Chapter Eight
The Play Years:
Biosocial Development
1
Body and Brain
•
Young children’s body and brain
develop according to powerful
epigenetic forces
–
–
Biologically driven
Socially guided
2
Body Shape and Growth Rates

Lower body lengthens


child becomes slimmer
Steady increase in height and weight


3 inches in height per year
4 1/2 pounds in weight per year
3
Genes and Ethnic and Cultural
Differences



Genetic background prepares child to be
experience-expectant
Cultural patterns and differences guide
development
Most influential factors


genes, health, nutrition
Other influencing factors

sex, birth order, geography
4
Eating Habits

Food should be nutritious


isn’t always—often far from “ideal”
enough calories—not enough vitamins and
minerals—major nutritional problems are




iron-deficiency anemia
too much sugar
too much fat
not enough fruits and vegetables
5
Brain Development

Underlies rapidly expanding cognitive
abilities



by age 2, 75% of brain weight achieved
by age 5, 90% of brain weight achieved
pruning of dendrites has occurred
6
Speed of Thought

Myelination—process by which axons
become insulated with a coating of
myelin, a fatty substance that speeds
transmission of nerve impulses



thoughts follow each other fast enough for
children to perform one task after another
fast processing essential for fast and
complex communication
experience affects rate of myelination
7
Connecting the Brain’s
Hemispheres

Corpus callosum—nerve fibers that
connect the two halves of the brain
8
Connecting
the Brain’s
Hemispheres,
cont.
9
Connecting the Brain’s
Hemispheres, cont.

Left Side, Right Side

lateralization—specialization of the two
sides of the brain

left brain


right brain


logical analysis, language, speech
visual and artistic skills
Coping with Brain Damage
10
Planning and Analyzing

Prefrontal cortex (or frontal lobe) is
the final part of the human brain to
reach maturity


the area in the very front of the brain that
is least developed in nonhumans
mid-adolescence

maturation occurs gradually and incomplete until
advances at about age 3 or 4 make possible
impulse control and formal education
11
Planning and Analyzing, cont.

Perseveration—the tendency to
persevere, to stick to a thought or
action long after it is time to move on

occurs normally in young children—another
aspect of immature self- control
12
Educational Implications of Brain
Development

By age 6, children are ready for formal
instruction

before, brain not sufficiently developed in
ways it needs to be, but now child can







sit still for more than an hour
scan a page of print
balance sides of body
draw and write with one hand
listen and think before talking
remember important facts
control emotions
13
Educational Implications of Brain
Development, cont.

The brain provides the foundation for
education

any impediments to normal growth of the
brain can put academic achievement on shaky
ground
14
Motor Skills and Avoidable
Injuries


Brain development allows for greater
coordination and impulse control
Physical maturation can make a child
more vulnerable to injury
15
Gross Motor Skills

Large body movements improve


running, jumping, climbing, throwing
Gross motor skills are practiced and
mastered
16
Gross Motor Skills, cont.


Motor skills develop as rapidly as brain
maturation, motivation, guided practice,
and innate ability allow
Children learn basic motor skills by
teaching themselves and learning from
other children
17
Fine Motor Skills

Small body movements are harder to
master


pouring, cutting, holding crayon, tying
lacking the muscular control, patience, and
judgment needed


fingers short and fat
confusion over which is dominant hand
18
Artistic Expression

Children’s artistic endeavors are also
their play

drawings often connected to perception
and cognition



gradual maturation of brain and body is
apparent
artwork helps develop fine motor skills
in artwork, many children eagerly practice
perseveration
19
Serious Injuries

Accidents are the most common cause
of childhood death



poison, fire, falls, choking, and drowning
unintended injuries cause millions of
premature deaths per year until the age
of 40; then disease becomes greatest
cause of mortality
Injury control/harm reduction—the
idea that accidents are not random,
but can be made less harmful with
proper control
20
Three Levels of Prevention



Primary prevention—actions that change
overall background conditions to prevent
some unwanted event or circumstance
Secondary prevention—actions that
avert harm in the immediate situation
Tertiary prevention—actions taken
after an adverse event to reduce the
harm or prevent disability
21
Three Levels of Prevention, cont.

An Example: Pedestrian Deaths




Primary prevention: Better sidewalks, slower
speeds, wider roads, longer traffic signals,
etc.
Secondary prevention: Improving car brakes,
having school-crossing guards, having
children walk with adults, etc.
Tertiary prevention: Protective helmets,
laws against hit-and-run driving, emergency
room procedures, etc.
Results show that these measures help to
reduce unnecessary deaths
22
Parents, Education, and
Protection



SES is a powerful predictor of many
accidents
Prevention and protection crucial
Parents need to institute safety
measures in advance

Parents’ job is protection
23
Child Maltreatment
•
Sensational cases attract attention
-
but don’t represent the typical case
still, we need to learn lessons about abuse
in order to understand its causes and
consequences
24
Changing Definitions of
Maltreatment

Abuse and neglect



child maltreatment—intentional harm or
avoidable endangerment to child
child abuse—deliberate action that is
harmful to child’s well-being
child neglect—failure to meet child’s basic
needs
25
Changing Definitions of Maltreatment,
cont.


Types of abuse: physical, sexual,
emotional, and educational
Neglect twice as common as abuse


one sign is failure to thrive
another is hypervigilance

can be a symptom of post-traumatic stress
disorder
26
Changing Definitions of Maltreatment,
cont.

Reported maltreatment—cases about
which authorities have been informed
-

3 million per year
Substantiated maltreatment—cases
that have been investigated and verified
-
1 million per year
27
Reported Cases of Child Maltreatment,
United States, 1976–2001
28
Rates of Substantiated Child
Maltreatment, United States, 1990–2001
29
Consequences of
Maltreatment

If not spotted early, then reported and
stopped, maltreatment can affect every
aspect of a child’s development
30
Brain Damage and
Consequences for Learning

Types of possible brain damage

shaken baby syndrome


condition caused by maltreatment involving
shaking a crying baby, with severe brain damage
as result
brain damage in despondent or terrorized
child

memory may be impaired; logical thinking may be
delayed
31
Brain Damage and Consequences for
Learning, cont.
•
Another brain disorder may appear in
neglected child with clinically depressed
mother unable to provide emotional
support and guidance
-
•
right prefrontal cortex develops more than
left; consequently, negative emotions
dominate, with greater likelihood of
depression occurring
Inadequate essential nourishment also
impedes normal brain development
32
Impaired Social Skills

Maltreated children’s social skills


less friendly, more isolated and aggressive
the earlier abuse begins, the worse the
relationship with peers
33
Three Levels of Prevention,
Again

Primary prevention—prevents
maltreatment before problem starts

need for family support, e.g.,



stable neighborhoods
basic values
SES
34
Three Levels of Prevention, Again, cont.

Secondary prevention—responds to first
symptoms or signs of risk
-
spots and treats early problems

-
identifies high-risk children
potential disadvantages



wrongfully stigmatizes family as inadequate
undermines helpful cultural or family patterns
creates sense of helplessness in families
35
Three Levels of Prevention, Again, cont.

Tertiary prevention—halting harm after
it occurs, then treating victim



removal from family
adoption
Foster care—legally sanctioned, publicly
supported plan that transfers care of
maltreated child from parents to others
36
Chapter Nine
The Play Years:
Cognitive Development
37
How Young Children Think:
Piaget and Vygotsky

Piaget—Swiss developmentalist

believed young children were limited by
their egocentric perspective


egocentrism—Piaget’s term for type of
centration in which child sees world solely from
his/her personal perspective
Vygotsky—Russian developmentalist

recognized how child’s social/cultural
context helps shape his/her cognitive
development
38
Piaget: Preoperational
Thought

Preoperational thought—Piaget’s term
for cognitive development between 2
and 6 years

characterized by centration, focus on
appearance, static reasoning, and
irreversibility
39
Obstacles to Logical
Operations


Centration—tendency to focus on one
aspect of a situation
Egocentrism or ego-centration—
contemplation of the world exclusively
from child’s personal perspective

empathy is an exception
40
Obstacles to Logical Operations, cont.



Focus on appearance—ignores all
attributes except appearance
Static reasoning—assumes that the
world is unchanging
Irreversibility—fails to recognize that
reversing a process can sometimes
restore whatever existed before
transformation
41
Conservation and Logic


Thinking is intuitive rather than logical
Conservation—principle that amount of
substance is unaffected by changes in
appearance


applied to liquids, numbers, matter, length
understanding develops after age 7, and
then slowly and unevenly
42
Conservation and Logic, cont.
43
Vygotsky: Children as
Apprentices

One Theory

theory-theory—Gopnik’s term for the idea
that children attempt to construct a theory
to explain everything they see and hear
44
Vygotsky: Children as Apprentices, cont.

Children do not strive alone; their
efforts are embedded in social context

parents guide young children’s cognitive
growth in many ways



present new challenges for learning
offer assistance and instruction
encourage interest and motivation
45
Vygotsky: Children as Apprentices, cont.


Apprentice in thinking—child whose
intellectual growth is stimulated and
directed by older and more skilled
members of society
Guided participation—process by which
young children, with the help of
mentors, learn to think by having social
experiences and by exploring their
universe
46
How to Solve a Puzzle

Guidance and motivation



structure task to make solution more
attainable
provide motivation
Guided participation



partners (tutor and child) interact
tutor sensitive and responsive to needs
of child
eventually, because of such mutuality,
child able to succeed independently
47
Scaffolding
 Scaffolding—sensitive structuring of
child’s participation in learning encounters
 Zone of proximal development (ZPD)—
skills too difficult for child to perform
alone but that can be performed with
guidance and assistance of adults or more
skilled children



lower limit of ZPD can be reached
independently
upper limit of ZPD can be reached with
assistance
ZPD is a measure of learning potential
48
Scaffolding, cont.
•
Private speech—internal dialogue when
people talk to themselves through which
new ideas are developed and reinforced
–
•
verbal interaction is a cognitive tool
Social mediation—use of speech to bridge
gap between child’s current
understanding and what is almost
understood
49
50
Theory of Mind

We each have our own personal
understanding of human mental
processes, and child develops this too

complex interaction of human mental
processes




emotions
thoughts
perceptions
actions
51
Emergence by Age 4


Social referencing
Sudden understanding that mental
phenomena may not reflect reality

people can be deliberately deceived or
fooled
52
Contextual Influences on
Theory of Mind




Brain maturation (prefrontal cortex)
General language ability
An older sibling
Culture that anticipates the future
53
54
Language


Emergent literacy—skills needed to
learn to read
Is early childhood a sensitive or a
critical period for language
development?

ages 2 to 6 do seem to be a sensitive
period—a time when a certain type of
development (in this case, emergent
literacy) occurs most rapidly
55
Vocabulary
 2 to 6 olds learn average of 10 words
per day
 Fast mapping—speedy and not precise way
a child assimilates new words by mentally
“charting” them into interconnected
categories


logical extension, or application of newly
learned word to other unnamed objects in
same category, closely related to fast mapping
fast mapping aided by the way adults label new
things for children
56
Vocabulary, cont.

Fast mapping, cont.



children use basic assumptions about syntax
and reference to fast map
children cannot comprehend every word they
hear
difficulties may occur


with words expressing comparisons
with words expressing relationships of time and
place
57
Grammar


The grammar of a language includes the
structures, techniques, and rules used
to communicate meaning
Young children learn grammar so well
they tend to apply its rules when they
should not, a tendency called
overregularization

examples: plural nouns (“foots”), past tense
(“breaked the glass”)
58
Learning Two Languages

Two points of view



bilingualism is an asset, even a necessity,
child should become proficient in own 1st
language
How easy is it to be bilingual?


many 6-year-olds have difficulty
pronouncing certain sounds
but auditory sensitivity helps young
children master pronunciation over time,
a much harder task if language learned
after puberty
59
Learning Two Languages, cont.

Best solution: children become “balanced
bilinguals,” fluent in 2 languages


research confirms children can become
equally fluent in 2 languages
easiest way for child to become bilingual is
if parents speak 2 languages


ideally, each parent represents 1 language and
helps child with mastery
sending child to preschool where 2nd language
taught also effective
60
Early-Childhood Education

Controversy over whether, when, and
where
61
Many Types of Programs

Distinct educational curricula have been
developed

Maria Montessori (100 years ago) developed
structured, individualized projects for poor
children
62
Child-Centered and Readiness
Programs

Many newer programs are “childcentered” or “developmental”


use a Piaget-inspired model that allows
children to discover at their own pace
Alternative programs stress academic
readiness

some readiness programs explicitly teach
basic school skills
63
Reggio-Emilia

Reggio-Emilia—a new form of earlychildhood education pioneered in the
Italian city of that name


children encouraged to master skills not
normally seen until age 7
artistic expression, exploration of the
environment, and collaboration between
parents and teachers encouraged
64
Reggio Emilia, cont.



Early childhood is the prime learning
period for every child and some learn
even more
The above has led to conclusion: nations
should provide quality early education
Head Start

has provided half-day education for millions
of 3 to 5 year olds, boosting abilities and
skills, at least temporarily and probably for
longer
65
66
Quality Learning

Three research projects have shown
excellent longitudinal data




High/Scope (Michigan)
Abecedarian (North Carolina)
Child-Parent Centers (Chicago)
Children in these programs have scored
higher on math and reading achievement
tests than other children from same
backgrounds, schools, and
neighborhoods
67
68
Quality Learning, cont.

High-quality early education is
associated with positive outcomes for all
children

what is high-quality education?

safety, adequate space, and equipment
low adult-to-child ratio
trained staff

curriculum geared to cognitive development

learning includes creative/constructive play


69
Chapter Ten
The Play Years:
Psychosocial Development
70
Emotional Development



Self
Goals
Emotions
71
Initiative vs. Guilt

Erikson’s 3rd Stage

self-esteem emerges





self-concept—understanding of the self—
develops
spontaneous play becomes goal directed
attention span gets longer
pride leads to concentration and persistence
guilt is a negative consequence of this stage
72
Emotional Regulation

Ability to direct or change one’s feelings


externalizing problems—difficulties arising
from child’s tendency to externalize
emotions outside the self, lashing out in
impulsive anger and attacking other people
or things
internalizing problems—difficulties arising
from child’s tendency to internalize
emotions or inhibit their expression, being
fearful and withdrawn
73
Neurons and Nurture

Emotional regulation part of brain
function


Genetic variations


also learned through social awareness
some people naturally more emotionally
expressive
Early stress

result of damage during brain development
either prenatally or postnatally
.
via maternal drug use, illness, stress, or if infant
malnourished, injured, or frightened
74
Neurons and Nurture, cont.
•
Care History
-
-
-
-
secure attachment = easier emotional
regulation
parenting practices
securely attached: regulate emotions,
show empathy
insecurely attached: respond abnormally
to other children’s distress
ability to modulate and direct emotion
essential to emotional intelligence
75
Cognition and Emotions
 First step to emotional regulation:
awareness of own emotions and the
emotional response of others
 Emotional intelligence—Goleman’s term for
the understanding of how to interpret and
express emotions

develops throughout life, but crucial in early
childhood


amygdala—emotional hotspot in prefrontal cortex of
brain that children need to govern if they are to
become balanced and empathic adults
parents can use children’s natural attachment to teach
them how and when to express feelings
76
Empathy and Antipathy

Empathy—understanding another
person’s emotions

leads often to prosocial actions


helping another without obvious benefit to
oneself
Antipathy—disliking or hating
someone else

may lead to antisocial behavior

injuring another person or destroying
something that belongs to another
77
Empathy and Antipathy, cont.

Sharing


freely done or directed by others
Aggression




instrumental—used to obtain an object such
as a toy
reactive—involves retaliation for an act
whether or not it was intentional
relation—designed to inflect psychic
(mental) pain
bullying aggression—unprovoked attack
78
79
Learning Social Skills
Through Play
•
Peers—others of the same age and
status
-
-
peers make the best playmates
play is most adaptive and productive
activity of children
80
Active Play
•
Rough-and-tumble play
-
-
helps child develop muscle strength and
control
caregivers should look for a “play face”
when attempting to figure out if child is
playing or fighting
81
Imaginative Play
•
Sociodramatic play
-
-
-
helps child explore and rehearse social
roles he/she has seen
helps child test ability to convince others
helps child regulate emotions through
imagination
helps child examine personal concerns in
nonthreatening way
82
Parenting Patterns

Parenting patterns influence child’s
emotions
83
Baumrind’s Three Styles of
Parenting

Baumrind’s 4 important dimensions that
influence parenting




expression of warmth or nurturance
strategies for discipline
quality of communication
expectations for maturity
84
Baumrind’s Three Styles of
Parenting, cont.

3 Styles

authoritarian—high standards and
expectations with low nurturance


permissive—little control, but nurturing


children likely to become conscientious, obedient,
and quiet—but not happy
children likely to lack self-control and are not
happy
authoritative—limits and guidance provided
but willing to compromise

children are more likely to be successful,
articulate, intelligent, and happy
85
86
Baumrind’s Three Styles of Parenting,
cont.

Recent studies have found link between
parenting styles and child behavior less
direct than Baumrind’s original research
indicated



impact of child’s temperament
influence of community and cultural
differences on child’s perception of parenting
in poor or minority families, authoritarian
parenting tends to be used to produce highachieving, emotionally regulated children:
strict and warm can be successful
87
Punishment
•
Discipline an integral part of parenting
88
Techniques of Discipline
•
Culture is a strong influence
-
•
expectations
offenses
punishments
In United States
-
time-out is used
•
child stops all activity and sits in corner or
stays inside for a few minutes
89
Techniques of Discipline, cont.

In deciding which technique to apply,
parents should ask: How does technique
relate to child?

child’s temperament, age, and perceptions
crucial considerations
90
What About Spanking?

Reasons for parenting variations



culture, religion, ethnicity, national origin
parents’ own upbringing
Developmentalists fear children who
are physically punished will learn to be
more aggressive

domestic violence of any kind can increase
aggression between peers and within
families
91
The Challenge of Video

Dilemma for parents about letting
children watch television and play video
games



parents find video a good babysitter
parents believe video can sometimes be
educational tool
Experts suggest parents turn off the
TV to avoid exposing children to video
violence
92
The Evidence on Content




Exposure to violence great—good guys
and bad guys show violent behavior
All good guys male; no non-white heroes
Women/females portrayed as victims or
adoring friends—not as leaders
Content of video games even worse than
than that of television

more violent, sexist, racist
93
The Evidence on Content, cont.


Children, especially males, who watched
educational television became teens who
earned higher grades, read more
Children, especially females, who
watched violent television had lower
grades
94
The Evidence on Content, cont.

Content of video games crucial reason
behind great concern of developmental
researchers
-
research shows that violent TV and video
games push children to be more violent than
they normally would be

computer games probably worse, as children are
doing the virtual killing
95
The Evidence on Content, cont.

Developmentalists look at the following
to evaluate poor content
-
-
-
perpetuation of sexist, ageist, and racist
stereotypes
depiction of violent solutions for every
problem and no expression of empathy
encouragement of quick, reactive, emotions
rather than thoughtful regulation of
emotions
96
Boy or Girl: So What?

Male or female—important feature of
self-concept

Sex differences—biological differences
between males and females


far less apparent than in adulthood
Gender differences—culturally imposed
differences in roles and behaviors

more significant to children than to adults
97
Development of Gender
Awareness




By age 2, awareness of genderrelated preferences and play patterns
By age 3, cognitive awareness of own
gender
By age 4, awareness of “gender
appropriate” toys or roles
By age 6, well-formed ideas and
prejudices about own sex and the
other sex
98
Theories of Gender
Differences

Psychoanalytic

Freud’s view: sexual attraction to oppositesex parent

phallic stage—according to Freud, 3rd stage of
psychosexual development; occurring in early
childhood when penis becomes the focus of
psychological concern and physiological pleasure
99
Theories of Gender Differences, cont.
 Oedipus complex—according to Freud,
occurring in the phallic stage, in which
boys have sexual desire for their mothers
and hostility towards their fathers; guilt
and fear resolved by gender appropriate
behavior

Identification
 Superego—personality part that is selfcritical and judgmental
 Electra complex—girls’ understanding they
can’t replace mother, so want to be like her
100
Behaviorism



Gender-appropriate behavior learned
through observation and imitation
Children learn gender-appropriate
behavior by modeling it after that of
people they want to imitate
Especially for young boys, conformity to
gender expectations rewarded,
punished, modeled
101
Cognitive Theory



Gender typing occurs after concept of
gender has developed
Once gender consistently conceived,
child organizes world based on that
understanding
Gender schema organizes the world in
terms of male and female
-
internal motivation to conform to genderbased cultural standards and stereotypes
guides attention and behavior
102
Sociocultural Theory



Gender values strenuously kept
Many traditional cultures emphasize
gender distinctions
To break through restrictiveness of
cultural expectations, some embrace the
idea of androgyny—a balance of male
and female psychological characteristics
-
true androgyny possible if supported by
whole culture
103
Epigenetic Theory

Every aspect of human behavior a mix of
genetics and environment



environment shapes, enhances, or halts
genetic impulses
Differences between male and female
brains
Environmental influences
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Conclusion: Gender and
Destiny

5 theories lead to 2 conclusions and
1 question:


Gender differences are not simply cultural
or learned—biological foundation much
greater than originally suspected
Biology is not destiny—environment and
experiences shape children
105