Modules 19 &
20: Theories of
Personality
Freud’s Psychodynamic Theory
 Developed
in 1800s
 emphasizes the importance of early
childhood experiences, unconscious or
repressed thoughts that we cannot
voluntarily access, and the conflicts
between conscious and unconscious
forces that influence our feelings,
thoughts, and behaviors
Conscious vs. Unconscious
Forces



Conscious thought: wishes, desires, or
thoughts that we are aware of, or can recall,
at any given moment
Unconscious forces: wishes, desires, or
thoughts that, because of their disturbing or
threatening content, we automatically
repress and cannot voluntarily access
Unconscious motivation: the influence of
repressed thoughts, desires, or impulses on our
conscious thoughts and behaviors
Techniques to Discover the
Unconscious

Free association: technique in which clients
are encouraged to talk about any thoughts
or images that enter their head;


assumption: free-flowing, uncensored talking will
provide clues to unconscious material
Dream interpretation: technique of analyzing
dreams;

Assumption: dreams contain underlying, hidden
meanings and symbols that provide clues to
unconscious thoughts and desires (latent
content)
Techniques to Discover the
Unconscious cont.
 Freudian
slip: mistakes or slips of the
tongue that we make in everyday
speech; such mistakes, which are often
embarrassing, are thought to reflect
unconscious thoughts or wishes
Divisions of the Mind



Freud divided the mind into three separate
processes; each has a different function
interactions among the id, ego, and superego
result in conflicts
Id: first division of the mind to develop (aka
pleasure seeker)


contains two biological drives: sex and aggression
Id operates according to the pleasure principle:
satisfy drives and avoid pain, without concern for
moral restrictions or society’s regulations
Divisions of the Mind- Ego

Ego: second division of the mind, develops
from the id during infancy (Negotiator)



goal is to find safe and socially acceptable
ways of satisfying the id’s desires and to
negotiate between the id’s wants and the
superego’s prohibitions
large part of ego is conscious; smaller part is
unconscious
follows reality principle: policy of satisfying a
wish or desire only if there is a socially
acceptable outlet available.
Divisions of the Mind-Superego
 Superego:
regulator)



third division of the mind (aka
develops from the ego during early
childhood
goal: apply the moral values and standards
of one’s parents or caregivers and society
in satisfying one’s wishes
moral standards of which we are conscious
or aware and moral standards that are
unconscious or outside our awareness
Anxiety in Freudian Theory
Anxiety: uncomfortable feeling that results
from inner conflicts between the primitive
desires of the id and the moral goals of the
superego
 ego’s continuous negotiations to resolve
conflict causes anxious feelings
 ego uses defense mechanisms to reduce
the anxious feelings
Defense Mechanisms
Defense mechanisms: Freudian processes that
operate at unconscious levels and that use selfdeception or untrue explanations to protect the
ego from being overwhelmed by anxiety
Two ways to reduce anxiety:
 can take realistic steps for reducing anxiety
 use defense mechanisms to reduce anxiety
Defense Mechanisms cont.



Rationalization: covering up the true reasons
for actions, thoughts, or feelings by making up
excuses and incorrect explanations
Denial: refusing to recognize some anxietyprovoking event or piece of information that is
clear to others
Repression: involves blocking and pushing
unacceptable or threatening feelings, wishes,
or experiences into the unconscious
Defense Mechanisms cont.



Projection: falsely and unconsciously
attributes your own unacceptable feelings,
traits, or thoughts to individuals or objects
Reaction formation: involves substituting
behaviors, thoughts, or feelings that are the
direct opposite of unacceptable ones
Displacement: involves transferring feelings
about, or response to, an object that causes
anxiety to another person or object that is less
threatening
Defense Mechanisms cont.

Sublimation: involves redirecting a threatening or
forbidden desire, usually sexual, into a socially
acceptable one

Overuse of defense mechanisms may prevent us
from recognizing or working on the real causes of
our anxiety.
Growing scientific evidence that we use defense
mechanisms
Many of us have a dominant or most-often-used
one, but only effective in reducing short-term
anxiety


Freud’s Developmental
Stages
Psychosexual stages
 five developmental periods, each marked
by a potential conflict between parent
and child
 conflicts arise as a child seeks pleasure
from different body areas that are
associated with sexual feelings
(erogenous zones)
Developmental Stages
 Fixation:
potential personality problems
occur during any the oral, anal, or phallic
stages
 process through which an individual may
be locked into a particular psychosexual
stage because his or her wishes were
either overgratified or undergratified
Developmental Stages cont.
Oral stage; early infancy-first 18 months
 -Potential conflict: infant’s pleasure is
centered around the mouth; pleasureseeking activities: sucking, chewing, biting
 -Fixation at this stage: oral wishes gratified
too much or little, continue to seek oral
gratification as an adult
Developmental Stages cont.
Anal stage; late infancy-1 ½-3 years
 Potential conflict: infant’s pleasure
seeking is centered on the anus & its
functions of elimination
 Fixation at this stage: continue to engage
in activities related to retention or
elimination, such as being stingy or being
rigid; for elimination, being generous or
messy
Developmental Stages
cont.
Phallic stage; early childhood-3-6 years
 Potential conflict: when the infant’s pleasure
seeking is centered on the genitals.
 Oedipus Complex: Competes with parent of
the same sex for the affections & pleasure of
the parent of the opposite sex; girls have
penis envy
 Problems in resolving: Electra complexfeelings of inferiority for women & something
to prove for men
Developmental Stages
cont
Latency stage; 6 years-puberty
 Potential conflict: child represses sexual
thoughts & engages in nonsexual
activities, developing social & intellectual
skills
Genital stage; puberty through adulthood
 Potential conflict: individual has renewed
sexual desires he/she seeks to fulfill
through relationships with members of the
opposite sex
 If conflicts resolved in first 3 stages,
develops loving relationships & healthy &
mature personality
Freud’s Followers & Critics
 Vienna
Psychoanalytic Society: followers
of Freud
 Carl Jung



Believed collective unconscious, not sex is
the basic force in the development of
personality
Collective unconscious: ancient memory
traces & symbols passed on my birth &
shared by all people in all cultures
his theory-analytical psychology
Freud’s Followers & Critics
cont.
 Alfred





Adler
Adler disagreed with Freud’s theory that
humans are governed by biological and
sexual urges
Adler proposed that humans are
motivated by social urges
each person is a social being with a
unique personality
Philosophy: “individual psychology”
we are aware of our motives and goals &
have the capacity to guide and plan our
futures
Freud’s Followers & Critics
cont.

Karen Horney




trained as a psychoanalyst
objected to Freud’s view of women being
dependent, vain, and submissive because
of biological forces and childhood sexual
experiences
took Issue with Freud’s idea of penis envy
personality development, (women or
men) can be found in child-parent social
“interactions”
Freud’s Followers & Critics
cont.
Karen Horney cont.
theorized that:
 major influence on personality development:
child-parent interaction; conflicts are avoidable
if the child is raised in a loving, trusting, and
secure environment
 founded the psychology of women, considered
feminist
 Was a Neo-Freudian
 Neo-Freudians turned the emphasis of the
Freud’s psychodynamic theory away from
biological drives toward psychosocial & cultural
influences
Neo-Freudian Theory Today
 Issue




1: How valid is Freud’s theory?
Too comprehensive; can explain almost
any behavior
Difficult to test; some components have
been experimentally tested & supported
Must be updated; needs to include genetic
factors
Issue 2: How important are the first five
years?
 Research
has shown that the first five years
are not as significant as he proposed
Neo-Freudian Theory Today
 Issue

3: Are there unconscious forces?
Neuroscientists have developed a different
concept:

implicit or nondeclarative memory: learning
without awareness, such as occurs in
experiencing emotional situations or
acquiring motor habits. We are unaware of
such learning, but it can influence our
conscious thoughts, feelings & behavior; part
of cognitive-emotional system
Neo-Freudian Theory Today
 Issue


4: What was Freud’s impact?
Widespread use of Freudian terms
His concepts have been incorporated into
many fields of psychology
Humanistic Theories




Official beginning: Early 1960s
Major figure: Abraham Maslow
Emphasize our capacity for personal growth,
development of our potential, and freedom to choose
our destiny.
Humanistic theories emphasize our capacity for
personal growth, development of our potential &
freedom to choose our destiny
Humanistic Theories cont.

Three characteristics:
 Phenomenological perspective: your
perception of the world, whether or not it is
accurate, becomes your reality
 Holistic view: individual parts of personality form
a unique and total entity that functions as a unit
 Self-actualization: our inherent tendency to
develop and reach our true potentials
Maslow
 Maslow’s
hierarchy of needs:
 Divides needs into two categories:
 deficiency
needs:
Physiological &
psychological needs
That we try to fulfill if
They are not met
growth needs:
needs at higher
levels, such as
beauty & justice
Maslow cont.
 Goal:

work toward self-actualization
Based on characteristics of self-actualized
individuals
Albert Einstein
Abraham Lincoln
Rogers: Self Theory




also called self-actualization theory
based on two major assumptions:
personality development is guided by
each person’s unique self-actualization
tendency
each of us has a personal need for
positive regard
Rogers: Self Theory

Roger’s self-actualization tendency:



refers to an inborn tendency for us to
develop all of our capacities in ways that
best maintain and benefit our lives
relates to biological functions &
psychological functions
guides us toward positive or healthful
behaviors rather than negative or harmful
ones
Rogers: Self Theory cont.

Self or self-concept

refers to how we see our describe ourselves
positive
tend to act, feel,
think optimistically &
Constructively
negative
tend to act, feel &
think pessimistically
& destructively
Rogers: Self Theory cont.

Two kinds of selves:
ideal self
based in our hopes &
wishes; how we would like
to see ourselves

real self
based on actual
experiences;
how we really
see ourselves
Positive regard: love, sympathy, warmth,
acceptance, and respect, which we crave from
family, friends, and people important to us
Rogers: Self Theory cont.:
 Conditional
positive regard:
positive regard we
receive if we
behave in certain
acceptable ways
 Unconditional
positive regard:
warmth,
acceptance &
love that others
show you
regardless of your
behavior
Application: Shyness
Shyness: feeling of distress that comes from being
tense, stressed, or awkward in social situations &
worrying about fear & rejection.
Psychodynamic
approach:
 -unresolved conflict at
one or more of Freud’s
psychosexual stages
 -conscious &
unconscious fears &
use of defense
mechanisms
Social Cognitive Theory:
 -breaks shyness down into
3 observable
components- cognitive,
behavioral &
environmental
 -therapies based on this
theory have helped shy
people reduce shy
behavior
Assessment: Tests
 Psychological
assessment: use of various
tools to measure various characteristics,
traits, or abilities in order to understand &
predict behaviors
Assessment: Tests

Personality tests:
measure observable &
unobservable
behaviors or
characteristics; Used to
identify personality
problems &
psychological disorders
& to predict behavior.

Ability tests: measure
what we have learned
(achievement), our
potential for learning or
a specific skill
(aptitude), potential to
solve problems
(intelligence)
Assessment: Tests


Projective tests: require individuals to look at some
meaningless object/ambiguous photo & describe what
they see; through interpretation, they project their
conscious & unconscious feelings, needs & motives
Examples:
 Rorshach inkblot test showing an inkblot & asking
what the image is
 Thematic Apperception Test (TAT): showing 20
pictures & asking what people are doing or thinking
 Handwriting analysis
Assessment: Tests



validity: the test measures what it is supposed to
measure
reliability: having a consistent score at different
times
Barnum principle: method of listing many general
traits so that almost everyone who reads the
horoscope thinks that these traits apply specifically
to him & her; these traits are so general they apply
to almost everyone
Assessment: Tests
 Objective
personality tests, or self-report
questionnaires: consist of specific, written
statements that require individuals to
indicate whether the statements do or do
not apply to them.
Assessment: Tests
 Examples
of objective test:
 Integrity tests
 Minnesota Multiphasic Personality
Inventory 2: a true-false self-report
questionnaire that consists of 567
statements describing a wide range of
normal & abnormal behaviors; intended
to measure personality style & emotional
adjustment in individuals with mental
illness
Self-Esteem
 How
much an individual likes
him/herself; includes feelings of selfworth, attractiveness & social
competence-
Optimism vs. Pessimism
 Optimism:
relatively stable personality
traits that lead to believing & expecting
that good things will happen.
 Pessimism: relatively stable personality trait
that leads to believing & expecting bad
things will happen.
Module 20
Social Cognitive & Trait
Theories
Social Cognitive Theory
 Says
personality development shaped by
3 forces:
 Environmental
conditions: social, political &
cultural influences & learning experiences
 Cognitive-personal factors


Cognitive: includes beliefs, expectations, values,
intentions & social roles
Personal: emotional makeup &
biological/genetic influences
 Behavior
Bandura’s Social Cognitive
Theory
 Created
by Albert Bandura
 Personality development, growth &
change are influenced by 4 human
cognitive processes:




1. language ability
2. observational learning
3. purposeful behavior
4. self-analysis
Bandura’s Social Cognitive
Theory cont.

Locus of control: our beliefs about how much
control we have over situations of rewards.
 Internal locus of control: we believe that we
have control (over situations & rewards)
 External locus of control: we don’t have control;
events outside ourselves determine what
happens
*People with internal l.o.c –high achievers, take
preventive health measures, report less stress than
those with external l.o.c
Bandura’s Social Cognitive
Theory cont.
 Delay
of gratification: not taking an
immediate but desirable reward & waiting
& pursuing an object or completing a task
that promises a better reward in the
future.
Bandura’s Social Cognitive
Theory cont.
 Self-efficacy:
confidence in your ability to
organize & execute a given course of
action to solve a problem or accomplish
a task
Trait Theory
 An
approach to analyzing the structure of
personality by measuring, identifying &
classifying similarities & differences in
personality characteristics or traits.
 Trait: relatively stable & enduring
tendency to behave in a particular way
Trait Theory cont.
 Factor
analysis: statistical method that
finds relationships among many different
or diverse items & allows them to be
grouped together
Trait Theory cont.
Trait Theory cont.
Openness
Conscientiousness
Extraversion
Agreeableness
Neuroticism
Trait Theory cont.
 Big
5
Where do you fit on the scale for each trait?
Trait Theory cont.
 Person-situation
interaction: person’s
behavior results from interaction between
his/her traits & situations
Genetic Influences on Traits
 Behavioral
genetics: study of how genetic
factors influence & interact with
psychological factors to shape our
personality, intelligence, emotions &
motivation & how we behave, adapt &
adjust to our environments
Genetic Influences on Traits
cont.
 Heritability:
statistical measure that
estimates how much of cognitive,
personality, or behavioral trait is
influenced by genetic factors.
 What shapes personality?




40% genetic factors
27% nonshared environmental factors
26% error
7% shared environmental factors