 differentiation refers to the myriad variations among people based on selected social characteristics
 e.g., age, sex, race, educational attainment, occupational status, etc.

Early sociologists like Durkheim saw social differentiation as a master process of modernization
 modernization: the transformation from traditional to complex, modern society

Conditions that promote differentiation also promote deviance
 They also likely boost the degree and range of social stratification by increasing the # of criteria for comparing people
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
Structural theories
 emphasize the relationship of deviance to certain structural conditions within a society
 focus on epidemiology , or the distribution of deviance in time and place
 are typically macro-level and are considered general theories
 e.g., functionalism and conflict theory

Process/Interaction theories
 describe the processes by which individuals come to commit deviant acts
 focus on etiology , or the origins and development of deviance
 are typically micro-level theories
 e.g., labeling theory, control theory, and learning or socialization theories
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Ch. 3, Howard S. Becker

 moral entrepreneurs are people who seek to influence a group to adopt or maintain a norm
 they may create “moral panics” around perceived urgent problems, e.g.,
 drinking alcohol or sexual psychopathy
 moral entrepreneurs can be divided into:
 rule creators
 rule enforcers
5


The 18 th Amendment of the US Constitution (ratified in
1919), along with the Volstead Act, established
Prohibition (of "intoxicating liquors,“ except those used for religious purposes) in the US.

Demand for liquor continued, with the following results:
 criminalization of producers, suppliers, transporters and consumers
 police, courts and prisons were overwhelmed with new cases
 organized crime increased in power
 corruption extended among law enforcement officials

The amendment was repealed in 1933 by ratification of the 21 st Amendment, the only instance in US history of repeal of a constitutional amendment
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
Rule creators: “moral crusaders,” fervent, righteous, often self-righteous

Mission is to promote their sense of morality - thereby defining and combating deviance - for the presumed good of others

Chief concern is the ends - persuasion of others - not the means by which persuasion is achieved

Successful moral crusades are generally dominated by those in the upper social strata of society

They must build public awareness of a problem, and have power, public support, and a clear and acceptable solution to the problem
  tend to have “strange bedfellows,” e.g.,
 overlap & cooperation among Temperance, Abolitionist, Women’s
Rights, and anti-Child Labor movements in the late-19 th , early 20 th centuries
 alliance formation among conservative Christian activists and Feminists in antitrafficking campaigns
7


Successful crusades produce new sets of rules & enforcement agents/agencies, thus institutionalizing the crusade

Rule enforcers, e.g., police, are compelled by two drives:
 the need to justify their own role
 the need to win respect in interactions

They are in a bind: if they show too much effectiveness one might say they are not needed, and if they show too little effectiveness one might say they are failing

Rule enforcers just feel the need to enforce the rule because that is their job; they are not really concerned with the content of the rule

As rules are changed, something that was once acceptable may now be punished and vice versa
 Such officials tend to take a pessimistic view of human nature due to constant exposure to willful deviance
8

 a good deal of enforcement activity is devoted not to the actual enforcement of rules, but to coercing respect from the people the enforcer deals with
 people may be labeled deviant not due to breaking a rule but showing disrespect
9


Whether a person who commits a deviant act is in fact labeled a deviant depends on things besides his actual behavior:
 whether official feels pressure at the time to justify his/her position
 whether respect is shown to enforcer
 whether the “fix is in”
 amateurs tend to be caught, convicted, and labeled deviant much more than professionals (who know the “fixer”)
 whether the kind of act committed is high on enforcer’s priority list
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Ch. 7, Emile Durkheim


Crime is present in all societies of all types

Its form changes
 acts thus characterized are not the same everywhere but everywhere and always there have been people whose behavior draws punishment

Crime is not only inevitable, it is necessary
- an integral part of all healthy societies
12


Crime consists of an act that offends certain very strong collective sentiments

It is not the intrinsic quality of a given act that makes it a crime, but the definition which the “collective conscience” of society gives it
13


Where crime exists, collective sentiments are sufficiently flexible to take on a new form, and crime sometimes helps determine the form they will take
 Socrates’ crime, independence of thought, provided a service not only to humanity but to his country, preparing the ground for a new morality & faith in
Athens, since traditions were no longer in harmony with current conditions
 his violation was a crime, but it was useful as a prelude to necessary reforms
14


Crime must no longer be conceived as an evil to be suppressed

Instead, we should attempt to discern its
“social function,” the purpose it serves for society
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Ch. 8, Kai T. Erikson

 communities: collectivities of people who share a common sphere of experience, which gives members a sense of belonging to a special
“kind” and living in a special “place”
 communities are “boundary-maintaining”: each community has a specific territory in the world, occupying a defined region of geographical and cultural space
 both dimensions of group space – geographical & cultural – set the community apart and provide a point of reference for members
17


Q: How do people know about boundaries and how do they convey it to future generations?

A: By participating in the confrontations which occur when persons venture out to the edges of the group are met by policing agents whose job it is to guard the cultural integrity of the community
18


Confrontations - criminal trials, excommunication hearings, courts-martial, psychiatric case conferences act as boundary-maintaining devices in that they demonstrate where the line is drawn b/w behavior that is acceptable in the community and behavior that is not

Each time the community moves to censure some act of deviation and convenes a formal ceremony to deal with the responsible offender, it sharpens the authority of the violated norm and restates group boundaries
 Still, community boundaries are never fixed but are subject to change - as the nature & location of confrontations change
19


Deviant behavior, by marking the outer edges of group life, provides a framework within which members develop a sense of their own cultural identity
 “…the agencies built by society for preventing deviance are often so poorly equipped for the task that we might well ask why this is regarded as their ‘real’ function in the first place” (98)
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 The community’s decision to bring deviant sanctions against a member is a “rite of transition,” moving the person out of an ordinary place in society into a special deviant position
 commitment ceremonies: highly public & dramatic events set up to judge whether or not someone is deviant, mark this change of status
 the criminal trial is the most obvious example
 importantly, in our culture, they are almost irreversible, and might be called “self-fulfilling prophecies”
21


Two separate yet often competing currents are found in any society:
 forces which promote a high degree of conformity among people of community so they know what to expect from one another
 forces which encourage a certain degree of diversity so that people can be deployed across the range of group space to survey its potential, measure its capacity, and patrol its boundaries for deviants

Deviance is a natural product of group differentiation and contributes to the survival of the culture as a whole
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