APHG Review: Highlights for the
APHG Exam
2011-12
Copeland
AP Human Geography
Unit 2: POPULATION &
MIGRATION
MOVEMENT AND DIFFUSION
POPULATION
• 7.0 billion people
• Over 50% in urban
areas
DENSITY
• Density – number of
people per square
mile
• Agricultural - # of
farmers per unit of
arable land
• Physiological - # of
people per unit of
arable land
DISTRIBUTION
• The arrangement of something across
Earth’s surface (clustered vs. dispersed)
POPULATION DISTRIBUTION
COMPOSITION
• Pyramids – bar graph
representing the
distribution of
population by age and
sex
Population Pyramids
Sudan, 2000
United States, 2000
Italy, 2000
POPULATION & NATURAL HAZARDS
• Technology and Innovation
 Agricultural Revolution
 Industrial Revolution
 Medical Revolution
•
•
•
•
Black Plague
Irish Potato Famine
World Wars
AIDS
Vocabulary
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
total fertility rate
infant mortality rate
life expectancy
Natural increase rate
(BR-DR)
doubling time
dependency ratio
pyramids
carrying capacity
OVERPOPULATION
Excessive population of an area to the point of
overcrowding, depletion of natural resources, or
environmental deterioration
Thomas Malthus
• British economist in 1798
• Population limited by the
means of food production
• Population will increase
with food production
• Private checks – “moral
restraint, celibacy, chastity
• Destructive checks – war,
poverty, pestilence,
famine
What is the “carrying
capacity” related to
today?
DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION
• Based on Western
Europe’s experiences
• Stage 3 - personal
choices – most critical
stage
• Stage 4 – social customs
– women
• Stage 5-older
population begins to die
off (higher CDR than
CBR)
POPULATION POLICIES
• China’s One-Child Policy
• India’s policy – democracy, education,
family planning
• United States – norms/mores(traditions)
(1750, 1950); changing demographics
MIGRATION
• Long-term movement of a person from one
political jurisdiction to another
• Immigrate/Emigrate
Political
Economic
Environmental
Cultural
MIGRATION
• Push Factors
• Pull Factors
MIGRATION
• Forced migration
• Voluntary migration
– KNOW RAVENSTEIN’S LAWS
OF MIGRATION
Unit 3:
CULTURAL PATTERNS AND
PROCESSES
CONCEPTS OF CULTURE
CULTURE –
The way of life
of a group
of people
Think: ABC’S of
CULTURE!
CONCEPTS OF CULTURE
TRAIT –
A single
attribute of
culture, such
as wearing a
turban in a
Muslim
society
CONCEPTS OF CULTURE
COMPLEX –
Combination of
traits; related
set of traits,
such as
prevailing
dress codes,
cooking, eating
utensils
CONCEPTS OF CULTURE
SYSTEM –
Combined cultural complexes;
Northern China eats wheat;
Southern China eats rice; both
speak a similar language; shared
history, philosophy, cultural
traditions & attitudes
CULTURAL LANDSCAPE
The imprint of cultures on the land creates
distinct and characteristic examples
CULTURAL LANDSCAPES & IDENTITY
1. VALUES AND PREFERENCES –
 language, religion, entertainment,
government buildings
 “atmosphere” – easy to perceive, difficult to
define
“Wall
Street”
“China Town”
“Main Street”
“Little Italy”
CULTURAL LANDSCAPES & IDENTITY
2. SYMBOLIC LANDSCAPES –
size of Hindu/Buddhist temples are smaller
than Islamic mosque or Christian church
toponyms (New York, Washington, D.C.,
Palestine/Rome/Paris Texas)
CULTURE HEARTH
Point of origin
and source of
cultural
growth and
diffusion
CULTURAL DIFFUSION
From the
hearths,
cultural
innovations
and ideas
spread to
other areas
CONCEPTS OF CULTURE
PERCEPTION
Varying
ideas and
attitudes
about space,
place, and
territory
CONCEPTS OF CULTURE
Process in which
ACCULTURATION
a culture is
substantially
changed through
interaction with
another culture but
it does not
completely
disappear
CONCEPTS OF CULTURE
REGIONS –
areas in which
there is a degree of
homogeneity in the cultural
characteristics; areas with
similar landscapes
1
2
3
4
5
–
–
–
–
–
the Americas
Western Europe
Eastern Europe
Far East/Orient
South Asia
CONCEPTS OF CULTURE
6 – Southeast Asia
7 – Oceania
8 – Middle East/Arab World
9 – West Africa
10 – Sub-Saharan
Africa
LANGUAGES
Family – shared but distant origins (Indo-European)
Branch – collection of languages related through a common ancestor
(Romance, Germanic)
Group – collection of languages within a branch that share common
origin and display relatively few differences in grammar and vocabulary
(West Germanic: English, German, Dutch
Lingua Franca – common language understood by many people although
they each speak another language
Pidgin – language that has a small vocabulary and is combined and
distorted from two or more languages
LANGUAGES
2007 Statistics
LANGUAGE FAMILY
Indo-European
Sino-Tibetan
MAJOR LANGUAGE
#/MILLIONS
Spanish
488
Hindi
Portuguese
Bengali
Russian
274
269
259
220
English
Mandarin Chinese
468
1322
Japanese-Korean
Japanese
Korean
185
75
Afro-Asiatic
Arabic
312
RELIGION
difficult to define, but contains some common
characteristics:
1 – belief in a god or gods 3 – literature/book
2 – rituals
4 – ethics/rules
monotheism – belief in one god
polytheism – belief in more than one god
animism – a soul or spirit is attributed to various
phenomena
universalizing – actively seeking converts (to
proseltyze) - *CONFLICT*
ethnic – closely identified with a specific cultural group
RELIGION 2011 statistics
RELIGION
TOTAL #
%
Christianity
2,262,112,000
33.32
Islam
1,426,592,000
21.01
Hinduism
900,362,000
13.26
Agnostics (No)
799,190,000
11.77
Buddhism
396,593,000
5.84
Atheism
157,529,000
2.32
Sikhism
23,400,000
.35
Judaism
13,580,000
0.23
RELIGION
Cultural Landscape
 food eaten/meals
 festivals/clothing
 temples/mosques/churches
 statues/figurines
ETHNICITY
Combination of a people’s culture (traditions,
customs, language, & religion) and racial
ancestry
Ethnic cleansing is the slaughter or forced
removal of one ethnic group from its home by
another group
Ethnic conflicts – Yugoslavia, Quebec,
Holocaust(?)
GENDER
Roles performed culturally as
designated by gender (GDI and
GEM)
Women still perform the majority
of the domestic work
In the workplace, women do not
get paid the same as men or
have the same number of
opportunities
Urban landscapes – statues and
monuments typically male (war
heroes, etc.)
POPULAR CULTURE
Massive,
homogene
ous,
diffuse
rapidly,
technologi
cal
FOLK CULTURE
Traditional,
small,
individualistic,
family, little if
any technology
Unit 4: POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY
POLITICAL DEFINITIONS
Territoriality
• The attempt by an individual or group to
affect, influence, or control people,
phenomena, and relationships, by
delimiting and asserting control over a
geographic area
POLITICAL DEFINITIONS
Sovereignty
Principle that final
authority over social,
economic, and political
matters should rest with
the legitimate rulers of
independent states and
be recognized by other
states and codified by
international law
POLITICAL DEFINITIONS
Unitary State
• An internal
organization of a
state that places
most power in the
hands of central
government
officials
POLITICAL DEFINITIONS
Federal State
• Allocation of
strong power to
units of local
government
within the
country
POLITICAL DEFINITIONS
Democratization
The transition to a more
democratic political regime
POLITICAL DEFINITIONS
Nation
• a group of people who possess common
cultural traits
• Kurdistan
POLITICAL DEFINITIONS
• State
• a political entity that possesses
sovereignty over an area delimited by
internationally recognized boundaries
• Mexico
POLITICAL DEFINITIONS
Nation-state
•a political unit that
contains one
principal national
group that gives it
its identity and
defines its territory
•Denmark
GROWTH THEORIES
Wallerstein’s World Systems
•World is divided into three spheres:
core
semi periphery
periphery
GROWTH THEORIES
RATZEL’S SEVEN LAWS OF SPATIAL GROWTH
1. Size will increase as culture develops
2. Growth of a state is subsequent to other
manifestations of the growth of the
people
3. Growth from a process of annexing
smaller members
4. Boundaries are peripheral organs that
take part in all transformations of the
state
GROWTH THEORIES
RATZEL’S SEVEN LAWS OF SPATIAL GROWTH
5. As state grows, it will strive to occupy some
politically valuable locations
6. Initial stimulus for growth is external
7. Tendency to grow continually increases in
intensity
GROWTH THEORIES
What connection is there between these growth theories and the concepts of
Environmental Determinism and
Possiblism?
Colonialism and Imperialism
• Core – higher levels of
education, salaries, more
technology
• Semi-periphery –
transition between the
two
• Periphery – lower
levels of education,
salaries, less technology
INFLUENCE OF ETHNICITY
Ethnic homogeneity of countries
vary, but the extent of a state’s
cultural diversity often
influences its political stability
CHANGES IN POLITICAL
ARRANGEMENTS
Ethnic diversity can be a strong
centrifugal force – leading to civil
disorder, international conflict,
unspeakable human rights abuses
Yugoslavia
CHANGES IN POLITICAL
ARRANGEMENTS
Centripetal Forces
Unifying tendencies,
such as a
widespread
commitment to a
national culture,
shared ideological
objectives, and a
common faith
CHANGES IN POLITICAL
ARRANGEMENTS
Supranationalism
Organization
involving three or
more nation-states
involving formal
political,
economic, and/or
cultural
cooperation to
promote shared
objectives
CHANGES IN POLITICAL
ARRANGEMENTS
Devolution
Process by which
regions within a
state demand
and gain
political strength
and growth
authority at the
expense of
central
government
BOUNDARIES
I.
Generic Boundaries
•
identified on the basis of their
inherent characteristics
•
natural or physical, ethnographic or
cultural, historical, geometric
BOUNDARIES
I.
•

Generic Boundaries:
Natural boundary
follows a river or
mountain range

arguments over mineral
and usage rights, bridge
construction and
maintenance, territory
lost as a result of course
changes over time
BOUNDARIES
• Ethnographic
boundary
Cultural differences
mark separation
Partition of India
BOUNDARIES
• Geometric
Using grid
systems
such as
latitude and
longitude or
township and
range
SHAPES OF STATES
Compact State
Distance from center
to any boundary
does not vary
significantly
Prorupted State
Compact state with a
large projecting
extension
SHAPES OF STATES
Fragmented State
Includes several
discontinuous
pieces of territory
Perforated State
A state that
completely
surrounds
another one
SHAPES OF STATES
Elongated State
States with long
and narrow
shape
Geopolitics
• Geopolitical Schools of Thought…
– Ratzel’s Organic Theory (German)
– Mackinder’s Heartland Theory (British)
– Spykman’s Rimland Theory (American)
• Domino Theory (USSR), Containment (US)
• Foreign Policies of the U.S.
– Isolationism, neo-isolationism, realism, idealism
Unit 5: AGRICULTURE AND
RURAL LAND USE
DEVELOPMENT AND DIFFUSION
• FIRST AG
REVOLUTION –
seed crops, plant
domestication
• SECOND AG
REVOLUTION –
Enclosure Actlarge, single-owner
farms, field
rotation, new
crops, new breeds
• THIRD AG
REVOLUTION –
“Green
Revolution”, GMOs
AG PRODUCTION HEARTHS
• Upper SE Asian
Mainland
• Lower SE Asian
Mainland
• Eastern India
• SWA
• East African Highlands
•Meso-America
•North-Central China
•Mediterranean Basin
•Western Sudan
•Andean Highlands
•Eastern South America
AG PRODUCTION VARIANCES
• Nigerian women
spread seeds
•Slash and burn in
Peru
•Center pivot irrigation in
Oregon
AG SYSTEMS in CLIMATE ZONES
AGRICULTURAL EVOLUTION
• Hunting &
Gathering
• Shifting
Cultivation
(slash-andburn)
• Pastoral
Nomadism
AGRICULTURAL EVOLUTION
• Subsistence Ag
• Commercial Ag
• Mixed Crop &
Livestock
AGRICULTURAL EVOLUTION
• Dairy Farming
• Grain Farming
• Livestock
Ranching
AGRICULTURAL EVOLUTION
• Mediterranean Ag
• Commercial
Gardening/Fruit
Farming
• Plantation Farming
AGRICULTURAL FLOWS
• Columbian Exchange
• NAFTA
von THUNEN MODEL
• Originator of
spatial models
• Focused on
maximizing the
profit from his
agricultural lands
von THUNEN MODEL
• “Isolated state”
– no trade
connections
• Possessed only
one market
• Located centrally
in the state
• Uniform soil,
climate, level of
terrain
• All farmers lived
equal distance
from market and
had equal access
to it
• Farmers sought
maximum profits
von THUNEN MODEL
von THUNEN MODEL
von THUNEN MODEL
von THUNEN MODEL
von THUNEN MODEL
THIRD AG REVOLUTION
• The complex of seed and
management
improvements adapted
to the needs of intensive
agriculture that have
brought larger harvests
from a given area of
farmland
• 1965-1995, world cereal
production rose 90%,
mostly due to increased
crop yields rather than
expanding cropland
THIRD AG REVOLUTION
• 1965-1983 average yields
• Rice 52%; Wheat 66%;
THIRD AG REVOLUTION
• Advancements
in PINGS (Mali)
has helped
delay famine
and extended
life
expectancies
THIRD AG REVOLUTION
• HIGH INPUT – HIGH YIELD CROPS
• New variations of seeds/plants
• Irrigation
• Mechanization
• Fertilization
• Use of pesticides
• More food
THIRD AG REVOLUTION
• Irrigation has destroyed large tracts of
land
• Ground water depletion
• Conflict between agricultural societies
and urban sprawl
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE
THIRD AG REVOLUTION
• Blending of primary, secondary,
tertiary, and quaternary sectors
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE
THIRD AG REVOLUTION
• Increased
mechanization
•Development
of
biotechnology
HOPES & FEARS ABOUT THE
FUTURE
• Will we be able to produce enough food for
the world’s people? At what cost –
economic and environmental?
Unit 6: INDUSTRIALIZATION AND
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
“HE WHO HAS THE GOLD, MAKES THE RULE!”
GROWTH AND DIFFUSION
Industrial Revolution – Began in England (Birmingham
and Liverpool)
GROWTH AND DIFFUSION
LOCATIONAL ADVANTAGES
• Location theory helps
explain the spatial
positioning of
industries and their
successes or failures
• Transportation, labor,
energy, infrastructure
costs are all a part in
the location of heavy
industries
LOCATIONAL ADVANTAGES
• Weber’s least-cost
theory
• Growth or decline of
industries are
influenced by
political and
environmental
fluctuations
GROWTH AND DIFFUSION
• Global industrial pattern dominated by the first countries
that industrialized
• Evolution of 3 economic cores and peripheries
GROWTH AND DIFFUSION
• North American
manufacturing
complex is the
largest in the
world today
• Asian Pacific Rim
is the fastest
growing industrial
region in the
world today
LEVELS OF DEVELOPMENT
• Enormous gaps
between rich and
poor, both globally
and regionally
• Underlying economic
disparities is a coreperiphery
relationship among
different regions of
the world
LEVELS OF DEVELOPMENT
• 21st century opened
with some countries
stuck in the primary
sector whereas some
were pushing the
quaternary sector
• Rapid development is
usually associated with
democracy, but some
are growing under
authoritarian regimes
as well
CONTEMPORARY PATTERNS
• Spatial organization of world economy
ECONOMIC RESTRUCTURING
• Declining cost of
transportation
and
communication
led to enormous
changes in
tertiary sector in
20th century
• Technology is
accelerating the
pace of life
ECONOMIC RESTRUCTURING
• Deindustrialization in
core has led to growth
of labor intensive
manufacturing in the
periphery
• International labor
has increased
globalization leading
to both positive and
negative impacts
QUALITY OF LIFE
LEVEL OF DEVELOPMENT
QUALITY OF LIFE
LEVEL OF DEVELOPMENT
ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE & SUSTAINABILITY
IMPACTS OF INDUSTRIALIZATION &
DEVELOPMENT
CRITIQUES OF MODELS
• Immanuel
Wallerstein’s World
Systems Theory
Core
Semi-periphery
Periphery
CRITIQUES OF MODELS
• Alfred Weber – Least Cost
Theory
• #1 cost in industrial
location… transportation of
raw materials to factory as
well as finished product to
market
• Cost-minimizing and Profitmaximizing theories have
their impact as well
Unit 7:
URBANIZATION
“Cities have always been
the fireplaces of
civilization, whence light
and heat radiated out into
the dark, cold world.”
- Theodore Parker
STATISTICS OF URBANIZATION
Total Population:
World: 7.2 billion
USA: 304,052,606
Urban Population:
World: 340,094, 520 or 51%
USA: 243,545,650 or 80.1%
http://www.census.gov/main/www/popclock.html
MEGACITIES
CHARACTERISTICS OF URBANIZATION
Transportation
Access to water routes more
important prior to railroads
NYC, Pittsburgh, San
Francisco
Fall Line cities – NYC,
Philadelphia, Washington
DC, Richmond Va.,
Columbia SC, Columbus
Ga.
CHARACTERISTICS OF URBANIZATION
SITE – the physical
characteristics of a
specific area
Originally located for
commerce and
defense
peninsulas and
islands for earliest
cities (Venice,
Paris)
hills useful
because of
defense and
drainage (Rome)
CHARACTERISTICS OF URBANIZATION
Access to fresh
water
domestic
consumption
level of
industrialization,
standard of
living, and
population
growth
CHARACTERISTICS OF URBANIZATION
Geological character
- Manhattan Island on stable bedrock
- Venice, Los Angeles, Mexico City are on
earthquake and flood plains
CHARACTERISTICS OF URBANIZATION
SITUATION – relative location of a place
Mumbai, India – adjacent to cotton fields
Birmingham, England – near coal deposits
Johannesburg, South Africa – centrally
located around diamond mines
Houston, Tex. – near oil fields in Gulf of
Mexico
Chicago, Ill. – major manufacturing adjacent to
Corn Belt
CHARACTERISTICS OF URBANIZATION
 SITUATION – relative location of a place
Situation can change over time –
+ discovery of new resource
+ construction of new recreational
lake
- change in transportation patterns
- agricultural areas effected by
drought
FUNCTIONS OF A CITY
Jobs and Services
 Residential
 Trade and Commerce
 Manufacturing
 Public Administration
 Personal Services
Latin American City Model
Fig. 13-15: In many Latin American cities, the wealthy live in the inner city and in a sector
extending along a commercial spine.
Squatter Settlements
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
The LDCs are unable to house the rapidly growing
number of poor.
A large percentage of poor immigrants to urban areas in
LDCs live in squatter settlements.
Squatter settlements have few services, because neither
the city nor the residents can afford them.
Electricity service may be stolen by running a wire from
the nearest power line.
In the absence of bus service or available private cars, a
resident may have to walk two hours to reach a place of
employment.
At first, squatters do little more than camp on the land or
sleep in the street.
Families then erect primitive shelters with scavenged
(materials).
The percentage of people living in squatter settlements,
slums, and other illegal housing ranges from 33 percent
in São Paulo, Brazil, to 85 percent in Addis Ababa,
Ethiopia, according to a U.N. study.
Peripheral Model of Urban Areas
Fig. 13-19: The central city is surrounded by a ring road, around which are suburban areas
and edge cities, shopping malls, office parks, industrial areas, and service
complexes.
Suburban Development in the U.S.
and U.K.
Fig. 13-21: New housing in the U.K. is likely to be in planned new towns, while in the
U.S. growth occurs in discontinuous developments.
IMPACT OF THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION ON
URBANIZATION
 Urbanization has nearly doubled every 50 years
since 1800
 Mechanization has brought an increased flow of
migrant labor
England was the first place in world history to have more
urban dwellers than rural dwellers (1850)
In 1800, Paris was only European city on mainland to
exceed 500,000; by end of century Paris, Berlin, Vienna,
St. Petersburg, and Moscow all over 1 million!
URBANIZATION
RANK-SIZE RULE AND MEGALOPOLIS
PRIMATE CITY STATUS
A country’s leading city is always is proportionately
large and exceptionally expressive of national
capacity and feeling. The primate city is commonly
at least twice as large as the next largest city and
more than twice as significant.
- Mark Jefferson
PRIMATE CITY STATUS
Not all countries have a
primate city
•India – New Delhi, Mumbai,
Kolkata, Bangalore
•China & Brazil – Beijing,
Shanghai, Sao Paulo, Rio de
Janeiro
RANK-SIZE RULE
• The second and subsequent smaller cities
should represent a proportion of the largest
city. The second city would be ½ the size of
the largest city; the third largest city would be
1/3 of the size, etc.
- George Zipf
RANK-SIZE RULE
• Paris (2.2 million) v.
Marseilles (800,000)
•London (6.9 million) v.
Birmingham (1 million)
•Mexico City (9.8 million)
v. Guadalajara (1.7 million)
MEGALOPOLIS
• Jean Gottman (1950s)
• 300 mile stretch of BosWash
• Greek for “very large city”
• Inter-linked relationships between a variety of
culturally and political urban areas
MEGALOPOLIS
• Initially colonial settlements from the 1400’s and
grew into villages, then cities, and now urban
areas
•As time progressed, the need for tight
communication between Boston and Washington
increased dramatically
•Currently contains 17% of the country’s total
population in only 1.5% of the total area of the
country
MEGALOPOLIS
• Economic activity, transportation, commuting, and
communications linkages are most important
•Government center, banking center, media center,
academic center, immigration center, clothing
manufacturing, cultural center
•40% of all commercial international air-passenger
departures have Megalopolitan origins
•30% of American export trade passes through the
ports of Megalopolis
PRIMATE CITY of the World
• New York, New York
• The City That Never Sleeps!
Good Luck on your APHG Exam