Private Warriors, [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/warriors/view/]
Smith obtains unusual access to Erinys, a British private security company. They have been charged with protecting the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and are
paid $50 million a year for the task. Erinys is staffed with an assortment of ex-Special Forces and policemen from around the world. A private security guard at
Erinys makes approximately $400 dollars a day, twice what a soldier makes. Some guards make up to $1000 a day. While some see these men as hired guns,
they do not view themselves that way. They say they are just men with more expertise than the military when it comes to protection. If Andy Melville, a project
manager with Erinys in Iraq is correct, private warriors could become more prevalent in Iraq.
"Americans would like to withdraw troop members," says Melville. "And perhaps it is part of their policy to reduce troop
members and replace them with private security contractors."
Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially reduce its military and/or police presence in one or more of the following:
South Korea, Japan, Afghanistan, Kuwait, Iraq, Turkey.
24
SCFI 2010
Topicality
Al Jefferson
___ of ___
2AC – PMCs
Private contractors are agents of the US government.
AUSNESS ‘86 –
Professor of Law, University of Kentucky (RICHARD, Fall, “Surrogate Immunity: The Government Contract Defense and Products
Liability.”, 47 Ohio St. L.J. 985, Lexis Law, dheidt)
The United States Supreme Court affirmed the circuit court's ruling. The Court reasoned that the immunity that protected officers and agents of the federal
government acting within the scope of their authority should be extended to private contractors who also acted on the government's behalf. n71 According to the
Court: ". . . [I]t is clear that if this authority to carry out the project was validly conferred, that is, if what was done was within the constitutional power of Congress,
there is no liability on the part of the contractor for executing its will." n72 The court also observed that the landowner could have sought compensation from the
government for his injury in the court of claims. n73 Apparently, it thought that the plaintiff had attempted to circumvent the accepted statutory procedure by suing
the contractor instead of the government. n74 Over the years, courts have advanced various theories to explain the government contract doctrine. For example,
the Court in Yearsley suggested that the contractor partakes of the government's immunity because it has acted as an agent of the government. In fact, some
courts have limited the government contract defense to situations where there is an actual agency relationship between the contractor and the government. n75
PMCs are part of US military presence
Isenberg, 9 – researcher and leader of the Norwegian Initiative on Small Arms Transfers (NISAT) at the International Peace Research Institute, Oslo
(David, “Private Military Contractors and U.S. Grand Strategy”, http://www.cato.org/pubs/articles/isenberg-private%20military-contractors-2009.pdf)
The low visibility and presumed low cost of private contractors appeals to those who favor a global U.S. military presence, but fear
that such a strategy cannot command public support. And by using contractors the United States also shift responsibility and blame for its actions. As the United
States relies more heavily upon military contractors to support its role as world hegemon, it reinforces the tendency to approach global crises in a unilateral, as
op- posed to multilateral manner, further ensuring that the burdens will be carried dispropor- tionately by U.S. taxpayers. U.S.
use of PMCs is
inevitable until people grasp the key point, which is that that contracting is both part of war and part of maintaining a
global military hegemonic presence.
PMCs are inextricably linked to US military presence
Kaplan, 7 – Senior Fellow at the Center for a New American Security (Robert, The Atlantic, “Outsourcing Conflict”, September,
http://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2007/09/outsourcing-conflict/6368/)
Using exclusively active-duty sergeant-majors and master sergeants of the quality and numbers that this Army colonel required would have drained the Army of
some of its best NCOs. The most-seasoned people can’t be produced overnight. Meanwhile, there is a ready-made retirement pool from which to draw, courtesy
of the private sector. In the case of this colonel, the contractors were to be under the operational control of active-duty personnel;
they would be allowed to fight only in their own self-defense. The quasi-privatization of war has a long history and is consistent with America’s efficient capitalistic
economy. The idea
of a large American military presence anywhere without contractors is now unthinkable. Without
firms like KBR, the support tail in Iraq would be infinitely longer than it is, with tens of thousands of more troops
required to achieve the same result. Buildings need to be maintained; chow halls have to be run; showers and restrooms need to be cleaned.
Mundane activities like these account for the bulk of what private contractors do. Of course, that raises the question of bidding fairness: Precisely because only a
few such firms, including KBR, can handle massive logistical operations in sync with American military guidelines, taxpayers need to be protected from what are,
in the absence of real competition, essentially no-bid contracts.
Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially reduce its military and/or police presence in one or more of the following:
South Korea, Japan, Afghanistan, Kuwait, Iraq, Turkey.
25
SCFI 2010
Topicality
Al Jefferson
___ of ___
*** MILITARY PRESENCE ***
Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially reduce its military and/or police presence in one or more of the following:
South Korea, Japan, Afghanistan, Kuwait, Iraq, Turkey.
26
SCFI 2010
Topicality
Al Jefferson
___ of ___
Presence = Troops 1NC
A. Interpretation – Presence means only troops
1. Substantially means including the main part
WORDS AND PHRASES, 1964, p. 818.
“Substantially” means in substance; in the main; essentially; by including the material or essential part.
2. Presence is Troops
Random House Dictionary of the English Language, Unabridged, 2nd Ed., 1987, 1529.
Presence: The military or economic power of a country as reflected abroad by the stationing of its troops, sale of its goods, etc.:
the American military presence in Europe.
3. And this is true of Military Policy
Dictionary Of Military Terms, 3rd Ed. 2004, 187.
Presence: The fact of having people or units which represent a particular country or organization within a particular area.
B. Violation – The aff does something that is not reducing Troops
C. Prefer our Interpretation –
1. Limits – Troops are limited – Bases allow for multiple different combinations
including all of the different equipment they have there – this explodes the topic and
makes it impossible to be negative
2. Predictability – Government presence is reduced by removing troops – this
ensures a literature base that is predictable to what is going on in the Status Quo
World Tribune, Feb. 19, 2010. Retrieved Feb. 21, 2010 from http://www.worldtribune.com/.
In 2007, the U.S. military reached a peak of 175,000 troops as part of a sustained campaign against Al Qaida. About a year later,
amid the flight of Sunni and Shi'ite insurgents, Washington began reducing its military presence in Iraq, with 77,000 soldiers
leaving over the last 15 months. Officials said the U.S. military, which transferred security responsibility to Baghdad in July 2009, has largely ended
its counter-insurgency mission. By July 2010, they said, the U.S. military would be limited to what was termed stability operations outside Iraqi cities. "So I think
this transition will be much smoother than people think on the ground," Odierno said. "It'll be smooth just like coming out of the cities was."
D. Topicality is a voting issue for fairness and education
Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially reduce its military and/or police presence in one or more of the following:
South Korea, Japan, Afghanistan, Kuwait, Iraq, Turkey.
27
SCFI 2010
Topicality
Al Jefferson
___ of ___
Presence = Troops 2NC
Their definition of presence is the broadest possible.
Scala 98 - Office of the Secretary of Defense (Mary, “Theater Engagement Planning: An Interagency Opportunity”,
http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA351762&Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf
During the run-up to the 1997 Quadrennial Defense Review (QDR), the Joint Staff and the Office of the Under Secretary of Defense for Policy undertook a
comprehensive review of overseas presence requirements and issues. The intention was to ensure the resources committed to presence were consistent with
national priorities in the region—and to identify overseas commitments that were potentially excess to the emerging defense strategy.
To make sure
everything was considered, the definition of “presence” was made as broad as possible—from forward-stationed
troops, to prepositioned stocks, to naval deployments, to joint and combined military exercises, to mil-to-mil contacts.
At about the same time, the Joint Staff was working to create a notional “baseline engagement force” in order to get a clearer
historical picture of how many U.S. forces worldwide were engaged routinely in engagement or crisis-response operations. Both the overseas presence study
and the baseline engagement force analysis were intended to form one point of departure for the formulation of a new defense strategy. Planners hoped to find
relatively painless ways to increase spending on military readiness and procurement, without undercutting essential warfighting forces or technology.
The broad interpretation would mean everything the military does is topical.
Meyer 7 – Lieutenant Commander, US Navy (Richard, “Naval Presence with a Purpose: Considerations for the Operational Commander,”
http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA470845&Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf
In 2007, naval presence is no longer enumerated as a stand-alone mission of U.S. naval forces. However, the
concept of presence is inherent in
all that we do. In the Universal Joint Task List (UJTL) there is only one specified task with presence in the title and it is the strategic-national task 3.1,
“Coordinate Forward Presence of Forces in Theaters.”7 In the definition of this task, the UJTL strikes at the heart of the matter by stating that presence “…is a
crucial element of deterrence and can be a demonstration of resolve to allies and potential adversaries.”8 In addition to this one task, however,
the term presence or forward presence is used in the definition of several other tasks such as operational task 1.2.4.1,
“Conduct a Show of Force”.9 This gives credence to the belief that presence is an underlying theme in every mission we undertake as a Navy.
Reductions in presence should be measured by personnel
Poon et al, 6 - Department of Geography, University at Buffalo-SUNY, Buffalo
(Jessie, “The role of US defense exports in Asia Pacific regionalism,”
Political Geography 25 (2006) 715-734, Science Direct)
Overall, the analysis in this section confirms the proposition that US geostrategic interests in the region are supported through material sales of defense articles
to its allies that are in turn reinforced through the deployment of military personnel. However, defense exports would seem to be the preferred tool for achieving
geopolitical policies. While
the exports of defense articles have increased by 103% from $111,223 million in 1989 to $225,937 million in
2004, US military personnel on the other hand fell by nearly 40% from 110,262 to 66,890 in the same period. Hence, US military
presence has declined in the region over the last 30 years. Together the geography of security points to a bloc of three key allies (Japan,
Korea, Taiwan) and several scattered complementary ones (Singapore, Australia, Thailand and in the present days, Pakistan). Without a more regionally
coherent pattern of security alliance, such geography reinforces a system of bilateral political alliances with the US than more multilateral regional political
alliances. The three key allies for instance have no free trade agreements between or amongst themselves despite being the region’s largest traders along with
China. Meanwhile, political allies such as Singapore and Australia are formalizing bilateral trade agreements with the US. In sum, spatial analysis of defense
exports and military presence of the US in this section tends to side with realist’s arguments for a balance of power spatial geometry that support regional political
processes.
Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially reduce its military and/or police presence in one or more of the following:
South Korea, Japan, Afghanistan, Kuwait, Iraq, Turkey.
28
SCFI 2010
Topicality
Al Jefferson
___ of ___
Presence = Troops 2NC
Presence requires the visible stationing of troops
Mastapeter, 8 - Senior Planning Officer, Department of Homeland Security, Master’s Thesis for the Naval Postgraduate School (Craig, “THE
INSTRUMENTS OF NATIONAL POWER: ACHIEVING THE STRATEGIC ADVANTAGE IN A CHANGING WORLD,” December,
https://www.hsdl.org/homesec/docs/theses/08Dec_Mastapeter.pdf&code=9b55800f98c1150b31a774eadc3a294b
According to Webster’s Unabridged Dictionary, presence is defined as the state of being present,
or of being within sight or call, or at hand; as opposed to absence.438 YourDictionary defines
presence as the fact or condition of being present; existence, occurrence, or attendance at some
place or in some thing.439 From the perspective of the purpose of this paper, the FreeDictionary
provides the most relevant definition: the diplomatic, political, or military influence of a nation
in a foreign country, especially as evidenced by the posting of its diplomats or its troops
there.440
Interestingly enough, The Joint Publications 1-02, Department of Defense Dictionary of Military
and Associated Terms does not include a definition of presence. However, Joint Publication 1-0,
Doctrine for the Armed Forces of the United States, clearly states that an extended U.S. presence
will be required, post-termination, to conduct stability operations to enable legitimate civil
authority and attain the national strategic end state441 and that, as a nation, the United States
wages war employing all instruments of national power to achieve national strategic objectives
on terms favorable to the United States.442 It can therefore be inferred from this entry that a U.S.
presence is necessary prior to and during operations because presence demonstrates U.S.
commitment, facilitates access, enhances deterrence, and supports the transition from peace to
war and a return to peace once hostilities have ended on terms favorable to the U.S.
The U.S.’ ability to maintain and fully employ its military, informational, diplomatic, legal and
law enforcement, intelligence, financial, and economic resources overseas enhances U.S.
security and that of its partners, bolsters prosperity, and promotes democracy. This ability is
commonly called “presence.”
In the context of U.S. basic national security policy and strategy, presence, especially forward
military, informational (i.e., cultural), diplomatic, legal and law enforcement, intelligence (overt,
covert, and clandestine), financial, and economic presence, unequivocally demonstrates U.S.
resolve and sets the conditions for stability and undeniable commitment to a cause. U.S.
presence, government and private sector, creates a planning and future operational environment
that is conducive to establishing and operationalizing information dominance, or knowledge
superiority, (situational awareness of the common operating picture) and thus creating a strategic
advantage.
Presence is therefore the ability to project actionable U.S. power and influence, the means by
which the U.S. frames and shapes the international environment in ways favorable to the nation’s
interests and objectives. Presence is and has been a fundamental principle of U.S. basic national
security policy and strategy since 1942, and perhaps as early as 1898. Ultimately, actionable
influence and leverage is gained through the totality of the instruments of national power —
military, informational, diplomatic, legal and law enforcement, intelligence, financial, and
economic – and underpinned by the strength of the nation’s geographic and demographic
position and its resources and/or access to resources.
Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially reduce its military and/or police presence in one or more of the following:
South Korea, Japan, Afghanistan, Kuwait, Iraq, Turkey.
29
SCFI 2010
Topicality
Al Jefferson
___ of ___
Presence = Troops 2NC
Presence is only armed forces.
Oxford English Dictionary 89 (The Oxford English Dictionary, second edition, volume XII, 1989, “presence”, Clarendon press-oxford, p. 394)
e. Politics.
The maintenance by a nation of political interests and influence in another country or region; spec. the
maintenance of personnel, esp. armed forces on the soil of an allied or friendly state; concr., armed forces stationed in this way.
Also transf., denoting the representation of a nation’s interests at an event.
Bases are the main part of the US military presence
Lutz 9 – professor of International Studies at Brown (Catherine, The Bases of Empire: The Global Struggle Against U.S. Military Posts, p. 6, google books)
Bases are the literal and symbolic anchors, and the most visible centerpieces, of the U.S. military presence overseas.
To understand where those bases are and how they are being used is essential for understanding the United States’
relationship with the rest of the world, the role of coercion in it, and its political economic complexion. The United States’ empire of bases – its
massive global impact and the global response to it – are the subject of chapters in this book. Unlike the pundits and the strategic thinkers who corner the
market on discussions of the U.S. military, these authors concentrate on the people around those bases and the impact of living in their shadow. The authors
describe as well the social movements which have tried to call the world’s attention to the costs those bases impose on them without their consent. In this
introduction, I ask why the bases were established in the first place, how they are currently configured around the world and how that configuration is changing,
what myths have developed about the functions U.S. overseas bases serve, and, finally, introduce the global movement to push back or expel the bases
altogether.
Presence requires stationing forces within a country.
Harmon 3 – US Army Major (William, “The Korean Question: Is There a Future for Forward-Based American Forces in a Unified Korea?,”
http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA415880&Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf)
In American security writings and military doctrine the term “forward presence” describes military forces that are stationed,
permanently or on a rotational deployment, in a territory or nation other than the United States. In American National Security,
by Amos A. Jordan, William J. Taylor Jr., and Michael J. Mazarr, the term is used as follows: Forward presence, or the forward
deployment of forces, can now be more usefully thought of as one component of a larger strategy – one that
acknowledges the global role of the United States and the need to remain engaged, visible, and with forces deployed
outside the United States that are prepared to respond to contingencies in all corners of the globe.9 In this definition the
authors have identified key components of forward presence, namely the flexibility gained by reducing deployment times and the
assurance provided to allies (and potential enemies alike) by the engagement and visibility of the forces.
Military or police presence refers to stationed personnel within a place.
Compact Oxford English Dictionary, 10 (http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/presence?view=uk)
presence
• noun 1 the state or fact of being present. 2 the impressive manner or appearance of a person. 3 a person or thing that is present but not seen. 4 a
group
of soldiers or police stationed in a particular place: the USA would maintain a presence in the region.
Presence refers to troops
MacMillan Dictionary 10 (http://www.macmillandictionary.com/dictionary/american/presence)
definition of presence
noun
3. a. a group of people, especially soldiers or the police, who are in a place for a particular
We intend to maintain a presence in the country until there is peace.
military/police presence: There is still a large U.S. military presence in the region.
purpose
Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially reduce its military and/or police presence in one or more of the following:
South Korea, Japan, Afghanistan, Kuwait, Iraq, Turkey.
30
SCFI 2010
Topicality
Al Jefferson
___ of ___
Presence = Troops 2NC
Troops solely define military presence.
Booth et al 2000 (Bradford Booth, currently a Principal with ICF International, located in Fairfax, VA. Dr. Booth has more than 10 years experience as a
member of the social science research community. His primary area of specialization is the sociology of the armed forces, Department of Sociology, University of
Maryland, College Park, MD, William w Falk, David r. Segal, Mady Wechsler Segal, GENDER & SOCIETY, Vol. 14 No. 2, April 2000 318-332 ? 2000 Sociologists
for Women in Society, http://www.jstor.org/stable/pdfplus/190277.pdf)
This article uses Public Use Micro sample (PUMS) data drawn from the 1990 census to explore the relationship between military
presence, defined as
the percentage of the local labor force in the active-duty armed forces, and women's employment and earnings across local labor
market areas (LMAs) in the United States. Comparisons of local rates of unemployment and mean women's earnings are made between those LMAs in which
the military plays a disproportionate role in the local labor market and those in which military presence is low
Military presence is the maintenance of armed forces.
United States Army Combined Arms Center 8 (September 17, “military presence”,
http://usacac.leavenworth.army.mil/cac2/call/thesaurus/toc.asp?id=20296)
Military presence. Definition/Scope: Maintaining forces in an area to demonstrate interest and resolve, and enhance
the ability to respond quickly in a crisis.
Presence is measured by the number of military personnel in a region
Poon et al, 6 - Department of Geography, University at Buffalo-SUNY, Buffalo
(Jessie, “The role of US defense exports in Asia Pacific regionalism,”
Political Geography 25 (2006) 715-734, Science Direct)
The major source of defense trade data comes from the United States International Trade Commission (USITC) where 1989 forms the earliest year that the data
are available and 2004 the most recent (http://dataweb.usitc.gov/scripts/user_set.asp). From this database, current and historical records may be searched for
U.S. exports to Asia Pacific countries with the end use category ‘‘defense.’’ This ensured that dual use products were excluded from the search. Seven sectors
may be identified for defense trade including military aircrafts, aircraft launching gear/parachutes, etc., engines/turbines for military aircraft, military
trucks/armored vehicles, etc., military ships/boats, tanks/artillery/ missiles/rockets/guns/ammunition, and parts/special goods, etc. Not all of the sectors will be
analyzed because many countries contain only very sparse data. Approximately thirty Asia Pacific countries are identified to be engaged in defense trade with
the US although this number varies from sector to sector. The countries include all members of APEC and the ARF but also extend to other countries that have
been excluded from these arrangements such as Nepal, Bhutan, Mongolia, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Oceania. Defense exports are supplemented by two other
sources of data, that is, US military presence and countries’ military expenditure. US military presence is measured by the number and
shares of active military personnel in the region. This information is compiled by the US Department of Defense
(http://www.dior.whs.mil/mmid/military/miltop.htm). Statistics on military expenditures may be obtained from the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute
(www.sipri. org). In addition, contextual information is also collected from research monographs on US military strategies. These reports are compiled by the
Congressional Research Service (CRS) in Washington, D.C., and CRS constitutes the public policy research arm of the US Congress. Many of these reports
include testimonials to the Congress regarding defense and strategic events in the Asia Pacific, and provide important documentation as well as evidence of US
geopolitical interests, policies and developments in the region.
Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially reduce its military and/or police presence in one or more of the following:
South Korea, Japan, Afghanistan, Kuwait, Iraq, Turkey.
31
SCFI 2010
Topicality
Al Jefferson
___ of ___
Military Objectives 1NC
A. Interpretation Presence is the deployment of military forces explicitly linked to a political end
Dismukes, 94 – representative of the Center for Naval Analyses to the London staff of the Commander in Chief, U.S. Naval Forces Europe. (Bradford,
“National Security Strategy and Forward Presence: Implications for Acquisition and Use of Forces,” March,
http://cna.org/sites/default/files/research/2793019200.pdf)
Beyond the direct defense of the United States, U.S.
conventional forces fulfill three strategic functions: overseas presence,
immediate crisis response, and sustained, large-scale combat. The definitions of the three provide the framework for decision on forces.
Basically, forces needed for other tasks—for example, peace-keeping and peace enforcement—are lesser cases of these three. (The Bush Administration
grouped the latter two together under the label "Crisis Response." The Bottom-Up Review does not address crisis response except by implication as part of
phase 1, before large-scale combat in a "major regional contingency."
Mr. Aspin tends to put the label presence on all forward forces whether they are forces
for presence (as will be specified) or whether they are engaged in the tasks of crisis response.) A
basic problem with overseas presence is that
the term describes both a military posture (military means) and a military mission (military means and political objectives). In the case of
presence as a mission, the objective is influence on behalf of a variety of U.S. political goals. This ambiguity is made worse by the fact that the term has been in
use since at least the 1960s, but it has never been defined in the JCS dictionary of military terms. As
a strategic task of the armed forces,
overseas presence is here defined as the routine operation of forces forward (the means) to influence what foreign
governments,113 both adversary and friend, think and do (the ends) without combat.114 Overseas presence does not constitute
a strategy, though it or a similar term may in time become the shorthand name for the national strategy. The national strategy is one of engagement of U.S.
power in the key regions to promote their stability and democratic development. As described in the body of this paper, a national strategy would integrate the
components of U.S. power to achieve stability in the short term and build cooperative relations in the long term. The latter would address the dangers inherent in
the international system, outlined in table 1, on page 23.
B. Violation –
the aff just changes the military mix within a country without changing the political
ends of presence
C. Voting issue –
1. limits – they explode the topic to include anything and everything the US military
does, including military musical groups and public relations exercises
2. negative ground – the topic is about changing US military strategy, we should get
the deterrence disad every debate because the topic requires strategic realignment.
They make the topic bidirectional – they can decrease troops but maintain the overall
military commitment to a country with a more efficient military
Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially reduce its military and/or police presence in one or more of the following:
South Korea, Japan, Afghanistan, Kuwait, Iraq, Turkey.
32
SCFI 2010
Topicality
Al Jefferson
___ of ___
Military Objectives 2NC
Presence requires explicit linkage to deterrence
Greer, 91 - Lieutenant Colonel, US Army (Charles, “The Future of Forward Presence”, http://www.dtic.mil/cgibin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA234227&Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf)
To establish a conceptual framework for this paper, I
developed the following definition of forward presence within the context of national
employment of US military personnel and/or military material as a deterrent outside of the
continental United States (OCONUS) at any point along the operational continuum short of involving major US conventional forces in combat.
defense: the visible
My simplistic definition could be subject to endless scholarly debate. It includes small unit combat operations of limited scope and duration and peacetime
contingency operations such as Desert Shield in Saudi Arabia, but it excludes the subsequent combat operation designated Desert Storm. It includes our military
activities in Alaska and Hawaii. It excludes any diplomatic, economic, social or psychological activities that do not have a military component.
The term “employment” in the definition could be criticized as denoting action or movement which could exclude what some may term passive measures such as
storage of material or unmanned (i.e., automated) sites or systems. However, there is always some activity associated with these so-called passive measures
(e.g., maintenance, data collection, etc), and the term employment also encompasses emplacement.
The more controversial aspect of my definition lies in the terms “deterrent” and “visible.” Deterrence is “the prevention from action by fear of the consequences.
Deterrence is a state of mind brought about by the existence of a credible threat of unacceptable counteraction.” Once major conventional forces are engaged in
protracted combat operations, it is clear that deterrence, by definition, has failed.
Visibility is inextricably linked to deterrence. Visible to whom? To those we wish to deter.
This is reminiscent of the old
philosophical question, “If a tree falls deep in the forest and there is no one there to hear it, does it make a sound?” In the case of forward presence, the answer
is “no.” Target audience is the key to the concept of visibility. A target audience may be the world at large, the senior leadership of a specific
country or movement, the control cell of a terrorist organization or countless other possibilities. Therefore,
forward presence, by definition, also
includes covert activities using military personnel and/or material, as long as the activity is visible to the targeted
audience and deters that group or individual from taking an undesired action. An invisible presence is both
contradictory and serves no useful deterrent purpose, which goes to the heart of the issue. Deterrence is the
ultimate purpose of forward presence.
Presence requires decreasing perceived operational capability – not just numerical
reductions in troops
Bloomfield, 6 – senior adviser at the Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS) and president of Palmer Coates LLC. He served as Assistant
Secretary of State for Political Military Affairs from May 2001 to January 2005 (Lincoln, “Reposturing the Force: U.S. Overseas Presence in the Twenty-first
Century,” ed: Lords, http://www.usnwc.edu/Publications/Naval-War-College-Press/Newport-Papers/Documents/26-pdf.aspx)
Central to the new initiative was the idea that capability
and commitment could no longer, and should no longer, be measured in
numbers. It was not intuitively obvious to a nonmilitary audience in Asia that, for example, anticipated reductions of
forces permanently stationed in the Republic of Korea would coincide with an actual strengthening of the potential
combat power the United States could bring to bear against North Korea (or the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea, the DPRK).
As South Korean newspapers wondered aloud whether Washington was reducing its security commitment to their
country, the North certainly grasped that the United States was increasing its precision-strike power around the
Korean Peninsula while reducing its own forces’ exposure to DPRK firepower amassed just north of the Demilitarized Zone, and it denounced the
American reconfiguration. If potential adversaries were quick to recognize the military advantages to the United States of the planned new force posture, the
larger Asian audience could not be made to think differently overnight. America’s role as the essential stabilizing force in Asia had long encouraged the region to
equate numerical presence with commitment and capability. To overcome lingering doubts in Europe and Asia, the United States will have to demonstrate its
commitment to the role of ultimate security guarantor through its actions over several years as the GDPR posture changes are implemented.
Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially reduce its military and/or police presence in one or more of the following:
South Korea, Japan, Afghanistan, Kuwait, Iraq, Turkey.
33
SCFI 2010
Topicality
Al Jefferson
___ of ___
Military Objectives 2NC
The 3 political goals of presence are deterrence, allied cooperation, and to ensure
economic stability
Dismukes, 94 – representative of the Center for Naval Analyses to the London staff of the Commander in Chief, U.S. Naval Forces Europe. (Bradford,
“National Security Strategy and Forward Presence: Implications for Acquisition and Use of Forces,” March,
http://cna.org/sites/default/files/research/2793019200.pdf)
This last is probably the greatest obstacle to a mature understanding of presence as a mission of post-Cold War armed forces. Many feel that the reason for the
existence of military forces is purely and simply to fight16 and so logically focus on crisis response and war. There is no question that overseas forces must
possess genuine combat capabilities, and these must be used successfully when needed. The greatest utility of the armed forces in the new
era, however, lies in three other strategic functions that are at the heart of overseas presence:
•Deter adversaries
•Make common cause with friends on behalf of security
•Provide stable conditions so that the U.S. and the world economies can flourish, and inhibit the development of trade restrictions
that limit both.
The first, to deter—to achieve the nation's purposes without fighting—has been the highest goal of strategy since Sun Tzu, and is the leading
purpose of presence.1 (Forward forces also help the U.S. and its friends exploit the initiative, invariably a source of leverage in any competitive situation.)
Deterrence also reassures allies, a major benefit in its own right, as will be seen.18
The second strategic utility of forward forces is to cooperate with friends and allies on behalf of security. Cooperation
yields two important results: The United States should never have to fight alone unless it so chooses. Cooperation also can encourage democracy and help
develop enduring structures of regional security within which peace and democracy can flourish.19
Third, U.S. armed forces committed to overseas presence have important effects in reducing what the BUR calls
"economic dangers to our national security."20 By bringing stability to the key economic regions where they operate, U.S.
forces maintain a vital condition on which economic growth depends. Forces overseas also help inhibit further growth of trade
restrictions against the U.S. by its friends—a truly post-Cold War effect, the extent of whose importance is just beginning to be recognized.
Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially reduce its military and/or police presence in one or more of the following:
South Korea, Japan, Afghanistan, Kuwait, Iraq, Turkey.
34
SCFI 2010
Topicality
Al Jefferson
___ of ___
Noncombat 1NC
A. Military presence consists of non-combat troops. This is the only way to give
meaning to “presence” and it’s acceptably broad
Thomason et al 2002 (IDA Paper P-3707, “Transforming US Overseas Military Presence: Evidence and Options for DoD Volume I: Main Report”
This paper has been prepared by the Institute for Defense Analyses (IDA) in partial fulfillment of a task being performed for the Office of the Under Secretary of
Defense . The task, entitled “Effects-Based Assessments of US Presence and Deployment Patterns,” is being conducted to help the DoD identify evidence of the
effects that actual and potential alternative US overseas military presence postures and activities have or may have in promoting key US defense and national
security strategy goals. James S. Thomason, Senior Analyst, Strategy, Forces and Resources Division, Institute for Defense Analyses
EDUCATION Ph.D., International Relations, Northwestern University (1978) B.A., Government, Harvard College (1969) ,
http://www.comw.org/qdr/fulltext/0207thomason.pdf)
Our working definition of US overseas military presence is that it consists of all the
US military assets in overseas areas that are engaged in relatively routine, regular, non-combat activities or functions.1
By this definition, forces that are located overseas may or may not be engaging in presence activities. If they are engaging in combat (such as
Operation Enduring Freedom), or are involved in a one-time non-combat action (such as an unscheduled carrier battle group
deployment from the United States aimed at calming or stabilizing an emerging crisis situation), then they are not engaging in presence
activities. Thus, an asset that is located (or present) overseas may or may not be “engaged in presence activities,” may or may not be “doing presence.” We
have thus far defined presence activities chiefly in “negative” terms—what they are not. In more positive terms, what
exactly are presence activities, i.e., what do presence activities actually entail doing? Overseas military presence activities are generally
viewed as a subset of the overall class of activities that the US government uses in its efforts to promote important military/security
objectives [Dismukes, 1994]. A variety of recurrent, overseas military activities are normally placed under the “umbrella” concept of military presence.
These include but are not limited to US military efforts overseas to train foreign militaries; to improve inter-operability
of US and friendly forces; to peacefully and visibly demonstrate US commitment and/or ability to defend US interests;
to gain intelligence and familiarity with a locale; to conduct peacekeeping activities; and to position relevant, capable
US military assets such that they are likely to be available sooner rather than later in case an evolving security
operation or contingency should call for them.2
WHAT IS OVERSEAS MILITARY PRESENCE?
B. Violation – the aff ends combat missions, not presence missions.
C. Voting issue 1. limits – allowing combat missions allows affs to change specific strategies in
Afghanistan or Iraq, like ending cluster bombing without actually reducing forces
themselves, it explodes the literature base
2. negative ground – presence missions are about deterrence and reassurance –
including combat missions avoids core negative disads
Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially reduce its military and/or police presence in one or more of the following:
South Korea, Japan, Afghanistan, Kuwait, Iraq, Turkey.
35
SCFI 2010
Topicality
Al Jefferson
___ of ___
Noncombat Violation – Afghanistan
A full Afghanistan withdrawal violates because they’re combat troops
Carter 2 ROBERT S. CARTER Department of the Army Civilian, “CONSIDERATIONS FOR PLANNING OVERSEAS PRESENCE” Strategy Research
Project, http://oai.dtic.mil/oai/oai?verb=getRecord&metadataPrefix=html&identifier=ADA404187.
For purposes of this paper, the
use of the term "overseas presence" is intended to refer to those units and personnel that are
permanently based overseas - or - in the case of some assets (e.g., naval forces) - are deployed to a particular region on a regular, rotational basis.
(For example, U.S. forces currently fighting terrorism in Afghanistan would not be considered part of U.S. overseas
presence by this definition.
Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially reduce its military and/or police presence in one or more of the following:
South Korea, Japan, Afghanistan, Kuwait, Iraq, Turkey.
36
SCFI 2010
Topicality
Al Jefferson
___ of ___
Noncombat 2NC
Vote negative for predictability and limits. Only our interpretation distinguishes
between everything military and unique presence activities. Unpredictable definitions
of presence expand to every weapons system or patrol route, destroying quality of
debate by forcing the neg to generic Ks and process counterplans.
Prefer for limits: defining presence as peacetime limits to a subset of military activity
Kugler 2006, Dr. Richard L. Kugler has been a widely known, influential thinker and writer on U.S. national security policy and defense strategy. He has
been one of the original architects of NATO enlargement as well as multiple other U.S. policy departures in Europe, Asia, and the Persian Gulf. Currently a senior
consultant at the Center for Technology and National Security Policy (CTNSP) of the National Defense University, he previously was a Distinguished Research
Professor there. He advises senior echelons of the Office of Secretary of Defense (OSD), the Joint Staff, and the interagency community. A political scientist,
defense economist, and operations research analyst, Dr. Kugler holds a Ph.D. from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Policy analysis in national
security affairs: new methods for a new era, p. 501-2
The term overseas presence was adopted by the Clinton administration in 1993. Other terms commonly employed have been forward
defense, forward
presence, and forward deployments. All of these terms refer to U.S. military forces, assets, and activities stationed
abroad during peacetime to help carry out national security strategy. Overseas presence works in partnership with military forces
for power projection from the United States. While overseas presence has a mission of its own to perform, it also is intended to create the strategic
conditions that enable forces based in the continental United States to deploy swiftly when crises and wars erupt. Overseas presence thus is one
part of a larger strategic enterprise, and it should be judged in these terms.
The term “presence” is uniquely subject to this snowball
Southward 92 Lieutenant Commander, U.S. Navy, “THE LOSS OF THE PHILIPPINE BASES: EFFECTS ON USCINCPAC'S ABILITY TO EMPLOY HIS
FORCES”, A paper submitted to the Faculty of the Naval War College in partial satisfaction of the requirements of the Department of Operations.
http://oai.dtic.mil/oai/oai?verb=getRecord&metadataPrefix=html&identifier=ADA249898.
Assessing USCINCPAC's ability to carry out his forward presence mission will be more problematical. To begin with, i t
is very easy to play fast and
loose with one's definition of "presence." Does it mean a CVBG on every street corner, or will a surface action group deployed in theater six
months of the year suffice? Do U.S. activities other than military force deployments constitute presence? The bottom line is
that the CINC and the National Command Authority must arrive at an agreement on the definition of presence, and how much of it is
enough. In a recent interview with the Asian Defense Journal, USCINCPAC, Admiral C. R. Larson, hinted at his definition of presence: "In the Pacific, that force
will continue to be forward deployed and principally maritime, with strong amphibious elements, quick reaction air assets, and rapidly deployable ground
reinforcements."-31
Prefer for predictability: US policymakers classify overseas presence as a deterrent,
not a combat force
National Security Strategy 95 (The White House, http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/nss/nss-95.pdf
Providing a Credible Overseas Presence. U.S.
forces must also be forward deployed or stationed in key overseas regions in
peacetime to deter aggression and advance U.S. strategic interests. Such overseas presence demonstrates our commitment to
allies and friends, underwrites regional stability, gains us familiarity with overseas operating environments, promotes combined training among the forces
of friendly countries and provides timely initial response capabilities.
Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially reduce its military and/or police presence in one or more of the following:
South Korea, Japan, Afghanistan, Kuwait, Iraq, Turkey.
37
SCFI 2010
Topicality
Al Jefferson
___ of ___
Noncombat 2NC
Military presence means non-combat troops
Thomason et al 2 http://www.comw.org/qdr/fulltext/0207thomason.pdf, IDA Paper P-3707, “Transforming US Overseas Military Presence:
Evidence and Options for DoD Volume I: Main Report”
US overseas military presence consists of all the US military assets in overseas areas that are engaged in relatively
routine non-combat activities or functions. Collectively, these assets constitute one of a set of very important military instruments of national
power and influence.
Warfighting/prevention distinction: Overseas presence is classified as preventive
diplomacy, not warfighting
National Security Strategy 95 (The White House, http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/nss/nss-95.pdf
Our leadership must stress preventive diplomacy — through
such means as support for democracy, economic assistance, overseas
military presence, military-to-military contacts and involvement in multilateral negotiations in the Middle East and elsewhere — in order to help resolve
problems, reduce tensions and defuse conflicts before they become crises. These measures are a wise investment in our national security because they offer the
prospect of resolving problems with the least human and material cost.
Presence only applies to military forces before combat.
Greer 91 - Lieutenant Colonel, US Army (Charles, “The Future of Forward Presence”, http://www.dtic.mil/cgibin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA234227&Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf)
To establish a conceptual framework for this paper, I developed
the following definition of forward presence within the context of national
visible employment of US military personnel and/or military material as a deterrent outside of the
continental United States (OCONUS) at any point along the operational continuum short of involving major US
conventional forces in combat. My simplistic definition could be subject to endless scholarly debate. It includes small unit combat
operations of limited scope and duration and peacetime contingency operations such as Desert Shield in Saudi
Arabia, but it excludes the subsequent combat operation designated Desert Storm. It includes our military activities in Alaska and
defense: the
Hawaii. It excludes any diplomatic, economic, social or psychological activities that do not have a military component. The term “employment” in the definition
could be criticized as denoting action or movement which could exclude what some may term passive measures such as storage of material or unmanned (i.e.,
automated) sites or systems. However, there is always some activity associated with these so-called passive measures (e.g., maintenance, data collection, etc),
and the term employment also encompasses emplacement. The more controversial aspect of my definition lies in the terms “deterrent” and “visible.” Deterrence
is “the prevention from action by fear of the consequences. Deterrence is a state of mind brought about by the existence of a credible threat of unacceptable
counteraction.” Once major conventional forces are engaged in protracted combat operations, it is clear that deterrence, by definition, has failed. Visibility is
inextricably linked to deterrence. Visible to whom? To those we wish to deter. This is reminiscent of the old philosophical question, “If a tree falls deep in the
forest and there is no one there to hear it, does it make a sound?” In the case of forward presence, the answer is “no.” Target audience is the key to the concept
of visibility. A target audience may be the world at large, the senior leadership of a specific country or movement, the control cell of a terrorist organization or
countless other possibilities. Therefore, forward presence, by definition, also includes covert activities using military personnel and/or material, as long as the
activity is visible to the targeted audience and deters that group or individual from taking an undesired action. An invisible presence is both contradictory and
serves no useful deterrent purpose, which goes to the heart of the issue. Deterrence is the ultimate purpose of forward presence.
Presence missions are anything short of actual combat.
Blechman et al 97 – President of DFI International, and has held positions in the Department of Defense, the U.S. Arms Control and Disarmament
Agency, and the Office of Management and Budget (Barry, Strategic Review, Spring, “Military Presence Abroad in a New Era: The Role of Airpower,” p. 13)
Occupying a continuum of operations short of actual combat, presence missions have included the permanent basing
of troops overseas, routine military-to-military contacts, military exercises and training with other nations, participation
in multinational peace and humanitarian operations, the provision of timely intelligence information and other data to
leaders of other nations, military deployments in response to crises, and, when necessary, the deployment of forces in
anticipation of combat.
Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially reduce its military and/or police presence in one or more of the following:
South Korea, Japan, Afghanistan, Kuwait, Iraq, Turkey.
38
SCFI 2010
Topicality
Al Jefferson
___ of ___
Noncombat 2NC
Presence is distinct from crisis response – US policy experts avoid double counting
forces when they have different roles.
Flournoy 1 - senior advisor for international security at the Center for Strategic and International Studies and previously served as a distinguished research
professor in the Institute for National Strategic Studies at the National Defense University and as the Principal Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense for Strategy
and Threat Reduction (Michele, QDR 2001: Strategy-Driven Choices for America’s Security, Ed: Michele Flournoy http://www.dtic.mil/cgibin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA430963&Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf) MTWs=Major Theater Wars, SSCs=Smaller Scale Contingencies
Counting Presence Forces
The role of overseas-presence forces in MTWs and SSCs is also considered at this stage of the process, and the overall force structure adjusted accordingly. For
example, forward-deployed naval, air, and ground forces may be part of the initial response to a crisis; indeed, this is an express part of their purpose. Therefore,
care must be taken not to double-count such forces in both the presence and MTW or SSC building blocks. On the other hand, some forward-deployed forces
may be so vital to deterrence and stability in a given region that they would not be withdrawn from an unengaged theater even in the event of MTW execution.
For the purposes of the working group’s analysis, assumptions about which forces should be treated as stay-behind forces were derived from judgments about
what would be required to meet U.S. treaty commitments, maintain deterrence and regional stability in a given theater, and provide the regional CINC with
minimum essential levels of force protection, support to noncombatant evacuation operations, and strike capability.
Military Presence is all non-combat assets of the military.
Thomason et al. 2002 (James S. Thomason, Project Leader, Michael P. Fischerkeller, Kongdan Oh Hassig, Charles Hawkins, Gene Porter, Robert
J. Atwell, Robert Bovey, William E. Cralley, James Delaney, “Transforming US Overseas Military Presence: Evidence and Options for DoD Volume I: Main
Report” July 2002, http://www.bayan.ph/us%20war%20of%20terror/US%20BASES/US%20Mil%20Presence%20Overseas.pdf)
US overseas military presence consists of all the US military assets in overseas areas that are engaged in relatively
routine non-combat activities or functions. Collectively, these assets constitute one of a set of very important military instruments of national
power and influence. It is regularly asserted within the Department of Defense that these overseas military presence
activities promote key security objectives, such as deterrence, assurance of friends and allies, the provision of timely
crisis response capabilities, regional stability and, generally, security conditions that in turn promote freedom and
prosperity.
Military Presence is non-combat forces.
Thomason et al. 2002 (James S. Thomason, Project Leader, Michael P. Fischerkeller, Kongdan Oh Hassig, Charles Hawkins, Gene Porter, Robert
J. Atwell, Robert Bovey, William E. Cralley, James Delaney, “Transforming US Overseas Military Presence: Evidence and Options for DoD Volume I: Main
Report” July 2002, http://www.bayan.ph/us%20war%20of%20terror/US%20BASES/US%20Mil%20Presence%20Overseas.pdf)
Overseas military presence activities are generally viewed as a subset of the overall class of activities that the US government uses in its
efforts to promote important military/security objectives [Dismukes, 1994]. A variety of recurrent, overseas military activities are normally
placed under the “umbrella” concept of military presence. These include but are not limited to US military efforts overseas to train
foreign militaries; to improve inter-operability of US and friendly forces; to peacefully and visibly demonstrate US
commitment and/or ability to defend US interests; to gain intelligence and familiarity with a locale; to conduct
peacekeeping activities; and to position relevant, capable US military assets such that they are likely to be available
sooner rather than later in case an evolving security operation or contingency should call for them.
Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially reduce its military and/or police presence in one or more of the following:
South Korea, Japan, Afghanistan, Kuwait, Iraq, Turkey.
39
SCFI 2010
Topicality
Al Jefferson
___ of ___
A2: Pape Definition
Pape’s definition defines military presence from the perspective of terrorists – its in
the context of a book on motivations for terrorism.
Pape, 6 – professor of political science at the University of Chicago (Robert, Dying to win: the strategic logic of suicide terrorism, p. 105-106)
The standard I use is American military presence, defined as heavy combat operations on the homeland of Sunni
Muslim majority countries for a sustained period prior to the onset of al-Qaeda’s suicide terrorist campaign against the
United States in 1995. If American military presence, so defined, has expanded to include still more countries during the course of al-Qaeda’s suicide campaign,
then I include those new countries as well, since they could also serve as recruiting grounds for al-Qaeda’s ongoing suicide campaign. “American military
presence” includes cases where American combat forces are based in the country or where the United States provides explicitly or widely understood security
guarantee that could be implemented using its forces in an adjacent country. It does not include cases where American military advisors are present or where
the country’s military and the U.S. military conduct joint training exercises. This
standard comports with the meaning of “occupation” in
Chapter 6, because it defines American military presence from the perspective of the terrorists, who are likely to fear the
possibility that foreign control may be imposed by force and to suspect that security “guarantees” actually indicate American intention to defend the regime
against revolution. This is Osama bin Laden’s view of the role of U.S. troops on the Arabian Peninsula; it is not the perspective of the United States, which, in
most of the relevant cases, would see itself as supporting an allied government.
Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially reduce its military and/or police presence in one or more of the following:
South Korea, Japan, Afghanistan, Kuwait, Iraq, Turkey.
40
SCFI 2010
Topicality
Al Jefferson
___ of ___
Permanent Presence 1NC
A. Interpretation - Reductions must be permanent – rotations aren’t topical – our
evidence is most conclusive
Congressional Budget Office, 2004, Options for Changing the Army’s Overseas Basing, May, p. xvi-xvii
Two of the
options for cutting overseas forces that CBO examined would relocate roughly half of the Army personnel
stationed in Germany and South Korea to the United States. The first would move all combat forces—brigades and
divisions—from Germany and South Korea to CONUS, leaving the support forces now based there in place. However, it would
maintain roughly the current level of overseas presence by rotating BCTs, from the United States to those two
regions. The other option would reduce the level of overseas presence by moving half of both the combat and
support forces based in Germany and South Korea to CONUS and not rotating any units back.
B. Violation – The aff institutes a troop rotation schedule
C. Prefer our Interpretation –
1. Ground – Disads are based off of a removal of troops – permanent reductions are
critical to ensure the neg has good generic ground which is key to debate
2. Limits – Different types of rotations mean there will be a million tiny affs – that
explodes the topic and makes it impossible to debate
D. Topicality is a voter for fairness and education
Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially reduce its military and/or police presence in one or more of the following:
South Korea, Japan, Afghanistan, Kuwait, Iraq, Turkey.
41
SCFI 2010
Topicality
Al Jefferson
___ of ___
Visible Presence 1NC
A. Interpretation – The military defines presence as visible
Jorgenson 2002 (JASON T. JORGENSEN, LCDR, USN B.S., US Naval Academy, Annapolis, Maryland, 1991 THE UNITED STATES NAVY’S ABILITY
TO COUNTER THE DIESEL AND NUCLEAR SUBMARINE THREAT WITH LONG-RANGE ANTISUBMARINE WARFARE AIRCRAFT A thesis presented to the
Faculty of the U.S. Army Command and General Staff College in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree MASTER OF MILITARY ART AND
SCIENCE General Studies, http://oai.dtic.mil/oai/oai?verb=getRecord&metadataPrefix=html&identifier=ADA406874.
The 1997 National Military Strategy addressed four strategic concepts. One of these concepts was overseas presence. The National
Military Strategy
describes overseas presence as “the visible posture of US forces and infrastructure strategically positioned forward,
in and near key regions” (Chairman, Joint Chiefs of Staff 1997, 6). This concept illustrates the US’ requirement to have military forces forward deployed
throughout the world to protect its interests, which include geographic transit points (see Table 1). The deployment of sailors and soldiers throughout the world
demonstrates the US’s resolve to protect her interests and allows the US the capability to defend those interests. Given “the global nature of our interests and
obligations, the
US must maintain its overseas presence forces and the ability to rapidly project power world-wide to
achieve full spectrum dominance” (Chairman, Joint Chiefs of Staff 2000b, 6)
B. Violation – the affirmative withdraws forces that are currently not seen and overtly
declared. Hidden or covert missions are not topical.
C. Vote negative
1. Ground – visibility and perception’s crucial to disad links and a two-sided lit base.
We can’t debate covert ops well because the best advocates aren’t allowed to talk
and there’s no politics link
2. Limits – defining the function of presence is crucial; just defining it as force
presence opens the topic up to the whole military.
Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially reduce its military and/or police presence in one or more of the following:
South Korea, Japan, Afghanistan, Kuwait, Iraq, Turkey.
42
SCFI 2010
Topicality
Al Jefferson
___ of ___
2NC – Visual Presence
Presence requires forward deployed forces physically present within the country
Dismukes, 94 – representative of the Center for Naval Analyses to the London staff of the Commander in Chief, U.S. Naval Forces Europe. (Bradford,
“National Security Strategy and Forward Presence: Implications
for Acquisition and Use of Forces,” March, http://cna.org/sites/default/files/research/2793019200.pdf) Italics in original, CONUS = Continental United States
Another difference between presence and crisis response is that decisions on forces for presence are taken at the strategic level, while those for crisis response
are operational and tactical. Presence is a routine activity; the size of the baseline force operating forward changes relatively
slowly as the strategic assessment of the situation in the theater evolves. At this level, routine deployments and
changes in U.S forces based forward are made through U.S. initiatives, scheduled well in advance, ideally in
consultation with allies. Crisis response is conceptually distinct from presence in that it is not a routine activity; the
forces needed are reckoned at the operational and tactical levels in response to "tactical warning" of the initiatives of
adversaries. Changes are not scheduled in advance and may well be undertaken before consultations with allies can be completed.
This means that presence planning should be concerned only with forces forward—whether based, deployed, or
there on a rotational basis—and that forces in CONUS, important as they are for the credibility of forces forward,
cannot be considered as executing the presence mission. This distinction provides an important boundary for force
planners because the need for CONUS-based forces can be safely reckoned exclusively on the basis of the crisis
response and warfighting needs of major regional contingencies. Unless this distinction is made, overseas presence cannot be a
separate activity if the forces needed for it become those forward and in CONUS when the build- up to an MRC begins.
This boundary poses no problems for deciding the needs for all forces except for forces to be used in the Caribbean and for strategic bombers in general. The
proximity of the Caribbean means that forces in the southern United States proper (and Puerto Rico, Panama, etc.) are "present" without having to be
"overseas"; therefore, the relatively small forces needed for presence and crisis situations there will not be further considered here. Bombers
can be
employed (that is, used without first being deployed) anywhere in the world quickly and directly from CONUS.
Knowledge of this fact by adversaries undoubtedly serves as a deterrent on a routine basis, thus meeting one of the
objectives of overseas presence. However, bombers can only deter; they cannot contribute to its other presence
goals—e.g., building coalitions, developing interoperability, and so on. Although the question of whether to include CONUS-based
bombers as a component of overseas presence is one of judgment, on balance, their limited contribution to the goals of presence dictate
they not be considered part of presence.
Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially reduce its military and/or police presence in one or more of the following:
South Korea, Japan, Afghanistan, Kuwait, Iraq, Turkey.
43
SCFI 2010
Topicality
Al Jefferson
___ of ___
Visible Presence 2NC
Military presence must be seen– this is the unique meaning determined by the best
field context.
John Richard Hill, is a retired rear-admiral in the Royal Navy, 1986 (Also a former chief executive of the Middle Temple, author, and editor of many books on
naval affairs. Maritime strategy for medium powers, p. 96
Nowhere is this ascendancy of openness over concealment more apparent than in the so-called presence role. It is a curious
fact that the term presence is much more used by naval officers than by academics, who prefer more specific, activitybased terms like 'naval diplomacy' and 'constabulary duties'.10 This is not neces- sarily due to naval vagueness and academic precision. Academics are
used to analysing, in depth but also in hindsight, the conse- quences as well as the objectives of specific activities. Naval officers are used, at first
hand, to the experience of simply Being There. For, much of the time, that is what presence consists of, and the benefits it confers
are often both difficult to express and impossible to quantify. At the very least, it indicates some kind of stake in the area of presence, even if
the stake is only passage for the purpose of getting to somewhere more interesting. Moreover, it always carries the potential for action within the scope and
reach of the unit con- cerned; the work of HMS Fife after a hurricane in Dominica in 1979 is a typical example of presence potential being turned into action." At a
somewhat more directed level, presence is a clear expression of interest. French ships based on Djibouti indicate some potential to support that
country and to become involved in the power balance of the Red Sea approaches. There is a distinction, though it can be overdone, between per- manent and
intermittent maritime presence. In general, the French pattern in recent years has been to maintain rather low-capability forces permanently in such areas as
Djibouti and the southern Indian Ocean, while the British have deployed balanced forces of several powerful warships about once a year on peripatetic tours of
the Indian Ocean and Far East.12 The French system has the advantage of permanence, of clear readiness; but it may be the permanence of weakness, an
invitation to pre-emption. The British system is more overtly a flag-showing parade, demonstrating ready power, and it has the advantage of being capable while
in an area of significant impact in a variety of ways from children's parties through flood relief to deterrent effects; but when it is not there it isn't, and out of sight
may be out of mind. One of the functions of presence, particularly in distant waters, is to allow maritime forces to become familiar with new seas and new
climates. It also permits, if the forces are of sufficient opera- tional scope (here the British system has a distinct advantage over the French), operational
exercises over a protracted period in a relatively uncluttered environment. All these advantages were exploited anew by the Russian Navy, after a long period of
confine- ment to local waters, when it took to the oceans in the early 1960s. It has kept substantial presence forces at sea ever since, though one is bound to say
that it does not exercise as frequently or as inten- sively as it might, and Being There is what it does most of the time.13 Even its port visits are, by the standards
of other deploying nations, not numerous.14
Presence is a signal of control – it must be seen
Pilling 91 (Lieutenant, US Navy – thesis submitted for Master of Science in National Security Affairs
INDIAN SURFACE COMBATANTS: SEA POWER
FOR THE 1990s, http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf&AD=ADA246185.
As Hill points out in his model, the definition and benefits of presence are hard to describe and quantity. Naval officers have an almost instinctive appreciation of
the diplomatic potential of the sight of a warship sailing into a foreign port. One result of presence is the indication of an interest by a nation in the area of
presence. Other benefits of presence are to foster goodwill, demonstrate a way of life, deterrence, support for negotiations and for economic activities (Hill, 1986,
p. 98) Visibility is a key component of naval presence and, therefore, the best instruments of naval presence are surface warships. The Indian surface fleet has
demonstrated that naval presence is one of its primary missions. During the last decade, Indian warships have made port visits to the following countries:
Indonesia, Singapore, Kenya, Japan, Hong Kong, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Thailand, the Philippines, Malaysia, Mauritius and many other smaller South Asian
nations. In 1987, INS Godavari embarked on the longest deployment ever undertaken by an Indian warship. Godavari traveled to Europe, Africa, North and
South America and Australia. During this deployment, exercises were conducted with several foreign navies (Indian Military Yearbook, 1987-88, p. 95). These
port visits and deployments are indicative of a desire of the Indian Navy to be viewed as a credible and respected naval force and of India to be seen as an
important regional actor. As one Indian defense expert stated "... the Navy is the only effective instrument to project India's image overseas and to influence the
neighbors in the Indian Ocean area ... " (Sojka, 1983, p. 10). A former Indian admiral asserted that deployment and visits are examples of "naval power politics"
and "naval influence politics" (Tahliani, 1981, pp. 227-28). The Indian surface fleet's deployment and port visit trends are strong examples of Hill's definition of
presence
Presence is perception – it’s distinct from warfighting
Widnall and Fogleman 95 (Widnall graduated from MIT with an S.B. in 1960, S.M. in 1961, and Sc.D. in 1964, all in Aeronautics. General Ronald
R. Fogleman is chief of staff of the U.S. Air Force, Washington, D.C, Air Force White Paer, “Global Presence” – Joint Forces Quarterly. Now an earlier Air Force
paper, Global Reach-Global Power, is being superseded by Global Presence. http://www.dtic.mil/doctrine/jel/jfq_pubs/jfq2007.pdf
At the foundation of this approach is power projection.
Power projection is a means to influence actors or affect situations or events in
has two components: warfighting and presence. Warfighting is the direct application of military force to compel an
adversary. Presence is the posturing of military capability, including nonbelligerent applications, and/or the leveraging of
information to deter or compel an actor or affect a situation. A sound national military strategy depends on coherent warfighting and
America’s national interest. It
presence strategies.
Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially reduce its military and/or police presence in one or more of the following:
South Korea, Japan, Afghanistan, Kuwait, Iraq, Turkey.
44
SCFI 2010
Topicality
Al Jefferson
___ of ___
Visible Presence 2NC
Military presence must be visible and continuous – this is broad and it’s the only way
to give the word “presence” unique meaning.
Goure 2001 (Daniel, Naval War College Review, Summer 2001, Vol. 54, No. 3, reprinted in Dombrowski, editor, Naval Power in the Twenty-first Century: A
Naval War College Review Reader, http://www.usnwc.edu/Publications/Naval-War-College-Press/Newport-Papers/Documents/24-pdf.aspx
Dr. Daniel Gouré is vice president of the Lexington Institute, a defense-policy “think tank.” Prior to joining Lexington, he was the deputy director of the
International Security Program at the Center for Strategic and International Studies, in Washington, D.C. Dr. Gouré earned his PhD at Johns Hopkins University;
he has pursued his national security career in government at the U.S. Arms Control and Disarmament Agency and the Office of the Secretary of Defense. Earlier
he worked for the Science Applications International Corporation and the System Planning Corporation, among other firms. A frequent lecturer and the author of
numerous articles, Dr. Gouré is a coauthor (with Jeffrey Ranney) of Averting the Defense Train Wreck in the New Millennium (1999).
For a number of reasons, tying the future of the Navy to forward presence is problematic. The
concept of “shaping” the international
environment is fuzzy at best. Too often it has extended well beyond traditional notions of security to involve, inter alia, attempts to influence the internal
politics of failing states, efforts to address almost intractable socioeconomic problems, and engagement in what are classic policing functions. Looked at this way,
Navy combat forces seem to have little relevance.14 The forces that would seem to be most useful in the social-work and policing dimensions of forward
presence are those generally classed as “combat support” or “combat service support” (e.g., engineer, military police, logistical, and medical units). The term
“forward presence” too is subject to interpretation and competing definitions. In its narrow sense, the emphasis is on
forward—it simply means the deployment of forces in proximity to locations of interest to U.S. security and foreign
policy. A broader definition, focusing on the word presence, suggests more complex and political purposes, for which
presence generally needs to be nearly continuous and highly visible— requirements that can limit both the flexibility
and the combat effectiveness of the forces engaged.
Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially reduce its military and/or police presence in one or more of the following:
South Korea, Japan, Afghanistan, Kuwait, Iraq, Turkey.
45
SCFI 2010
Topicality
Al Jefferson
___ of ___
Nuclear Umbrella ≠ Visible
The nuclear umbrella is distinct from military presence
Kugler, 92 – senior consultant at the Center for Technology and National Security Policy (CTNSP) of the National Defense University, he previously was a
Distinguished Research Professor there (Richard, “The Future of U.S. Military Presence in Europe,” http://www.rand.org/pubs/reports/2008/R4194.pdf)
Conversely, any
wholesale U.S. military withdrawal from Europe could leave still-existing American nuclear
commitments in Europe that are no longer credible to allies or adversaries. Meanwhile, there would be no U.S.
military presence in Europe to exert influence over security affairs in peace, crisis, and war. Beyond this, withdrawal could have destabilizing
consequences that would reverberate across the entire continent. The NATO alliance could be weakened and perhaps fractured, thereby producing a military
and political power vacuum in Europe at a time of great change, stress, and uncertainty. Deterrence could be eroded, potential aggressors would face fewer
incentives to exercise restraint, and crisis management would be rendered more problematic. Prospects for democracy, free enterprise, cooperative diplomacy,
and smooth trade relationships also could suffer.
Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially reduce its military and/or police presence in one or more of the following:
South Korea, Japan, Afghanistan, Kuwait, Iraq, Turkey.
46
SCFI 2010
Topicality
Al Jefferson
___ of ___
Presence ≠ Navy 1NC
The adjective “military” excludes the Navy—the aff does not
RANDOM HOUSE DICTIONARY 2010 (“Military,” http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/military)
–adjective
1. of, for,
or pertaining to the army
or armed forces, often
as distinguished from the navy:
from civilian to military life.
Predictable limits—US Code distinguishes between military and naval forces—their
interpretation multiplies the topic
18 USC 2387 (http://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/html/uscode18/usc_sec_18_00002387----000-.html)
(b) For the purposes of this section, the
term “military or naval forces of the United States” includes the Army of the United
States, the Navy, Air Force, Marine Corps, Coast Guard, Navy Reserve, Marine Corps Reserve, and Coast Guard
Reserve of the United States; and, when any merchant vessel is commissioned in the Navy or is in the service of the
Army or the Navy, includes the master, officers, and crew of such vessel.
Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially reduce its military and/or police presence in one or more of the following:
South Korea, Japan, Afghanistan, Kuwait, Iraq, Turkey.
47
SCFI 2010
Topicality
Al Jefferson
___ of ___
Presence ≠ Navy 2NC
“Military” means land forces
AMERICAN HERITAGE DICTIONARY 2009
(“Military,” http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/military)
4. Of or relating to land forces.
The adjective “military” refers to land forces
SPIRITUS TEMPORIS 2005
(History website, “Military,” http://www.spiritus-temporis.com/military/meaning-of-the-word.html)
In formal British English, "military" as an adjective refers more particularly to matters relating to an army (land
forces), as opposed to the naval and air force matters of the other two services.
Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially reduce its military and/or police presence in one or more of the following:
South Korea, Japan, Afghanistan, Kuwait, Iraq, Turkey.
48
SCFI 2010
Topicality
Al Jefferson
___ of ___
A2: “Military” not “Military Presence”
The topic is about “military presence” – the phrase “and/or police” was added as an
afterthought
Bauschard, 10 – author of the topic, coach at Lakeland and Harvard (Stefan, “2010-11 Military Presence Topic Guide”
http://www.planetdebate.com/textbooks/viewSection/882
The term “police” was added to the resolution because in some countries, particularly Iraq, many of the individuals
that articles refer to as being part of the US military presence are really “police.” This term was largely added to
enable affirmatives to topically reduce all of the US presence that could be described as “military,” even if it was
technically not military. Although the term was added for that reason, it is likely that some affirmatives may find specific policing operations and reduce
those.
Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially reduce its military and/or police presence in one or more of the following:
South Korea, Japan, Afghanistan, Kuwait, Iraq, Turkey.
49
SCFI 2010
Topicality
Al Jefferson
___ of ___
*** IN ***
Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially reduce its military and/or police presence in one or more of the following:
South Korea, Japan, Afghanistan, Kuwait, Iraq, Turkey.
50
SCFI 2010
Topicality
Al Jefferson
___ of ___
‘In’ = Throughout 1NC
A. Interpretation:
The resolution requires military presence to be decreased throughout the entirety of
the foreign country.
1. ‘In’ means throughout
Words and Phrases, 1959, p. 546
In the Act of 1861 providing that justices of the peace shall have jurisdiction
“in” their respective counties to hear and determine all complaints, the
word “in” should be construed to mean “throughout” such counties. Reynolds v. Larkin, 14, p. 114, 117, 10 Colo. 126.
2. INSERT COUNTRY DEFINITION.
B. Violation: the Affirmative decreases a small and geographically minute form of
military presence, NOT presence from the entire country.
C. Standards:
1. Limits – the affirmative can target thousands of specific weapons, locations or
goals of military presence in the country. They could read affirmatives about
particular regions, literally anything as long as it exists within the country, exploding
the negative research burden.
2. Ground – The topic does not say, “decrease within” or “decrease from.” Affecting
whole countries is key to generic links and exclusion CPs. Negative ground is vital to
fairness.
3. Topic Education – Our interpretation is the only way to give “substantially,” “the,”
and “foreign country” meaning. If they can cover a sub-set of the topic country,
destroying the meaning and education of the resolution.
D. Topicality is a voter for fairness and competitive equity.
Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially reduce its military and/or police presence in one or more of the following:
South Korea, Japan, Afghanistan, Kuwait, Iraq, Turkey.
51
SCFI 2010
Topicality
Al Jefferson
___ of ___
*** DEFINITIONS ***
Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially reduce its military and/or police presence in one or more of the following:
South Korea, Japan, Afghanistan, Kuwait, Iraq, Turkey.
52
SCFI 2010
Topicality
Al Jefferson
___ of ___
Definitions: Resolved
Resolved means to make a firm decision about
Webster’s II New College Dictionary, 1995, pg.944.
- vt. 1. To make a firm decision about. 2. To cause (one) to arrive at a decision. 3. To decide or express by
formal vote. <...continues...> - vi. 1. To arrive at a decision or make a determination...
Resolved means to decide by formal vote
Webster’s II New College Dictionary, 1995, pg.944.
- vt. 1. To make a firm decision about. 2. To cause (one) to arrive at a decision. 3. To decide or express by
formal vote. <...continues...> - vi. 1. To arrive at a decision or make a determination...
Resolved means determined.
Cambridge Dictionaries Online, 2007.
Resolved, adjective [after verb] FORMAL, determined:, [+ to infinitive] He was resolved to ask her
to marry him the next day.
Resolved means determined.
WordNet, wordnet.princeton.edu, 2006.
S: (adj) single-minded, resolved (determined) "she was firmly resolved to be a doctor"; "single-minded in his determination to stop smoking"
Resolved means to decide by formal vote. (2NC ext.)
The American heritage dictionary, bartleby.com/61/, 2000.
Resolve
VERB:Inflected forms: re·solved, re·solv·ing, re·solves
TRANSITIVE VERB:1. To make a firm decision about. 2. To cause (a person) to reach a decision. See synonyms at decide. 3.
To decide or express by formal vote. 4. To change or convert: My resentment resolved itself into resignation. 5. To
find a solution to; solve. See synonyms at solve. 6. To remove or dispel (doubts). 7. To bring to a usually successful conclusion:
resolve a conflict. 8. Medicine To cause reduction of (an inflammation, for example). 9. Music To cause (a tone or chord) to
progress from dissonance to consonance. 10. Chemistry To separate (an optically inactive compound or mixture) into its optically
active constituents. 11. To render parts of (an image) visible and distinct. 12. Mathematics To separate (a vector, for example)
into coordinate components. 13. To melt or dissolve (something). 14. Archaic To separate (something) into constituent parts.
INTRANSITIVE VERB:1. To reach a decision or make a determination: resolve on a course of action. 2. To become separated
or reduced to constituents. 3. Music To undergo resolution.
Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially reduce its military and/or police presence in one or more of the following:
South Korea, Japan, Afghanistan, Kuwait, Iraq, Turkey.
53
SCFI 2010
Topicality
Al Jefferson
___ of ___
Definitions: Colon (:)
Colon is a punctuation mark that precedes an explanation.
Oxford English Dictionary 08 http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/colon_1?view=uk
colon 1/koln/
• noun a punctuation mark
(:) used to precede a list of items, a quotation, or an expansion or explanation.
Colon is the sign used to introduce a sentence or phrase.
Cambridge Dictionary Online 08 http://dictionary.cambridge.org/define.asp?key=14990&dict=CALD
colon (SIGN) Show phonetics noun [C] the sign (:) used in writing, especially to introduce a list of things or a sentence
or phrase taken from somewhere else
Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially reduce its military and/or police presence in one or more of the following:
South Korea, Japan, Afghanistan, Kuwait, Iraq, Turkey.
54
SCFI 2010
Topicality
Al Jefferson
___ of ___
Definitions: The
The word “the” particularizes its noun.
Words and Phrases Second Series, 1914, Updated 1964, Volume 4, 1905, pg. 893.
As designating a particular object
The article “the” directs what particular thing or things are to be taken or assumed as spoken
of, and determine what particular thing is meant. It is used before nouns with a specifying or
particularizing effect so that its use immediately preceding “state” in the constitutional requirement
that indictments shall conclude “against the peace and dignity of the state,” points out the state whose
peace and dignity has been offended, and its omission in the indictment is a fatal defect .
The word “the” specifies the noun after it to be a particular specific one.
Webster’s II New College Dictionary, 1995, pg.1143.
1. a. – Used before singular or plural nouns and noun phrases that denote particular persons
or things <read the newspaper> b. – Used before a noun, and generally stressed, emphasizing one of
a group or type as the most outstanding or prominent <...continues...>
The word “the” particularizes its noun.
Cambridge Dictionaries Online, 2007.
The (PARTICULAR) – determiner – 1 used before nouns to refer to things or people when a
listener or reader knows which particular things or people are being referred to, especially
because they have already been mentioned or because what is happening makes it clear:
The word “the” implies there is only one – as in the USFG.
Cambridge Dictionaries Online, 2007.
used to refer to things or people when only one exists at any one time:
‘The’ means all parts.
Merriam-Webster's Online Collegiate Dictionary, No Date,
http://www.m-w.com/cgi-bin/dictionary
4 -- used as a function word before a noun or a substantivized adjective to indicate reference to a
group as a whole <the elite
Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially reduce its military and/or police presence in one or more of the following:
South Korea, Japan, Afghanistan, Kuwait, Iraq, Turkey.
55
SCFI 2010
Topicality
Al Jefferson
___ of ___
Definitions: United States
United States is the country that geographically occupies the 50 states it encompasses.
The American Heritage Dictionary, bartleby.com/61/, 2000
United States of America... A country of central and northwest North America with coastlines on the Atlantic and
Pacific oceans. It includes the noncontiguous states of Alaska and Hawaii and various island territories in the
Caribbean Sea and Pacific Ocean. The area now occupied by the contiguous 48 states was originally inhabited by
numerous Native American peoples and was colonized beginning in the 16th century by Spain, France, the Netherlands, and England. Great Britain
eventually controlled most of the Atlantic coast and, after the French and Indian Wars (1754–1763), the Northwest Territory and Canada.
“United States” is one nation
Words and Phrases Second Series, 1914, Updated 1964, Volume 4, 1905, pg. 1074.
The “United States” are for many important purposes a single nation, and in all commercial regulations we are
one and the same people.
United States is the republic containing 50 states, not just the 50 states themselves.
WordNet, wordnet.princeton.edu, 2006.
S: (n) United States, United States of America, America, the States, US, U.S., USA, U.S.A. (North
American republic containing 50 states - 48 conterminous states in North America plus Alaska in
northwest North America and the Hawaiian Islands in the Pacific Ocean; achieved independence in
1776)
united states means the united states of america
The American Heritage Dictionary, 1983, p. 857.
United States: Also United States of America. Country of central and NW North America, with coastlines
on the Atlantic, Pacific, and Arctic oceans. Cap. Washington, D.C. Pop. 226,504,825.
UNITED STATES INCLUDES 50 STATES, D.C., AND ALL TERRITORIES
US Department of Defense- 2005 “Base Realignment and Closure”
http://www.defense.gov/brac/definitions_brac2005.html
United States
The 50 states, the District of Columbia, the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, Guam, the Virgin
Islands, American Samoa, and any other territory or possession of the United States.
Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially reduce its military and/or police presence in one or more of the following:
South Korea, Japan, Afghanistan, Kuwait, Iraq, Turkey.
56
SCFI 2010
Topicality
Al Jefferson
___ of ___
Definitions: Federal Government
Federal government is national government that expresses power
Black’s Law Dictionary, 8th Edition, June 1, 2004, pg.716.
Federal government. 1. A national government that exercises some degree of control over
smaller political units that have surrendered some degree of power in exchange for the right to
participate in national politics matters – Also termed (in federal states) central government. 2.
the U.S. government – Also termed national government. [Cases: United States -1 C.J.S. United
States - - 2-3]
Federal refers to the government system especially in the US.
Black’s Law Dictionary, 8th Edition, June 1, 2004, pg.642.
federal, adj. Of or relating to a system of associated governments with a vertical division of
governments into national and regional components having different responsibilities; esp., of or
relating to the national government of the United States. – Abbr. Fed.
Government is the structure of the state determining how it is regulated.
Black’s Law Dictionary, 8th Edition, June 1, 2004, pg. 715-716.
Government. 1. The structure of principles and rules determining how a state or organization is
regulated. 2. the sovereign power in a nation or state. 3. An organization through which a body
of people exercises political authority; the machinery by which sovereign power is expressed
<the Canadian government>. – In this sense, the term refers collectively to the political organs of a
country regardless of their function or level, and regardless of the subject matter they deal with. Cf.
NATION; STATE
“Federal government” refers to the central government of a federation.
WEBSTER'S NEW INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY UNABRIDGED, 1976, p. 833.
Federal government. Of or relating to the central government of a nation, having the
character of a federation as distinguished from the governments of the constituent unites (as
states or provinces).
Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially reduce its military and/or police presence in one or more of the following:
South Korea, Japan, Afghanistan, Kuwait, Iraq, Turkey.
57
SCFI 2010
Topicality
Al Jefferson
___ of ___
Definitions: USFG
The United States Federal Government is the combination of legislative, judicial, and executive
branches.
USA.gov, February 27th, 2007[“U.S. Federal Government, Available Online at
http://www.usa.gov/Agencies/federal.shtml, Accessed July 3, 2007// Darxlice]
U.S. Federal Government The three branches of U.S. government—legislative, judicial, and executive—
carry out governmental power and functions. View a complete diagram (.PDF) of the U.S. government's branches. Executive
Branch The executive branch of the government is responsible for enforcing the laws of the land. The president, vice
president, department heads (cabinet members), and heads of independent agencies carry out this mission. Judicial Branch
Courts decide arguments about the meaning of laws and how they are applied. They also decide if laws violate the
Constitution—this is known as judicial review, and it is how federal courts provide checks and balances on the legislative and
executive branches. Legislative Branch Article I of the Constitution establishes the legislative or law making branch of
government. It has a two-branch Congress—the Senate and the House of Representatives—and agencies that support
Congress.
The United States Federal Government is the government of the United States of America, made up
of three branches.
Answers.com, 2007[“Federal Government of the United States,” Available Online at
http://www.answers.com/topic/federal-government-of-the-united-states, Accessed July 3, 2007//
Darxlice]
The government of the United States of America, established by the U.S. Constitution, is a federal republic of individual states.
The laws of the United States are laid out in Acts of Congress (especially the United States Code and Uniform Code of Military Justice),
administrative regulations, and judicial cases interpreting the statutes and regulations. The federal government has three
branches: the executive, legislative, and judicial. Through a system of separation of powers or "checks and balances" (historical
phrase), each of these branches has some authority to act on its own, some authority to regulate the other two
branches, and has some of its own authority, in turn, regulated by the other branches.
“United States federal government” is the central government in d.c.
Encarta World Online Encyclopedia, 2006,
http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_1741500781/United_States_(Government).html
United States Government, the combination of federal, state, and local laws, bodies, and
agencies that is responsible for carrying out the operations of the United States. The federal
government of the United States is centered in Washington, D.C.
USFG IS ALL 3 BRANCHES
LaborLawTalk Dictionary 2007
http://dictionary.laborlawtalk.com/United_States_Federal_Government
The government of the United States, established by the Constitution, is a federal republic of 50
states, a few territories and some protectorates. The national government consists of the executive,
legislative, and judicial branches. The head of the executive branch is the President of the United
States. The legislative branch consists of the United States Congress, while the Supreme Court of
the United States is the head of the judicial branch.
Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially reduce its military and/or police presence in one or more of the following:
South Korea, Japan, Afghanistan, Kuwait, Iraq, Turkey.
58
SCFI 2010
Topicality
Al Jefferson
___ of ___
Definitions: Should
“Should” implies duty.
Words and Phrases Second Series, 1914, Updated 1964, Volume 4, 1905, pg. 578.
The word “should,” as used in instructions, may convey to the jury the sense of duty and obligation.
“Should” means obligation.
Jargon Buster, AskOxford.com, 2007
Should modal verb (3rd sing. should) 1 used to indicate obligation, duty, or correctness. 2 used to
indicate what is probable. 3 formal expressing the conditional mood. 4 used in a clause with
‘that’ after a main clause describing feelings. 5 used in a clause with ‘that’ expressing purpose. 6
(in the first person) expressing a polite request or acceptance. 7 (in the first person) expressing a
conjecture or hope.
SHOULD MEANS DUTY
The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition. Retrieved July 27,
2007, from Dictionary.com website: http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/SHOULD
Used to express obligation or duty
Should is the past tense of shall
Dictionary.com unabridged 06 ["should." Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House,
Inc. 01 Jul. 2007. <Dictionary.com http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/should>.]
–auxiliary verb
1. pt. of shall.
2.
3.
4.
(used to express condition): Were he to arrive, I should be pleased.
must; ought (used to indicate duty, propriety, or expediency): You should not do that.
would (used to make a statement less direct or blunt): I should think you would apologize.
Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially reduce its military and/or police presence in one or more of the following:
South Korea, Japan, Afghanistan, Kuwait, Iraq, Turkey.
59
SCFI 2010
Topicality
Al Jefferson
___ of ___
Definitions: Substantially
Substantially means 1. essentially; 2.without material qualifications
Black's Law Dictionary: Definitions of the Terms and Phrases of American and English
Jurisprudence, Ancient and Modern, West Group, 1991, pg. 1024
Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially reduce its military and/or police presence in one or more of the following:
South Korea, Japan, Afghanistan, Kuwait, Iraq, Turkey.
60
SCFI 2010
Topicality
Al Jefferson
___ of ___
Definitions: Substantially
Court cases support our definition
Justice Frank G. Clement Jr., 6-30-06, Court of Appeals of Tennessee, 2006 Tenn. App. LEXIS
446
Tenn. Code Ann. § 36-6-108 does not define the term "substantially equal." However, no special
definition is required because the common meaning of the words and the phrase are easily
understood. The word "substantially" means "essentially," "to all intents and purposes," or "in
regard to everything material." 17 OXFORD ENGLISH DICTIONARY 68 (2d ed.1989). Thus, the plain
meaning of the term "substantially equal" connotes a relationship that is very close to equality-so close
that it may be considered equal.
Substantially means essentially.
Words and Phrases Second Series, 1914, Updated 1964, Volume 4, 1905, pg. 753.
“Substantially” means in substance; in the main; essentially; by including the material or essential
part.
Substantial means real
The American heritage dictionary, bartleby.com/61/, 2000.
1. Of, relating to, or having substance; material. 2. True or real; not imaginary. 3. Solidly built;
strong. 4. Ample; sustaining: a substantial breakfast. 5. Considerable in importance, value, degree,
amount, or extent: won by a substantial margin. 6. Possessing wealth or property; well-to-do.
Substantially means to a great extent
WordNet, wordnet.princeton.edu, 2006.
S: (adv) well, considerably, substantially (to a great extent or degree) "I'm afraid the film was well
over budget"; "painting the room white made it seem considerably (or substantially) larger"; "the
house has fallen considerably in value"; "the price went up substantially"
Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially reduce its military and/or police presence in one or more of the following:
South Korea, Japan, Afghanistan, Kuwait, Iraq, Turkey.
61
SCFI 2010
Topicality
Al Jefferson
___ of ___
Definitions: Substantially
Substantially must be given meaning – the best way is an appeal to field context
Devinsky, 02 (Paul, IP UPDATE, VOLUME 5, NO. 11, NOVEMBER 2002, “Is Claim "Substantially" Definite?
Ask Person of Skill in
the Art”, http://www.mwe.com/index.cfm/fuseaction/publications.nldetail/object_id/c2c73bdb-9b1a-42bf-a2b7-075812dc0e2d.cfm)
In reversing a summary judgment of invalidity,
the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit found that the district
court, by failing to look beyond the intrinsic claim construction evidence to consider what a person of skill in the art would understand in a
"technologic context," erroneously concluded the term "substantially" made a claim fatally indefinite.
Verve, LLC v. Crane Cams, Inc., Case No. 01-1417 (Fed. Cir. November 14, 2002). The patent in suit related to an improved push rod for an internal combustion
engine. The patent claims a hollow push rod whose overall diameter is larger at the middle than at the ends and has "substantially constant wall thickness" throughout
the rod and rounded seats at the tips. The district court found that the expression "substantially constant wall thickness" was not supported in the specification and
prosecution history by a sufficiently clear definition of "substantially" and was, therefore, indefinite. The district court recognized that the use of the term
"substantially" may be definite in some cases but ruled that in this case it was indefinite because it was not further defined. The Federal Circuit reversed, concluding
that the district court erred in requiring that the meaning of the term "substantially" in a particular "technologic context" be found solely in intrinsic evidence: "While
reference to intrinsic evidence is primary in interpreting claims, the criterion is the meaning of words as they would be understood by persons in the field of the
the Federal Circuit instructed that "resolution of any ambiguity arising from the claims and
may be aided by extrinsic evidence of usage and meaning of a term in the context of the invention." The Federal
Circuit remanded the case to the district court with instruction that "[t]he question is not whether the word
'substantially' has a fixed meaning as applied to 'constant wall thickness,' but how the phrase would be
understood by persons experienced in this field of mechanics, upon reading the patent documents."
invention." Thus,
specification
substantially means including the material or essential part
Words and Phrases, 05 (v. 40B, p. 329)
Okla. 1911. “Substantially” means in substance; in the main; essentially; by including the
material or essential part.
substantially means to a great extent or considerably
Wordnet, 03 (Princeton University, version 2.0, http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/substantially)
substantiallyadv 1: to a great extent or degree; "I'm afraid the film was well over budget";
"painting the room white made it seem considerably (or substantially) larger"; "the house has fallen
considerably in value"; "the price went up substantially" [syn: well, considerably] 2: in a strong
substantial way; "the house was substantially built"
Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially reduce its military and/or police presence in one or more of the following:
South Korea, Japan, Afghanistan, Kuwait, Iraq, Turkey.
62
SCFI 2010
Topicality
Al Jefferson
___ of ___
Definitions: Substantially
A substantial increase is at least 30%
http://www.freepatentsonline.com/20060057593.html
[0011] A substantial increase in the amount of a CFTR target segment identified means that the segment has been duplicated while a substantial decrease in the
The term "substantial decrease" or
"substantial increase" means a decrease or increase of at least about 30-50%. Thus, deletion of a single CFTR exon
amount of a CFTR target segment identified means that the target segment has been deleted.
would appear in the assay as a signal representing for example of about 50% of the same exon signal from an identically processed sample from an individual
with a wildtype CFTR gene. Conversely, amplification of a single exon would appear in the assay as a signal representing for example about 150% of the same
exon signal from an identically processed sample from an individual with a wildtype CFTR gene.
Substantial aid means 35%
http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/custom/portlets/recordDetails/detailmini.jsp?_nfpb=true&_&ERICExtSea
rch_SearchValue_0=ED224447&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=eric_accno&accno=ED224447
The text of federal oversight hearings on Title III of the Institutional Aid Program is presented. Statements by various college administrators,
higher education association representatives, and state legislators are included. The proposed regulations were issued pursuant to Title III of the
Education Amendments of 1980. In addition to clarifying the Department of Education's (ED) proposed regulations, the hearing is also designed
to identify the data needed to carry out Congress's intent and to assure smooth operation of the grant process. Attention is directed to four basic
issues: (1) institutional eligibility and use of 1978-1979 Pell Grant data in determining institutional eligibility; (2) the definition of "substantial"
as proposed in the regulation; (3) emphasis on achieving institutional self-sufficiency or graduation from the Title III program; and (4) the
regulatory limitations placed on explicit statutory set-asides for community colleges and historically black colleges. To be eligible, an institution
must enroll a substantial percentage of students receiving need-based student financial assistance under Title IV, and the average amount of this
student assistance must be high as compared with similar institutions. Based on the ED assumption that Congress expected that the statutory
eligibility criteria would identify institutions that serve low-income students,
the Department suggests that 35 percent be
used as the definition of "substantial percentage," and advises that the high-average award requirement in the law be
deleted. (SW).
Substantial increase means 5 percent
Kuehl – State Senator of Los Angeles, California – 2006
[February 23, http://info.sen.ca.gov/pub/bill/sen/sb_15011550/sb_1535_bill_20060403_amended_sen.html]
(c) For purposes of this article, "substantial increase" means an increase in excess of 5
percent of the Fish and Game Preservation Fund portion of the department's current year support
budget, excluding cost-of-living increases provided for salaries, staff benefits, and operating
expenses.
Substantially is at least 90%
Words and Phrases, 05 (v. 40B, p. 329)
N.H. 1949. The word “substantially”
as used in provision of Unemployment Compensation Act that experience
rating of an employer may be transferred to an employing unit which acquires the organization, trade, or business, or
“substantially” all of the assets thereof, is an elastic term which does not include a definite, fixed amount of percentage,
and the transfer does not have to be 100 per cent but cannot be less than 90 per cent in the
ordinary situation. R.L. c 218, § 6, subd. F, as added by Laws 1945, c.138, § 16.
Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially reduce its military and/or police presence in one or more of the following:
South Korea, Japan, Afghanistan, Kuwait, Iraq, Turkey.
63
SCFI 2010
Topicality
Al Jefferson
___ of ___
Definitions: Substantial (Context)
Substantial reduction is at least 50% (in joint ACAT ID programs)
Office of the security of defense (D.O.D) April 5, 2002 (“DoD 5000.2-R” “MANDATORY PROCEDURES FOR MAJOR DEFENSE
ACQUISITION PROGRAMS (MDAPS) AND MAJOR AUTOMATED INFORMATION SYSTEM (MAIS) ACQUISITION PROGRAMS”
http://exploration.nasa.gov/documents/TTT_052005/DoD50002R.pdf?q=dod-financial-management-regulation-volume-2b-chapter-17)
C7.10.3.12. The DoD Components shall not terminate or substantially reduce participation in joint ACAT ID programs without Requirements Authority review and
USD(AT&L) approval; or in joint ACAT IA programs without Requirements Authority review and ASD(C3I) approval. The USD(AT&L) or ASD(C3I) may require a
DoD Component to continue some or all funding, as necessary, to sustain the joint program in an efficient manner, despite approving their request to terminate or
reduce participation. Substantial
reduction is defined as a funding or quantity decrease of 50 percent or more in the total
funding or quantities in the latest President's Budget for that portion of the joint program funded by the DoD
Component seeking the termination or reduced participation.
Substantial reduction is at least 25% (in international cooperative ACAT ID programs)
Office of the security of defense (D.O.D) April 5, 2002 (“DoD 5000.2-R” “MANDATORY PROCEDURES FOR MAJOR DEFENSE
ACQUISITION PROGRAMS (MDAPS) AND MAJOR AUTOMATED INFORMATION SYSTEM (MAIS) ACQUISITION PROGRAMS”
http://exploration.nasa.gov/documents/TTT_052005/DoD50002R.pdf?q=dod-financial-management-regulation-volume-2b-chapter-17)
C7.11.3.2. The DoD Components shall not terminate or substantially reduce participation in international cooperative ACAT ID programs under signed
international agreements without USD(AT&L) approval; or in international cooperative ACAT IAM programs without ASD(C3I) approval. A DoD Component may
not terminate or substantially reduce U.S. participation in an international cooperative program until after providing notification to the USD(AT&L) or ASD(C3I). As
a result of that notification, the USD(AT&L) or the ASD(C3I) may require the DoD Component to continue to provide some or all of the funding for that program in
order to minimize the impact on the international cooperative program. Substantial reduction is defined as a funding or quantity decrease
of 25 percent or more in the total funding or quantities in the latest President's Budget for that portion of the
international cooperative program funded by the DoD Component seeking the termination or reduced participation.
Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially reduce its military and/or police presence in one or more of the following:
South Korea, Japan, Afghanistan, Kuwait, Iraq, Turkey.
64
SCFI 2010
Topicality
Al Jefferson
___ of ___
A2: Mat Qual
Doesn’t mean all
Justice Berdon, 8-24-99, Supreme Court of Connecticut, 250 Conn. 334; 736 A.2d 824; 1999 Conn. LEXIS 303
In addition, the plain meaning of "substantially" does not support the defendant's arguments. Black's
Law Dictionary (6th Ed. 1990) defines
"substantially" as "essentially; without material qualification; in the main . . . in a substantial manner." Likewise, "substantial" is defined as,
"of real worth and importance; of considerable value; valuable. Belonging to substance; actually existing; real; not seeming or imaginary; not illusive; solid; true;
veritable. . . . Synonymous with material." (Citations omitted.) Id. Thus, the requirement of a "substantial" association creates a
threshold far below the exclusive or complete association argued by the defendant.
Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially reduce its military and/or police presence in one or more of the following:
South Korea, Japan, Afghanistan, Kuwait, Iraq, Turkey.
65
SCFI 2010
Topicality
Al Jefferson
___ of ___
Definitions: Its
Its means possession
Encarta, 9 (Encarta World English Dictionary,
http://encarta.msn.com/encnet/features/dictionary/DictionaryResults.aspx?refid=1861622735)
its [ its ]
adjective Definition: indicating possession: used to indicate that something belongs or relates
to something
The park changed its policy.
Its means belonging to
Oxford English Dictionary, 89 (2nd edition, online at Emory)
its, poss. pron.
A. As adj. poss. pron. Of or belonging to it, or that thing (L. ejus); also refl., Of or belonging to
itself, its own (L. suus)
Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially reduce its military and/or police presence in one or more of the following:
South Korea, Japan, Afghanistan, Kuwait, Iraq, Turkey.
66
SCFI 2010
Topicality
Al Jefferson
___ of ___
Definitions: Military Presence
Military Presence is defined as bases, military aid, active duty personnel, and combat
threats
Ladan Nekoomaram November 10, 2009 (“US military presence in foreign countries exceeds rest of world”,
http://inews6.americanobserver.net/articles/us-military-presence-foreign-countries-exceeds-rest-world)
Military presence is defined by any nation where the U.S. has a military base, where the U.S. is providing military aid,
active duty military personnel, or where U.S. soldiers are engaged in combat theaters.
Military presence includes access, bases, facilities, port visits, overflights and
military advisors
Harkavy 1989 (Robert E, “Bases Abroad: the global foreign military presence”)
http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=j5J10im3ETMC&oi=fnd&pg=PR12&dq=%22military+presence%22&ots=cZkXhpoGMm&sig=QcbtDs8ZBoQ1A7J1j
9nnRQksKlI#v=onepage&q&f=false
The above discussion of definitions- revolving mainly around the terms foreign military
installation, and so on- serves to initiate a discussion of the boundaries of this study.
presence, access, strategic access, base, facility,
Those boundaries are cast rather wide to encompass virtually anything
that might satisfy the virtually self-explanatory criterion of fitting all three of the words which constitute FMP- ‘foreign’, ‘military’ and ‘presence’. That incorporate
not only the obvious- large
air and naval bases, satellite tracking facilities, etc.- but also port visits, overflights and perhaps
cadres of military advisors beyond the usual handful normal to an arms transfer relationship. But there are some other issues: those historical location in
time and of geographical scope or emphasis.
Military presence is bases and facilities, combat units, advisor groups and
headquarters.
Harkavy 1989 (Robert E, “Bases Abroad: the global foreign military presence”)
http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=j5J10im3ETMC&oi=fnd&pg=PR12&dq=%22military+presence%22&ots=cZkXhpoGMm&sig=QcbtDs8ZBoQ1A7J1j
9nnRQksKlI#v=onepage&q&f=false
One might prefer the use of a still broader term, ‘foreign military
thereby be included. So too would large military
presence’. Everything that falls under the headings of bases and facilities would
formations (combat units, etc.) and military advisory groups, and headquarters
operations which may be spread around the office buildings in the centre of a host city.
Military Presence includes 14 Things
Peterson, 2008 (J.E., political analyst specializing in the Arabian Peninsula and the Gulf, He is affiliated with the Center for Middle Eastern Studies at
The University of Arizona in Tucson, “Foreign Military Presence in the Gulf and its Role in Reinforcing Regional Security: A Double-Edged Sword”, Arabian Gulf
Security, The Emirates Center for Strategic Studies and Research, December 8th)
Levels of Foreign Military Presence
1.
Intervention and occupation
2.
Proximate expeditionary force in region – power projection
3.
Bases and other permanent installations (ranging from full bases, with the FMP enjoying internal sovereignty, to small support functions, such as naval
replenishment or technical facilities)
4.
Non-permanent deployed units
5.
Joint or multilateral exercises
6.
Pre-positioning and access agreements
7.
Offshore naval presence
8.
“offshore” ready deployment capability (e.g. from neighboring countries or regions)
9.
Mutual or multilateral security treaties or agreements (CENTO, NATO, SEATO)
10. Arms and equipment transfers
11. “technical” facilities (intelligence, space, communications)
12. Aircraft over-flights (generally unseen and uncontroversial but reverses on occasion of aircraft trouble or in time of conflict or crisis)
13. Surrogate forces (support for revolutionary or irredentist movements; Cuba in Africa)
Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially reduce its military and/or police presence in one or more of the following:
South Korea, Japan, Afghanistan, Kuwait, Iraq, Turkey.
67
SCFI 2010
Topicality
Al Jefferson
___ of ___
Definitions: Military Presence
Military Presence includes the nuclear umbrella
Kim, 2003 (Taewoo, Senior Researcher Fellow at the Korea Institute for Defense Analyses, “RECALIBRATING THE U.S.-SOUTH KOREAN ALLIANCE”,
144
A significant reduction in the
which prompts competition to fill it.
U.S. military presence, including removal of the nuclear umbrella, can create a security vacuum
Unit Rotations and Basing changes reduce military presence
Congressional Budget Office, 2004, Options for Changing the Army’s Overseas Basing, May, p. xvi
Although the administration has indicated that fewer Army personnel will probably be based overseas in the future, it has not said where forces will be cut or by
how much. To cover a wide range of possibilities, the rest of the options that CBO examined would reduce the extent of the Army’s
presence overseas from current levels by changing permanent basing and, in some cases, introducing unit rotations.
Those options would relocate between 38,000 and 80,000 personnel now based overseas to the continental United States.
Bases establish military presence – this is defined as permanent facilities that house
the army, navy or air force units
James Meernik, University of North Texas, 1994, “Presidential Decision Making and the Political Use of Military Force,” International Studies Quarterly,
Volume 38, p. 128
American Military
Presence. The first, and perhaps most important indicator of U.S. involvement, is the establishment of a
permanent American military base. Not only does such a military presence signify an especially close relation- ship
between the host country and the United States, it also demonstrates that the United States is necessarily involved should any aggression
against the host country take place. This trip-wire function ensures that U.S. credibility and interests are always and obviously at stake in any matters that
threaten the stability of the host country or the U.S. presence. Military bases are defined to include all permanent U.S. facilities that
are home to army, navy, or air force combat-oriented units according to either the Department of Defense Annual
Reports (various years) or Harkavy (1989). This leads to the following proposition: H1: Situations occurring where there is an established U.S. military
presence increase the level of the military response.
EQUATING “MILITARY PRESENCE” WITH “BASES” OVERLIMITING – GOVERNMENT
DEFINITION OF BASES TOO STRICT
Joseph Gerson, American Friends Service Committee, 1991, The Sun Never Sets…Confronting the network of foreign US military bases, eds. J. Gerson
& B. Birchard, p. 8
To further complicate matters, most large U.S. military bases include several separate facilities, each with different functions .
For the large U.S. Army base in Stuttgart, Germany, for example, the Department of Defense lists 16 installations in different locations in Stuttgart and five
surrounding towns, yet they are all listed as one base. With these complications in mind, we find the Center for Defense Information’s
conservative estimate of 375 U.S. foreign military bases to be the most functional. We note as well that William Arkin and Richard
Fieldhouse, in an exhaustive study of the United States’ global nuclear infrastructure, list more than 1,500 U.S. foreign
military facilities involved in preparations for nuclear war.
These numbers do not include ports and airfields to which the U.S. military has regular access. The U.S. government has
negotiated “military access agreements” with many countries that enable U.S. forces to use these facilities for refueling, replenishment of supplies, repairs, and
operations. For example, Liberia
has allowed U.S. aircraft and ships to use a port and an airfield at any time on 24-hour
notice. However, in Pentagon parlance, this does not constitute a base. Such access agreements, in which the host nation retains
Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially reduce its military and/or police presence in one or more of the following:
South Korea, Japan, Afghanistan, Kuwait, Iraq, Turkey.
68
SCFI 2010
Topicality
Al Jefferson
___ of ___
Definitions: Military Presence
FOREIGN MILITARY PRESENCE: BROAD AND COMPLEX TERM THAT INCLUDES
MANY TECHNICAL AND POLITICAL ELEMENTS
Robert E. Harkavy, Political Science Professor, Pennsylvania State University, Bases Abroad: The Global Foreign Military Presence, 1989, p. 1-2
Pakistan, meanwhile, was reported to have stationed some 10,000 troops in Saudi Arabia, a reminder that the politics of FMP might become more than a twopower or two-bloc game as new aspirants to the status of regional power arise in the Third World. (North Korea, for instance, was in 1987 rumored to be
considering sending troops to Angola.) On the perhaps less obtrusive end of what is subsumed under foreign military presence,
there are the important phenomena of aircraft overflight rights, naval port visits, access for commercial airliners,
oceanographic research vessels and fishing boats—some with less benign purposes than advertised—and human
intelligence (HUMINT) activities. And, in an area of somewhat convergent superpower interests, both the USA and
the USSR maintain a variety of overseas installations devoted to surveillance of other nations’ nascent and often
covert nuclear activities, as well as well-publicized nuclear tests by already established second-tier nuclear powers. This in turn is an example of one
area in which ongoing technological developments (such as satellites and more accurate stand-off seismic devices) may reduce the number of overseas facilities
required by the major powers. These examples illustrate the scope and complexity of some current FMP activities and
requirements. It is a large, diverse and complex subject, in both its technical and political aspects .
MILITARY PRESENCE INCLUDES: STATIONING OF FORCES, ACTIVITIES
CONDUCTED ON FOREIGN SOIL BY US FORCES, LEGAL ARRANGEMENTS
GOVERNING MILITARY ACCESS, PREPOSITIONING OF EQUIPMENT AND
MANAGEMENT OF US FORCES
Carnes Lord, 2006, Reposturing the Force: U.S. Overseas Presence in the Twenty-First Century, Naval War College Newport Papers # 26, ed. Carnes
Lord, [http://permanent.access.gpo.gov/lps74157/NP26.pdf], p. 3
It needs to be stated at the outset that the scope of this subject extends well beyond “bases” in the traditional sense in which we
have been using the term. In the first place, because of the political sensitivity attaching to the presence of foreign military forces within a state’s sovereign
territory, the word “base” itself is today often avoided in favor of the more ambiguous “facility” (suggesting a more temporary and controlled status). However,
what is at issue here is a much more complex set of interactions between the United States and its overseas
partners. It includes the overall political and military relationship between the United States and the host government,
activities conducted on foreign soil by U.S. forces, legal arrangements governing military access (overflight rights, for
example), the prepositioning of equipment overseas, and the global management of U.S. forces in deployments
within or across theaters of operations. “Global presence” perhaps best encompasses these dimensions of American military activity abroad.
MILITARY PRESENCE INCLUDES TRAINING EXERCISES
Catherine Lutz, Anthropology Professor-Brown University, 2009, US Bases and Empire: Global Perspectives on the Asia Pacific,
[http://tni.org/inthemedia/us-bases-and-empire-global-perspectives-asia-pacific]
The US military presence also involves jungle, urban, desert, maritime, and polar training exercises across wide
swathes of landscape. These exercises have sometimes been provocative to other nations, and in some cases have become the pretext for substantial
and permanent positioning of troops; in recent years, for example, the US has run approximately 20 exercises annually on Philippine
soil. This has meant a near continuous presence of US troops in a country whose people ejected US bases in 1992
and continue to vigorously object to their reinsertion, and whose Constitution forbids the basing of foreign troops. In addition, these exercises ramp up even more
than usual the number and social and environmental impact of daily jet landings and sailors on liberty around US bases (Lindsay Poland 2003).
Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially reduce its military and/or police presence in one or more of the following:
South Korea, Japan, Afghanistan, Kuwait, Iraq, Turkey.
69
SCFI 2010
Topicality
Al Jefferson
___ of ___
Definitions: Military Presence
SEA BASING ALSO CONSTITUTES MILITARY PRESENCE
Robert O. Work, Undersecretary of the Navy, 2006, Reposturing the Force: U.S. Overseas Presence in the Twenty-First Century, Naval War College
Newport Papers # 26, ed. Carnes Lord, [http://permanent.access.gpo.gov/lps74157/NP26.pdf], p. 110-1
A major post–Cold War development was the partial integration of the amphibious fleet into the strike fleet. So-called expeditionary strike groups (ESGs)
combined a three-ship amphibious ready group and its embarked MEU(SOC) with three missile-equipped surface combatants, a nuclear-powered attack
submarine (SSN), and other forces. The
ESGs allowed the Navy to create a more dispersed naval global strike network and
provide presence in areas where a carrier strike group (CSG) was either unavailable or inappropriate. Given their balanced
strike and maneuver capabilities, the twelve ESGs rapidly became the DoN’s preferred quick-response force for the global war on terrorism
“VIRTUAL” PRESENCE JUST AS IMPORTANT AS VISIBLE PRESENCE
Jacquelyn K. Davis, Executive Vice President-Institute for Foreign Policy Analysis, 1995, Forward Presence and US Security Policy, p. 22-3
Particularly with the development of new advanced conventional weapons, and in light of the ongoing revolution in military technologies brought about by
developments in C3I, precision guidance, reconnaissance capabilities and stealth, our capacity to broaden thinking in relation to deterrence planning allows us to
go beyond the conventional wisdom of the Cold War era to consider new ways of influencing the mindset of a potential adversary and, hence, of implementing
The use, for example, of the Tomahawk cruise missile after Desert Storm in response to the abortive Iraqi
plot to assassinate former President Bush provides a cursory, and limited, view of what may be possible in terms of
presence deployments in the twenty-first century. Similarly, we seldom think about a submarine in discussions of presence deployments,
primarily because we tend to value it for its stealth and secretive mode of operation. But, in fact, when we consider the role of the submarine in
the Falklands campaign, for example, it becomes readily apparent that the sinking of the General Belgrano was a
turning point in the war, all the more so because of the surprising way in which the operation was executed. The
psychological impact of HMS Conqueror’s attack was all the more devastating to the junta, because it occurred forty-plus miles southwest
of the “total exclusion zone.” The lesson learned, in terms of presence, is that “virtual presence” may be just as important as
“physical presence,” depending on the specifics of the situation. The relative difficulty in locating a U.S. submarine in
open ocean areas, coupled nevertheless with the knowledge that it is out there somewhere, provides a type of
presence that is different from, but depending on the circumstances, just as powerful as, that telegraphed by surface
combatants and ground forces. Moreover, in some circumstances, broader knowledge of a submarine’s presence
developed through port visits and other more visible “public relations” activities may be an efficient means of
demonstrating interest, resolve, and commitment without raising local concerns of sovereignty, given the relatively
small size of the SSN crew.
presence.
Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially reduce its military and/or police presence in one or more of the following:
South Korea, Japan, Afghanistan, Kuwait, Iraq, Turkey.
70
SCFI 2010
Topicality
Al Jefferson
___ of ___
Definitions: Military Presence
OFFICIAL GOVERNMENT REPORTS OF MILITARY PRESENCE UNDERLIMITING –
ROUTINELY UNDERREPORT
Joseph Gerson, American Friends Service Committee, 1991, The Sun Never Sets…Confronting the network of foreign US military bases, eds. J. Gerson
& B. Birchard, p. 8
Readers will also discover that foreign military bases differ greatly in size and function. For example, the
United States maintains an enormous
network of military facilities for “command, control, communication and intelligence,” known in military shorthand as “C3I,” many of
which are operated by only a few U.S. personnel. The Department of Defense’s lists of US foreign military bases and
installations do not mention these smaller facilities, nor do they mention facilities in Honduras, where between 1,000
and 6,000 U.S. troops were constantly deployed during the contra war against Nicaragua. Department of Defense
documents also omit the growing U.S. military presence in Peru, where U.S. military “advisers” are directing the “anti-drug war” against
Peruvian peasants and the Shining Path guerillas. Also omitted are “Saudi Arabian” military bases which are, in everything
but name, U.S. bases.
Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially reduce its military and/or police presence in one or more of the following:
South Korea, Japan, Afghanistan, Kuwait, Iraq, Turkey.
71
SCFI 2010
Topicality
Al Jefferson
___ of ___
Definitions: And/Or
“And/or” still subjugates all elements of the list to the modifier “nearly all”
Justice Kevin E. Booth, 3-3-94, Superior Court of Connecticut, Judicial District of New Haven, 1994 Conn. Super. LEXIS 554
While the court recognizes the Bania is concerned with the sale of liquor and Mack is concerned with jury instructions, the cases make it relatively clear that the
frequently used legal expression "and/or" has no clear meaning as either disjunctive or conjunctive. Faced with this
ambiguity the court must determine whether the phrase "the lot has at least 80% of the required area and/or
frontage" is reasonably read in the context of the regulation as requiring 80% of one or the other or 80% of both, or
perhaps most logically, 80% of that factor which is undersized. Recognizing that the Zoning Commission in the instant case has given the Zoning Board of
Appeals wide discretion and is using a special exception to achieve a result that might otherwise have been possible only by variance supported by the statutorily
required showing of hardship, the
court holds that the more restrictive interpretation of the term "and/or" is justified. Considering
is the holding of the court that the special exception may be
granted only when the property involved contains at least 80% of both the required square footage and the required frontage. Not only
is such a reading consistent with the language used in the regulation, but it bolsters the regulation by appropriately limiting what might
otherwise be an improper delegation from the zoning authority to the Zoning Board of Appeals. Accordingly, in the appeal in Docket No. CV 93-0349797
affecting 26 Circle Street, because the frontage has been reduced to less than 80% of the required 60 feet, the appeal is
sustained and the action of the West Haven Zoning Board of Appeals is reversed.
all of the circumstances surrounding the purpose and use of the regulation, it
Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially reduce its military and/or police presence in one or more of the following:
South Korea, Japan, Afghanistan, Kuwait, Iraq, Turkey.
72
SCFI 2010
Topicality
Al Jefferson
___ of ___
Definitions: Police Presence
Police presence is a counter-insurgency training force
The Washington Post 2008 (Michael Abramowitz, Staff writer, “Terrorism Fades as Issue in 2008 Campaign; But both Obama and McCain Use
National Security to Frame Larger Issues” September 11, 2008)
McCain has proposed some similar policies, calling for a "deployable
police presence" to train foreign police to counter Islamic
extremists. He calls for a new civil-military agency patterned after the World War II-era Office of Strategic Services to
infiltrate terrorist networks, among other tasks. He has also said it was a "mistake" to dismantle the U.S. Information Agency in
1998 and fold its functions into the State Department. "We need to re-create an independent agency with the sole purpose of
getting America's message to the world -- a critical element in combating Islamic extremism," McCain said last summer in New
Hampshire.
Police Presence indicates training and filling in for regional forces.
Dobbins 2003 (James F. special envoy for Somalia, Haiti, Bosnia, Kosovo, Afghanistan. The current Director for International Security and Defense
Policy at RAND “America’s Role in Nation-building: From Germany to Iraq) http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/content~db=all~content=a714052619
A more recent innovation has been dispatching US and international police to supplement the efforts of military forces to provide security for local inhabitants.
These initiatives have differed greatly in scope and scale. Some have principally consisted of training programmes for local law enforcement officers; others
have been major operations that have included deploying hundreds or thousands of armed international police to monitor, train, mentor, and even substitute for
indigenous forces until the creation of a proficient domestic police force. Figure 3 shows numbers of foreign police per thousand inhabitants over time for the four
cases that featured significant deployments of international police.
Police presence is aided by military forces
Global Security.org 2005 (Appendix C: The Infantry Battalion in Low-Intensity Conflict)
http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/policy/army/fm/7-20/Appc.htm
Police are a permanent government presence throughout the country. They are a valuable source of information. They also
prevent and punish criminal action, and seek out the insurgent infrastructure. They may be aided by paramilitary and military
organizations. For the police to be effective, they must be sufficiently protected from insurgent attack. (2) Military forces (host country or US) can help
guarantee police presence in the face of the insurgent threat. The military forces add strength to the defense, permitting a government presence in
larger areas than the police alone can maintain. More importantly, military forces can provide much greater security than can police and paramilitary forces. If the
enemy attacks, military forces reinforce friendly outposts. Thus, these forces must be ready to act and mobile.
Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially reduce its military and/or police presence in one or more of the following:
South Korea, Japan, Afghanistan, Kuwait, Iraq, Turkey.
73
SCFI 2010
Topicality
Al Jefferson
___ of ___
Definitions: In
In means within – this is the core meaning
Encarta, 9 (Encarta® World English Dictionary [North American Edition] © & (P)2009,
http://encarta.msn.com/encnet/features/dictionary/DictionaryResults.aspx?refid=1861620513)
in [ in ] CORE MEANING: a grammatical word indicating that something or somebody is within
or inside something
(prep) The dinner's in the oven.
(adv) I stopped by, but you weren't in.
Definition: 1. preposition indicates place: indicates that something happens or is situated
somewhere
He spent a whole year in Russia.
in means within the limits of
Merriam Webster Online Dictionary, 06 (http://www.m-w.com/cgibin/dictionary?book=Dictionary&va=in)
Main Entry: 1in
Pronunciation: 'in, &n, &n
Function: preposition
Etymology: Middle English, from Old English; akin to Old High German in in, Latin in, Greek en
1 a -- used as a function word to indicate inclusion, location, or position within limits <in the lake>
<wounded in the leg> <in the summer>
In expresses being enclosed or surrounded within.
Compact Oxford English Dictionary, 8 (“in”, 2008,
http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/inxx?view=uk)
in
preposition 1 expressing the situation of being enclosed or surrounded.
2 expressing motion that results in being within or surrounded by something.
3 expressing a period of time during which an event takes place or a situation remains the case.
4 expressing the length of time before a future event is expected to take place.
5 expressing a state, condition, or quality.
6 expressing inclusion or involvement.
7 indicating a person’s occupation or profession.
8 indicating the language or medium used.
9 expressing a value as a proportion of (a whole).
In means within the bounds of
Oxford English Dictionary, 89 (Second Edition, online accessed via Emory databases)
in, prep.
1. a. Of place or position in space or anything having material extension: Within the limits or
bounds of, within (any place or thing).
Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially reduce its military and/or police presence in one or more of the following:
South Korea, Japan, Afghanistan, Kuwait, Iraq, Turkey.
74
SCFI 2010
Topicality
Al Jefferson
___ of ___
Definitions: South Korea
South Korea refers to the republic located in the southern half of the Korean
Peninsula in Eastern Asia
CIA: The World Factbook 10 (June 3, Central Intelligence Agency: The World Factbook, “Korea, South,” https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-worldfactbook/geos/ks.html)
Location: Eastern Asia, southern half of the Korean Peninsula bordering the Sea of Japan and the Yellow Sea
Geographic coordinates: 37 00 N, 127 30 E
Government type: republic
Dictionary.com 10 ("South Korea," http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/south+korea)
South Korea
–noun
a country in E Asia: formed 1948 after the division of the former country of Korea at 38° N. 45,948,811; 36,600 sq. mi. (94,795 sq. km). Capital: Seoul.Compare
Korea.
South Korean, adjective, noun
Dictionary.com Unabridged
Based on the Random House Dictionary, © Random House, Inc. 2010.
A country of eastern Asia at the southern end of the Korean peninsula. A united kingdom since the seventh century A.D., Korea was occupied by Japan (19101945) and divided into a northern Soviet zone and a southern American zone after World War II. Soviet resistance to reunification led to the establishment in
1948 of two separate countries, with the Korean War (1950-1953) leaving the peninsula divided along much the same line as before. Ruled by a series of
authoritarian military leaders, South Korea developed a prosperous economy on the strength of trade ties with Japan and the United States. Seoul is the capital
and the largest city. Population: 49,000,000.
Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially reduce its military and/or police presence in one or more of the following:
South Korea, Japan, Afghanistan, Kuwait, Iraq, Turkey.
75
SCFI 2010
Topicality
Al Jefferson
___ of ___
Definitions: Japan
Japan is the island chain of parliamentary government with a constitutional
monarchy in Eastern Asia
CIA: The World Factbook 10 (June 3, Central Intelligence Agency: The World Factbook, “Japan,”
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ja.html)
Location: Eastern Asia, island chain between the North Pacific Ocean and the Sea of Japan, east of the Korean Peninsula
Geographic coordinates: 36 00 N, 138 00 E
Government type: a parliamentary government with a constitutional monarchy
Dictionary.com 10 ("Japan," http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/japan)
–noun
1.
a constitutional monarchy on a chain of islands off the E coast of Asia: main islands, Hokkaido, Honshu, Kyushu, and Shikoku. 125,716,637; 141,529 sq. mi.
(366,560 sq. km). Capital: Tokyo. Japanese, Nihon, Nippon.
A country of Asia on an archipelago off the northeast coast of the mainland. Traditionally settled c. 660 B.C., Japan's written history began in the 5th century A.D.
During the feudal period (12th-19th century) real power was held by the shoguns, whose dominance was finally ended by the restoration of the emperor
Mutsuhito in 1868. Feudalism was abolished, and the country was opened to Western trade and industrial technology. Expansionist policies led to Japan's
participation in World War II, which ended after atomic bombs were dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki (August 1945). Today the country is highly industrialized
and noted for its advanced technology. Tokyo is the capital and the largest city. Population: 127,000,000.
Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially reduce its military and/or police presence in one or more of the following:
South Korea, Japan, Afghanistan, Kuwait, Iraq, Turkey.
76
SCFI 2010
Topicality
Al Jefferson
___ of ___
Definitions: Afghanistan
Afghanistan refers to the Islamic republic in Southern Asia between Pakistan and Iran
CIA: The World Factbook 10 (May 27, Central Intelligence Agency: The World Factbook, “Afghanistan,”
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/af.html)
Location: Southern Asia, north and west of Pakistan, east of Iran
Geographic coordinates:33 00 N, 65 00 E
Government type: Islamic republic
Dictionary.com 10 ("Afghanistan," http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/afghanistan)
Based on the Random House Dictionary, © Random House, Inc. 2010.
Af·ghan·i·stan (āf-gān'ĭ-stān')
A landlocked country of southwest-central Asia. Since ancient times the region has been crisscrossed by invaders, including Persians, Macedonians, Arabs,
Turks, and Mongols. Afghan tribes united in the 18th century under a single leadership, but a fully independent state did not emerge until 1919. Kabul is the
capital and the largest city. Population: 31,900,000.
Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially reduce its military and/or police presence in one or more of the following:
South Korea, Japan, Afghanistan, Kuwait, Iraq, Turkey.
77
SCFI 2010
Topicality
Al Jefferson
___ of ___
Definitions: Kuwait
Kuwait is the constitutional emirate between Iraq and Saudi Arabia
CIA: The World Factbook 10 (May 27, Central Intelligence Agency: The World Factbook, “Kuwait,” https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/theworld-factbook/geos/ku.html)
Location: Middle East, bordering the Persian Gulf, between Iraq and Saudi Arabia
Geographic coordinates: 29 30 N, 45 45 E
Government type: constitutional emirate
Dictionary.com Unabridged
Based on the Random House Dictionary, © Random House, Inc. 2010.
1.
A country of the northeast Arabian Peninsula at the head of the Persian Gulf. Settled by Arab tribes in the early 18th century, it became a British protectorate
in 1897 and an independent kingdom in 1961. Iraq invaded and occupied the country in 1990, sparking the Persian Gulf War (1991), which ended with Iraqi
troops being driven out by a coalition of Arab and Western forces. With its major oil reserves, discovered in 1938, it has one of the highest per capita incomes in
the world. The city of Kuwait is its capital. Population: 2,510,000.
Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially reduce its military and/or police presence in one or more of the following:
South Korea, Japan, Afghanistan, Kuwait, Iraq, Turkey.
78
SCFI 2010
Topicality
Al Jefferson
___ of ___
MP: Kuwait
Military presence in Kuwait include substantial Kuwaiti airbases and a Kuwaiti
brigade.
Secretary of Defense William J. Perry to the American Bar Association, Aug. 6, 1996 (Volume 11, Number 77 “The Risks If We Would Be Free”
http://www.defense.gov/speeches/speech.aspx?speechid=959)
Our military presence includes substantial airpower operating out of Saudi and Kuwaiti airbases. This permits us to enforce the
U.N.-sponsored "no-fly" zone over Iraq. Our presence also includes naval forces operating continuously in the Arabian Gulf, also enforcing United Nations
sanctions. And it includes two brigade sets worth of pre-positioned military equipment -- one in Kuwait and one afloat
offshore -- and we are adding a third brigade set in Qatar.
Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially reduce its military and/or police presence in one or more of the following:
South Korea, Japan, Afghanistan, Kuwait, Iraq, Turkey.
79
SCFI 2010
Topicality
Al Jefferson
___ of ___
Definitions: Iraq
Iraq is a parliamentary democratic country in the Middle East between Iran and
Kuwait
CIA: The World Factbook 10 (May 27, Central Intelligence Agency: The World Factbook, “Iraq,” https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-worldfactbook/geos/iz.html)
Location: Middle East, bordering the Persian Gulf, between Iran and Kuwait
Geographic coordinates: 33 00 N, 44 00 E
Government type: parliamentary democracy
Based on the Random House Dictionary, © Random House, Inc. 2010.
Cite This Source
|
Link To iraq
I·raq (ĭ-rāk', ĭ-räk')
(click for larger image in new window)
A country of southwest Asia. Site of a number of ancient Mesopotamian civilizations, including Sumer, Akkad, Assyria, and Babylonia, the region fell to Cyrus the
Great of Persia (6th century B.C.), Alexander the Great (4th century B.C.), Arabs (7th century), and later to the Ottoman Turks (16th century). It was established
as an independent kingdom in 1921 and became a republic after the assassination (1958) of Faisal II. Baghdad is the capital and largest city. Population:
27,500,000.
Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially reduce its military and/or police presence in one or more of the following:
South Korea, Japan, Afghanistan, Kuwait, Iraq, Turkey.
80
SCFI 2010
Topicality
Al Jefferson
___ of ___
MP: Iraq/Afghanistan
Military presence includes: infantry, armor, airborne deployment, intelligence forces,
security, logistics, and infrastructure
CARL BOGGS summer 2006 ([professor of social sciences and film studies at National University in Los Angeles. He is the author of numerous books on
social theory, European politics, and American politics, including the anthology Masters of War (Routledge, 2003) and Imperial Delusions: American Militarism
and Endless War (Rowman and Littlefield, 2005). Most recently he is the author (with Tom Pollard) of The Hollywood War Machine: Militarism in American
Popular Culture (Paradigm Publishers, forthcoming). ]“Pentagon Strategy, Hollywood, and Technowar” http://ww3.wpunj.edu/newpol/issue41/Boggs41.htm)
The crisis of an all- volunteer military illustrates a flawed premise of technowar and RMA -- that a smaller, flexible, more high-tech armed forces can serve U.S.
imperialism better at a time when conventional ground warfare has largely exhausted its potential. The present volunteer model goes back to 1973, when 40
years of conscription was finally scrapped -- an inevitable outcome of the Vietnam War. The difficulty facing war planners today is that global domination requires
far more than superior technology and firepower, especially when ground troops are needed in large numbers for counterinsurgency, a lesson U.S. elites
seemingly never absorbed from Vietnam. The United States presently has 1.4 million troops in uniform, but less than one-third are available for field operations
and fewer yet serve as front-line troops. In Iraq and Afghanistan, the military presence includes not only large infantry, armor,
and airborne deployments but forces required for intelligence, security, logistics and ongoing infrastructural tasks.
Despite privatization of certain support activities, such undertakings cannot be sustained for long without reimposing some version of the draft, an option fraught
with new and likely unacceptable political costs.
Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially reduce its military and/or police presence in one or more of the following:
South Korea, Japan, Afghanistan, Kuwait, Iraq, Turkey.
81
SCFI 2010
Topicality
Al Jefferson
___ of ___
Definitions – Turkey
Turkey is the republican parliamentary democratic country in Southeastern Europe
and Southwestern Asia
CIA: The World Factbook 10 (June 7, Central Intelligence Agency: The World Factbook, “Turkey,” https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/theworld-factbook/geos/tu.html)
Location: Southeastern Europe and Southwestern Asia (that portion of Turkey west of the Bosporus is geographically part of Europe), bordering the Black Sea,
between Bulgaria and Georgia, and bordering the Aegean Sea and the Mediterranean Sea, between Greece and Syria
Geographic coordinates: 39 00 N, 35 00 E
Government type: republican parliamentary democracy
Dictionary.com 10 ("Turkey," http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/turkey)
–noun
a republic in W Asia and SE Europe. 63,528,225; 296,184 sq. mi. (767,120 sq. km). (286,928 sq. mi. (743,145 sq. km) in Asia; 9257 sq. mi. (23,975 sq. km) in
Europe). Capital: Ankara.
Compare Ottoman Empire.
—Related forms
pro-Turkey, adjective
(click for larger image in new window)
A country of southwest Asia and southeast Europe between the Mediterranean and the Black seas. The region was dominated by many ancient civilizations and
peoples, among them the Hittites (1800 B.C.), the Greeks (8th century B.C.), and the Persians (6th century B.C.), and in A.D. 395 it became part of the Byzantine
Empire. The area was conquered by the Ottoman Turks between the 13th and 15th centuries and remained the core of the Ottoman Empire for more than 600
years. Its modern history dates to the rise of the Young Turks (after 1908) and the collapse of the empire in 1918. Under the leadership of Kemal Atatürk, a
republic was proclaimed in 1923. Ankara is the capital and Istanbul the largest city. Population: 71,200,000.
Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially reduce its military and/or police presence in one or more of the following:
South Korea, Japan, Afghanistan, Kuwait, Iraq, Turkey.
82
SCFI 2010
Topicality
Al Jefferson
___ of ___
*** VOTERS ***
Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially reduce its military and/or police presence in one or more of the following:
South Korea, Japan, Afghanistan, Kuwait, Iraq, Turkey.
83
SCFI 2010
Topicality
Al Jefferson
___ of ___
Topicality is a Voter
1. competitive equity - in order for us to have a competitive debate and for the
negative to have equal ground the judge must be able to vote on topicality, why
would hundreds of teams win on topicality every year if it wasn't a voter?
2. fairness - we can't allow blatantly non topical cases to be run throughout the year,
this explodes our research burden and prevents an educational debate
3. we all know that topicality is a debate of competing interpretations, as long as we
can prove that our interpretation is better for debate and they don't meet this
interpretation then they should lose the round
4. potential abuse - they will continue to run this case the entire year, your ballet acts
as a means to stop future abuse by this team, your ballet could not only improve
education in this round but in dozens of rounds in the future
5. jurisdiction - the judge acts as a policy maker in round, in accordance with that the
judge is given a certain jurisdiction in which they can render decisions, for our
community that jurisdiction is the resolution, if the affirmative falls outside of the
resolution then you can not vote for that case no matter how good it is
6. predictability - everything found under our interpretation of the resolution is a
predictable case, everything which is outside of our interpretation is not, not having a
predictable case destroys education as we can not have indepth debates, allowing
any case would make policy debate into a public forum where there are only people
preaching their ideas and nobody has the ability to respond
Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially reduce its military and/or police presence in one or more of the following:
South Korea, Japan, Afghanistan, Kuwait, Iraq, Turkey.
84
SCFI 2010
Topicality
Al Jefferson
___ of ___
Extra T Bad
Extra topical advantages do not warrant an affirmative ballot
Bennett '89 (William; Pragmatic Debate; p. 6)
If' an advantage a harm solution stems from an extratopical plan plank, the affirmative has not, in that area, shown
that the topic should be adopted.
Extratopical advantages destroy negative ground: extratopical advantages stem from areas of
ground which compose the non-resolution. Since this is where negative counterplan ground
comes from, permitting ex-tratopical planks is highly destructive of counterplan ground.
Extratopical plan planks destroy debate: Affirmative can utilize exaatopical planks to spike
out any disadvantage which the negative team can run. Thus, fair clash is eliminated and
debaters will leave the activity.
Extratopical plans eliminate resolutional education: The purpose of the debate resolution is to
define an area in which education for the year will take place. Affirmative's advocacy of
extratopical planks decreases the amount resolutional education which we receive.
Extratopical plans destroy resolutional clash: Clash is supposed to revolve around the
resolution. However, the affimative chooses to advocate exmtopical ground Thus, meaningful
resolutional clash is subverted.
Extratopicality negates fair warning: The resolution serves to warn all parties to the round of
the issues which will be dealt with. When affirmative advocates extratopical ground, fair
warning is eliminated and the negative team is unfairly disadvantaged.
Policymaking paradigm supports rejection of extratopical cases: When the President is
presented with a bill, sthe does not have the option to veto only portions of i t Thus, the critic
should not reject only the extratopical planks. Instead, the critic should reject the plan in its
entirety.
Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially reduce its military and/or police presence in one or more of the following:
South Korea, Japan, Afghanistan, Kuwait, Iraq, Turkey.
85
SCFI 2010
Topicality
Al Jefferson
___ of ___
Effects (FX) T Bad
1. Effects Unlimit the Resolution - Numerous policies or cases could have the effect of bringing
about topical action circuitously. This kills all predictability and competitive equity in the debate
2. Effects Undercut Negative Ground - I f the Affirmative team gets all indirect and probabilistic
means to a topical outcome, very little Negative ground is left in the debate. This kills all
competitive equity, education, and clash in the debate
3. Effects Make Topicality and Solvency Unnecessary - Effectually topical cases mix burdens and
force the judge to assess solvency first, destroying all possible education and clash in the debate
round. This violates the principle that prima facie issues should be kept conceptually separate
4. Effects are Inherently Problematic - Topicality is a yes or no stock issue. I f probabilities are
evaluated in this manner, at least the Affirmative team should have to prove a greater than 50%
chance that topical action will result from plan
Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially reduce its military and/or police presence in one or more of the following:
South Korea, Japan, Afghanistan, Kuwait, Iraq, Turkey.
86
SCFI 2010
Topicality
Al Jefferson
___ of ___
A2: “Only our case is topical”
1. This argument is ridiculous, their interpretation is neither definitionally or
contextually based which means there is no limit on the resolution
2. If every aff defined their case as topical, each recursive round would do the same,
establishing an infinite limit on the resolution
3. Justifies "only your case is untopical" allowing for idnite abuse by the neg.
4. This interpretation moots the resolution from debate, this has several negative
connotations
a. destroys predictability, the negative already has a difficult job preparing for
such a broad resolution, it would be impossible for the negative to win if their
were no constraints on the affirmative team
b. destroys topic education, avoiding the resolution diminishes our focus on
the UN, preventing any form of in depth knowledge
5. Even if this interpretation increases ground, it doesn't increase predictable ground
which is critical to negative strategic calculations, this destroys fairness and thus
education
Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially reduce its military and/or police presence in one or more of the following:
South Korea, Japan, Afghanistan, Kuwait, Iraq, Turkey.
87
SCFI 2010
Topicality
Al Jefferson
___ of ___
Competing Interpretations Good
1. It’s the only non-arbitrary standard, abuse and reasonability are inherently
subjective and beg for judge intervention, which destroys debate and education
2. All research claims should be based on the best interpretation of the topic
3. The best interpretation can actually be determined, via evaluating a certain set of
standards, it’s just like a disad debate
4. Competing interpretation produces real world education, discussing the effects of
interpretations is a skill used in law and other professions
5. Competing interpretations is key to ground, predicting cases requires voting for
the best interpretation of the topic to give negatives stable boundaries to research
within
6. Any other way to evaluate topicality would moot the resolution, killing all
predictability
7. Reasonability and abuse aren’t predictable, it creates bad debate by allowing a
subjective judge to vote for non-topical cases, it also kills education by being a fluid
standard that destroys predictability and preparation.
Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially reduce its military and/or police presence in one or more of the following:
South Korea, Japan, Afghanistan, Kuwait, Iraq, Turkey.
88
SCFI 2010
Topicality
Al Jefferson
___ of ___
Topicality Outweighs Theory
1. Topicality is a-priori – it has to be determined before you can access other flows,
which is where theory is – they can’t access theory args until they prove they’re
topical
2. This isn’t offense – even if they win all their theory arguments that just means the
abuse claims from both sides moot out and you vote neg on predictability and
competing interpretations
3. Their abuse happened first – the unpredictable and unlimited nature of the aff
forced us to run an abusive strategy – they closed off other options
4. If we win they’re untopical, the round never should’ve happened in the first place –
everything that happened after the 1AC, including the 1AC and the 2AC theory is
moot if the debate shouldn’t have occurred.
Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially reduce its military and/or police presence in one or more of the following:
South Korea, Japan, Afghanistan, Kuwait, Iraq, Turkey.
89
SCFI 2010
Topicality
Al Jefferson
___ of ___
AT: K of T 1 / 2
1. Turn – predictable ground is key to clash and preparedness – predictability is a
gateway to activism
2. Exclusion is inevitable – time limits, speaking, flowing, speed are all examples of
specialized skills debate requires.
3. We aren’t exclusionary, this argument is out of context - There is no limit on them
being involved in the activity, just a request they follow certain predetermined rules
4. We aren’t saying that _____________ isn’t an important discussion to have –
there’s a time and place for everything, and debate isn’t always it. In this setting,
their aff is uniquely unfair, even if it should be embraced outside the debate.
5. Predictability outweighs the K – it’s the only way to preserve any neg ground and
clash ability – if their advocacy isn’t topical then we can’t answer it which destroys
clash and our ability to test their ideas, this subsumes all their activism claims and is
also a reason fairness outweighs, under their interpretation the aff could read 8
minutes of “racism bad judge” and sit down, we’d always lose.
6. Turn – they exclude us by ignoring the resolution, which isn’t predictable or fair to
us and prevents us from being able to have responsive voices against their argument
7. Turn – Strict legal rule according to definitions and laws like topicality is key to
preserve freedom, their interpretation allows for arbitrary decisions by those in
power which is what caused their harms in the first place
Hornberger, Aug. 1992. (Jacob G. Founder and President of “the Future of Freedom Foundation.) The
constitution and the Rule of Law, http://www.fff.org/freedom/0892a.asp
Equally important, the legal concept of “the rule of law” was incorporated into our judicial system. As
Hayek explains: “the rule of law means that people do not have to answer to the arbitrary decisions
of governmental officials; instead they guide their actions by what is prohibited by a clearly
defined law. Freedom, therefore, means answering only to a well-defined, previously established
law, rather than to the arbitrary and discretionary edicts of some.
8. Our T arguments outweigh the K – if the K preceeded T there would be no incentive
for a team to research a new topic because they could always argue that their case or K
from last year outweighs defending the resolution, killing predictability, clash, and
education
Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially reduce its military and/or police presence in one or more of the following:
South Korea, Japan, Afghanistan, Kuwait, Iraq, Turkey.
90
SCFI 2010
Topicality
Al Jefferson
___ of ___
AT: K of T 2 / 2
9. Turn – failure to adhere to linguistic rules is exclusionary
Richard Mitchell professor of English at Glassboro State College, Less than Words Can Say, 2000.
If you could ask a Jiukiukwe why he takes such pains to address his mother’s only brother’s eldest daughter
in just that way, he would probably have to say that he does it because it’s "right." He’s right. That’s why we
do things like that too. They’re right. They are "right," however, entirely in a social sense. Language is
arbitrary, but it’s not anarchic. Although there’s no reason why this or that in a language should be "right? and
something else "wrong," it does not follow that you can do whatever you please in it. At some point, of course,
when you wander too far from what is "right" you’ll cease to be intelligible. But long before you reach that point
you will send out the news that you are not a member in good standing around here.
Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially reduce its military and/or police presence in one or more of the following:
South Korea, Japan, Afghanistan, Kuwait, Iraq, Turkey.
91
SCFI 2010
Topicality
Al Jefferson
___ of ___
A2: Effects (FX) T
Case does not violate effects: All affirmative advantages stem directly from the plan mandates.
Only one step is necessary for solvency.
Effects arguments are infinitely regressive: Any advantage can be argued to involve multiple
steps ad infiniturn. If the steps are direct and supported by evidence, there is no reason to reject
the affirmative.
Counterplan ground is sufficient to check abuse: Cases which claim effects topical advantages
are extremely susceptible to counterplans which suck up the effects topical advantages. Thus,
counterplans are a sufiicient test of aflirmative abuse.
Effects topicality involves contradictory theoretical arguments: Topicality is a ground
preservation issue for the negative. Effects topical cases expand negative disadvantage ground
since the disadvantage can link off the effects topical portion of plan. Thus, there is no unique
ground infringement
Operationalizing takes out the effects violation: The afiimative operationally dehnes the
terms of the resolution. Thus, the focus of the round becomes our plan and not the general
resolutional statement. Any questions of resolutional meaning become irrelevant to the round.
Case provides sufficient ground to dejustify effects topicality: The case provides ample
disadvantage and counterplan ground such that the negative's complaint about effects topicality
is unwarranted.
Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially reduce its military and/or police presence in one or more of the following:
South Korea, Japan, Afghanistan, Kuwait, Iraq, Turkey.
92
SCFI 2010
Topicality
Al Jefferson
___ of ___
Competing Interpretations Bad
1. Every round the negative will run a different topicality violation just to eliminate
our case without any warrant as to how our case uniquely abuses them. Additionally,
arbitrary interpretations destroy predictability because every round will generate a
different case list which claims to be "the most predictable and educational."
2. Justifies the interpretation "only our case is topical;" this solves back any offense
they can generate from a limits standard.
3. Justifies the interpretation "use the negative's case list plus our case;" this proves
the arbitrary nature of their interpretation and solves back their limits and education
standards.
4. Our interpretation of the resolution is reasonable, and allows for a fair case list as
well as an educational and predictable debate.
5. Literature and clash in ths round check back their predictability standard, which is
their key internal link into their terminal impacts of education and fairness. Even if
they win that their interpretation limits the resolution to a more predictable case list,
we will win that our case in this round was predictable enough to turn their education
and fairness standards.
Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially reduce its military and/or police presence in one or more of the following:
South Korea, Japan, Afghanistan, Kuwait, Iraq, Turkey.
93