ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE: A Global Concern, 5th edition William P. Cunningham University of Minnesota Barbara Woodworth Saigo Saiwood Biology Resources CHAPTER 1 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND ECOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES What is Environmental Science? • Environment • Environmental Science • History of Environmental Science – utilitarian conservation – altruistic preservation CURRENT CONDITIONS • Planet Earth • Environmental Dilemmas – – – – population food shortages energy pollution A DIVIDED WORLD • Rich vs. Poor • North vs. South • Developed countries vs. undeveloped countries – First, Second, Third and Fourth World Countries HUMAN DEVELOPMENT • Human Development Index • Developmental Discrepancies – basic social services • education • health care – – – – agrarian reform employment civil rights sustainable resource use • Sustainable Development ENVIRONMENTAL PERSPECTIVES • Neo-Malthusian • Technological optimists/Promethean environmentalism • “Cornucopian Fallacy” • Lessons from the Past CHAPTER 2 TOOLS FOR BUILDING A BETTER WORLD Environmental Ethics and Philosophy • Universal Ethical Principles – Relativists – Nihilists – Utilitarians • Modernism & Postmodernism Values, Rights & Obligations • • • • Morals Animal Rights Inherent Value Instrumental Value Worldviews and Ethical Perspectives • • • • Domination Stewardship Biocentrism Ecofeminism Environmental Justice • Environmental racism • Toxic colonialism • Is Nature fragile or resilient? Science as a Way of Knowing • • • • • Scientific Method Hypotheses Testing Indirect Scientific Evidence Technology and Progress Appropriate Technology CHAPTER 3 MATTER, ENERGY, AND LIFE From Atoms to Cells • Atoms – ions – atomic number • Molecules – compound • Organic Compounds – carbon • Cells Energy Types and Qualities • Kinetic Energy – heat – temperature • • • • Potential Energy Chemical Energy Conservation of Matter Thermodynamics – 1st law – 2nd law Energy for Life • Solar Energy • Photosynthesis – Chlorophyll – cellular respiration From Species to Ecosystems • Population • Communities – biological community • Ecosystems Food Chains • Productivity/biomass • Food chain/food web • Trophic level – producers – consumers • Organisms – herbivores – carnivores – omnivores Material Cycles and Life Processes • • • • Carbon Cycle Nitrogen Cycle Phosphorus Cycle Sulfur Cycle CHAPTER 4 BIOLOGICAL COMMUNITIES AND SPECIES INTERACTION Critical Factors, Who Lives Where? • • • • • Temperature Moisture levels Nutrient supply Soil chemistry Water chemistry • Natural Selection • Adaptation • Evolution • HABITAT SPECIES INTERACTIONS AND COMMUNITY DYNAMICS Predation • Predators – parasites – Pathogens • Prey Competition • Intraspecific competition • Interspecific competition • Territoriality Symbiosis • Commensalism • Mutualism Community Properties • • • • • • Productivity Abundance and Diversity Complexity and Connectedness Resilience and Stability Structure Edges and Boundaries Ecological Succession • • • • • Primary Succession Secondary Succession Pioneer Species Ecological Development Climax Community • Introduced Species and Community Change CHAPTER 5 BIOMES, LANDSCAPES, RESOTRATION AND MANAGEMENT Terrestrial Biomes • Deserts • Grasslands – Prairies – Savannas • • • • • Tundra Conifer Forests Evergreen Forests Tropical Forests Tropical Seasonal Forests Aquatic Ecosystems • Freshwater and Saline Ecosystems • Estuaries and Wetlands • Shorelines and Barrier Islands – Coral reefs Landscape Ecology • Patchiness & Heterogeneity • Landscape Dynamics Restoration Ecology • • • • • Rehabilitation Remediation Reclamation Re-creation Nature, self-healing CHAPTER 6 POPULATION DYNAMICS Population Growth • • • • Exponential Growth Geometric Growth Arithmetic Growth J Curve Population Oscillations and Irruptive Growth • Dieback • Overshoot • Irruptive or Malthusian growth Growth to a Stable Population • Logistic growth • Environmental resistance Strategies of Population Growth • Malthusian Strategies • Logistic Strategies Factors affecting Population • • • • • • Natality, Fecundity, and Fertility Immigration Mortality and survivorship Age Structure Emigration Education Factors Affecting Birth and Fertility Rates • • • • • • • • • • Education/affluence Importance of children to family labor force Urbanization Cost - raising and educating children Education & Employment opportunity - women Infant mortality rate Average marriage age Availability - pension Birth control Religious beliefs, tradition and culture Factors Affecting Death Rate • Nutrition • Fewer infant deaths and increased longevity • Health and technology • Teen Pregnancy in the USA • Migration • Immigration Population Age Structure – Ways of classifying • Pre-reproductive age • Reproductive age • Post-reproductive age Solutions Influencing Population – Controlling Migration – Reducing Birth Rates • • • • Economic development Family planning Economic rewards Empowering women – Population Control Studies • India • China Population Distribution – Urbanization and Growth • • • • The future is urban Hyper-urbanization - LDCs The United States and other MDC’s Spatial patterns of development CHAPTER 7 HUMAN POPULATIONS Population Growth • Birth Rates • Over-population • Technology and Ingenuity Limits to Population Growth • Malthusian checks • Karl Marx • Neo-Malthusian – Technology solutions? – Can More people be Beneficial? Human Demography • • • • • • Fertility Birthrate Zero population growth Mortality and death rates Population growth rates Life span and life expectancy – dependency ratio • Emigration and Immigration Population Growth: Opposition • Pronatalist/Social Pressures • Birth Reduction Pressures – Education – Birth control – Economics Demographic Transition • • • • • • • • Improved living conditions Development and Population Optimistic View Pessimistic View Social Justice View Ecojustice View Infant Mortality Women’s Rights Family Planning & Fertility Control • Birth Control – – – – – – Celibacy Mechanical barriers Surgery Chemicals Implantation of physical controls Abortion CHAPTER 8 ECOLOGICAL ECONOMICS Classical Economics • • • • • • Diminished Returns Demand Supply Market Equilibrium Marginal Costs Price Elasticity • Neoclassical Economics – Karl Marx – E. F. Schumacher • Ecological Economics – steady-state economy Resources, Capital and Reserves • Resource Types – – – – – Capital Resource Nonrenewable resources Renewable resources Intangible resources Economic Resource Categories • • • • Proven resources Known resources Undiscovered resources Recoverable resources Population, Technology, and Scarcity • Market Efficiencies • Increasing Environmental Carrying Capacity • Economic Models • Why Not Conserve Resources? Natural Resource Accounting • • • • • • Gross National Product (GNP) Human Development Index (HDI) Non-market Values Cost/Benefit Ratios Green Business Jobs and the Environment Sustainability Sustainable Development CHAPTER 9 ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH AND TOXICOLOGY Health Hazards • Infectious Diseases • Respiratory diseases – – – – pneumonia tuberculosis influenza whooping cough •Malaria •Parasitic Mematodes •Schistosomiasis •Onchocerciasis (river blindness) •Trachoma •STD’s Toxic Chemicals • • • • • • • • Irritants Respiratory fibrotic agents Asphyxiants Allergens Neurotoxins Mutagens Teratogens Carcinogens • Natural and Synthetic Toxin • Physical Agents – radiation • Trauma – stress • Diet Chemical Hazards and Toxicology • Dose and response – LD5O factor • Acute effect • Chronic effect • Types – – – – – toxic substances hazardous carcinogens mutagens teratogens Movement, Distribution and Fate of Toxins • • • • • Solubility Bioaccumulation Biomagnification Persistence Chemical Interactions Minimizing Toxic Effects • Metabolic Degradation • Excretion • Repair Mechanisms Measuring Toxicity • • • • Animal Testing Toxicity Ratings Acute vs. Chronic Doses and Effects Detection Limits Assessment • Risks • Acceptable risks?? Risk Analysis – – – – – Identifying Risks The Greatest Risks Problems - Risk Assessment Risk-Benefit Analysis Managing Risks CHAPTER 10 FOOD, HUNGER AND NUTRITION Human Nutrition • Energy Needs – undernourishment – over-nourishment • Nutritional Needs – – – – – proteins carbohydrates lipids and oils minerals vitamins World Food Resoureces • Major Crops – – – – wheat rice corn potatoes • Meat and Milk • Croplands Increasing Food Production • Green Revolution – Technology – Genetic Engineering – Increased Farm Output • New Food Sources • Blue Revolution – Aqua-culture Agricultural Economics • • • • • Food Supplies Food Subsidies Agricultural Aid International Food Trade Cash Crops • World Hunger – Famines – Food Shortages CHAPTER 11 SOIL RESOURECES AND SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE What is soil? • Soil, a renewable resource • Soil composition – humus • Soil organisms • Soil profiles – – – – top soil sub-soil parent material bedrock Use and Abuse of Soil • Land Resources • Land Degradation Erosion • Types of erosion – – – – sheet erosion rill erosion gully erosion streambank erosion • Erosion in the United States • Erosion in other countries Agricultural Resources • • • • • Water Fertilizer Climate Energy Crop Diversity Soil Conservation • Managing Topography – – – – contour plowing strip-farming tied ridges terracing • Providing Ground Cover – cover crops – mulch • Reduced Tillage Systems CHAPTER 12 PEST CONTROL What are Pest and Pesticides? • Biological Pests – Insects – Large animals • Botanical Pests – Weeds • Pesticides – Insecticides • Herbicides – Fungicides Pest Controls • Early Controls – Botanical – Chemical • Modern Controls – Synthetic chemicals • DDT Pesticide Types • Inorganic pesticides • Natural organic pesticides – botanicals • • • • • Fumigants Chlorinated hydrocarbons Organophosphates Carbamates Microbial agents Pesticide Benefits • Disease control • Crop protection • Increased crop production Pesticide Problems • • • • Effects on Nontarget Species Pesticide Resistance/Pest resurgence Creation of New Pests Persistence and Mobility in the Environment • Human Health Problems Alternative Pesticide Uses • Crop rotation • Biological controls – predatory insects – pathogens • Herbivorous insects • Genetic and bioengineering Reducing Pesticide Exposure • Regulation – EPA – USDA • Personal Safety CHAPTER 13 BIODIVERSITY Biodiversity and Species Concept • What is Biodiversity? • What are species? – Number of species Benefits of Biodiversity • • • • • Food Drugs Medicine Ecological Benefits Aesthetic and Cultural Benefits Threats to Biodiversity • Extinction • Natural Causes • Mass Extinction Human-Caused Reductions in Biodiversity • • • • • • • • Habitat Destruction Hunting and Fishing Commercial products and Live Specimens Predator and Pest Control Exotic Species Introductions Disease Pollution Genetic Assimilation Biodiversity Protection • • • • • • • • • • Hunting and Fishing Laws Endangered Species Act Recovery Plans Private Land and Critical Habitat Minimum Viable Populations Habitat Protection International Wildlife Treaties Zoos Botanical Gardens Captive Breeding Programs CHAPTER 14 LAND USE: FORESTS AND RANGELANDS World Land Use • • • • Forest, 30% Range and pasture, 26% Cropland, 1% Other, 33 – – – – tundra desert wetlands urban areas World Forests • Forest Distribution – Closed canopy – Open canopy – Woodland Forest Products • Industrial Timber • Fuelwood Tropical Forests • • • • Diminishing Forests Swidden Agriculture Logging and Land Invasions Forest Protection – Reforestation • Debt-for-Nature Swaps Temperate Forests • • • • Ancient forest/old growth forests Wilderness Protection Wildlife Protection Harvesting old growth forests – clear-cutting – strip-cutting – selective-cutting • Fire Management Rangelands • Range Management • Overgrazing and Land Degradation – desertification • Forage Conversion • Harvesting Wild Animals Rangelands in the U.S. • Bureau of Land Management • State of the Range – feral animals • Grazing Fees Land Ownership • Who owns what? • Land Reform • Indigenous Lands CHAPTER 15 PRESERVING NATURE Parks and Nature Preserves • Origins and History • Natural Landscaping North American Parks – Existing Systems – U.S. National Park System – Park Problems • • • • Over crowding Roads Commercialism Pollution – Wildlife – New Directions – New Parks World Parks and Preserves • Biosphere Reserves • Protecting Natural Heritage • Size and Design of Nature Preserves – – – – recreation areas historic areas conservation areas pristine research areas • Conservation and Economic Development • Indigenous Communities Wilderness Areas • Wildlife Refuges – Refuge Management – International Wildlife Preserves • poaching Wetlands, Floodplains, & Coastal Regions • Wetland Values • Wetland Destruction • Floods and Flood Control – Floodplains • Beaches, barrier Islands, and Estuaries CHAPTER 16 EARTH AND ITS CRUSTAL RESOURCES Earth, A Dynamic Sphere • Earth’s Layers – – – – Crust Mantle Outer Core Inner Core • Tectonic Processes – Tectonic Plates – Magma • Shifting Continents Rock Types & How They Formed • • • • • • Igneous Rock Weathering Sedimentation Sedimentary Rock Biogenic Sedimentation Metamorphic Rock Mineralogy • Metals • Nonmetal Minerals • Strategic Minerals Environmental Effects of Resource Extraction • Mining – tunneling – water leakage – strip mining • Processing – water pollution – chemical emissions Conserving Mineral Resources • Recycling – Aluminum & Platinum – Steel & Iron • Substituting New Materials for Old Ones Geologic Hazards • Earthquakes – Tsunami • Volcanoes • Floods CHAPTER 17 AIR, CLIMATE, AND WEATHER The Atmosphere, Composition & Structure • Gas Mixture • Layered Envelope – – – – – Troposphere Stratosphere Mesosphere Thermosphere Ionosphere Weather Engine • Solar Radiation/ Heat – Albedo (reflectivity) – “Greenhouse effect” • Convection Currents – Water vapor Weather • • • • • Energy Balance in the Atmosphere Convection Cells Prevailing Winds Jet Streams Frontal Weather – cold and warm fronts • Cyclonic Storms – hurricanes and tornadoes • Seasonal Winds – monsoon • Weather Modification Climate • Climatic Catastrophes – Ice Ages • Driving Forces & Patterns in Climatic Changes – Milankovitch Cycles • El Niño Human-caused Global Climate Change • Greenhouse Gases – Carbon Dioxide – Aerosols • Sources – – – – Burning Fossil Fuels Industrial Processes Deforestation Agriculture Effects of Climate Change • • • • • Temperature Changes Impact on Plants and Animals Rising Sea Levels impacting Coastlines Melting Ice Packs Possible Increase of Disease Cutting Emissions • • • • United Nations “Earth Summit” Kyoto Protocol Developed Nations Developing Nations CHAPTER 18 AIR POLLUTION Natural Sources of Air Pollution • Volcanoes • Emissions from vegetation Human-Caused Air Pollution • Primary pollutants • Secondary pollutants • Fugitive emissions Conventional or “Criteria” Pollutants • • • • • • • Sulfur compounds Nitrogen Compounds Carbon Oxides Metals and Halogens Particulate Materials Volatile Organic Compounds Photochemical Oxidants Unconventional Pollutants • • • • Emissions & emissions standards Unconventional or noncriteria pollutants Aesthetic degradation Indoor air Pollution – smoke Climate, Topography, & Atmospheric Processes • • • • Inversions Dust Domes and Heat Islands Long Range Transport Stratospheric Ozone – chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) Effects of Air Pollution • Human Health – bronchitis – emphysema • Plant Pathology • Acid Deposition – – – – – pH and atmospheric acidity aquatic effects forest damage buildings and monuments visibility reduction Air Pollution Control • Moving Pollution to Remote Areas • Particulate Removal – filters • Sulfur Removal – fuel switching and fuel cleaning – limestone injection/fluidized bed combustion – flue gas desulfurization – sulfur recovery processes • Nitrogen Oxide Control • Hydrocarbon Controls Clean Air Legislation • Clean Air Act of 1963 • Amendments of 1970 • Amendments of 1990 – Acid rain – Urban smog – Toxic air pollutants – Ozone protection – Marketing pollution rights – Toxic organic compounds • EPA CHAPTER 19 WATER USE AND MANAGEMENT Water Resources • Hydrologic Cycle – Evaporation/Sublimation – Saturation Point – Relative humidity – Condensation – Dew Point • Rainfall & Topography – Rain Shadow • Desert Belts • Balancing the Water Budget Major Water Compartments • Oceans • Glaciers, Ice, & Snow • Ground Water – infiltration – water table – aquifers • Rivers and Streams • Lakes and Ponds • Wetlands • The Atmosphere Water Availability and Use • Water Supplies • Drought Cycles • Types of Water Use – Withdrawal – Consumption – Degradation • Quantities of Water Use • Use by Sector Freshwater Shortages • A Scarce Resource • Depleting Groundwater – subsidence – sinkholes Increasing Water Supplies • • • • Seeding Clouds &Towing Icebergs Desalination Dams, Reservoirs, Canals, & Aqueducts Environmental Costs – Evaporation, Leakage, and Siltation – Loss of Free-Flowing Rivers Water Management & Conservation • • • • Watershed Management Domestic Conservation Industrial and Agricultural Conservation Price Mechanisms CHAPTER 20 WATER POLLUTION Water Pollution • Point Sources • Non-point Sources • Atmospheric Deposition • • • • Types and Effects of Water Pollution Infectious Agents Oxygen-Demanding Wastes Plant Nutrients & Cultural Eutrophication Toxic Inorganic Materials – Heavy Metals – Nonmetallic Salts – Acids and Bases • Organic Chemicals • Sediments • Thermal Pollution Water Quality Today • Surface Water in the U.S. & Canada • Surface Water in other Countries • Groundwater and Drinking Water Supplies • Ocean Pollution Water Pollution Control • Source Reduction • Non-point Sources and Land Management – – – – Agriculture Urban runoff Construction sites Land disposal • Human Waste Disposal – Natural Processes – Municipal Sewage Treatment • Primary treatment • Secondary treatment • Tertiary treatment – Low-Cost Waste Treatment • effluent sewerage Water Legislation • Clean Water Act • Clean Water Act Reauthorization • Other Important Water Legislation – Safe Drinking Water Act – Superfund – Great lakes Water Quality Agreement CHAPTER 21 CONVENTIONAL ENERGY Energy • A Brief History • Current Energy Sources – – – – Fossil fuels Nuclear power Hydroelectric Solar • Per Capita Consumption • Energy Use Coal • Coal Resources and Reserves • Mining • Air Pollution Oil • Oil Resources and Reserves • Oil Imports and Domestic Supplies • Oil Shales and Tar Sands Natural Gas • Natural Gas Resources and Reserves • Unconventional Gas Sources – Methane hydrate Nuclear Power • • • • Nuclear Reactors: How They Work? Types of Reactors Alternative Reactor Designs Breeder Reactors Radioactive Waste Management • Ocean Dumping • Land Disposal – high-level waste repository – monitored, retrievable storage • Decommissioning Old Nuclear Plants Changing Fortunes of Nuclear Power • Changing Public Opinion • Nuclear Fusion – Magnetic confinement – Inertial confinement CHAPTER 22 SUSTAINABLE ENERGY Conservation • Utilization Efficiencies • Energy Conversion Efficiencies – net energy yield • Negawatt programs • Co-generation Tapping Solar Energy • A Vast Resource • Passive Solar Heat • Active Solar Heat – Eutectic Chemicals High-Temperature Solar Energy • Solar Cookers • Promoting Renewable Energy • Photovaltaic Solar Energy – Photovoltaic Cells • Storing Electrical Energy Energy from Biomass • • • • Burning Biomass Fuelwood crisis in LDCs Dung and Methane as Fuels Alcohol from Biomass – gasohol • Crop Residues, Energy Crops and Peat Energy from the Earth’s Forces • Hydropower – Dams and Hydro Generators • Wind Energy – Wind Farms • Geothermal Energy • Tidal and Wave Energy – Tidal Stations • Ocean Thermal Electric Conversion CHAPTER 23 SOLID, TOXIC AND HAZARDOUS WASTE Solid Waste • Waste Stream – – – – – – – Paper, 38% Yard waste, 17% Metals, 8% Plastics, 8% Glass, 7% Food, 7% Miscellaneous, 14% Waste Disposal Methods • • • • • Open Dumps Ocean Dumpings Landfills Export Waste Incineration and Resource Recovery – Types of incinerators • refuse-derived fuel • mass burn – Incinerator Cost and Safety Reducing the Waste Stream • • • • • Recycling Composting Energy from Waste Reuse Producing Less Waste – Photodegradable plastics – Biodegradable plastics Hazardous and Toxic Wastes • Hazardous Waste Disposal • Superfund • Hazardous Waste Management – Produce Less Waste – Convert to Less Hazardous Substances • Physical treatments • Chemical treatments • Bioremediation – Store Permanently • Retrievable Storage CHAPTER 24 URBANIZATION AND SUSTAINABLE CITIES Urbanization • What is a city? – – – – – – Rural area Urban area Village City Megacity Core region • World Urbanization Causes of Urban Growth • Immigration Push Factors • Immigration Pull Factors • Government Policies Urban Problems • The Developing World – – – – Traffic and Congestion Air Pollution Sewer Systems and Water Pollution Housing • Slums • Shantytowns • Squatter Towns • The Developed World – Urban Problems – Urban Renewal – Noise Transportation and City Growth • Transportation methods – horse & buggy – automobiles • Roads/freeways City Planning • History • Garden Cities and New Towns • Cities of the Future – technopolis • Urban Redesign • Design for Open space – conservation • Urban Redesign – – – – – – – – – – Limit size Development areas Shopping malls into city centers Convenience for shopping and services Job location Exercise areas Diverse housing “Superblocks” Self-sustainable food and waste centers Public participation CHAPTER 25 WHAT THEN SHALL WE DO? Environmental Education • Environmental Literacy • Environmental Careers Individual Accountability • Shopping for Green Products – – – – – precycling Non toxic products recyclable products natural products Environmentally friendly products • Blue Angels and Green Seals • Limits of Green Consumerism • Paying Attention to What’s Important Collective Actions • • • • • • Student Environmental Groups Mainline Environmental Organizations Broadening the Environmental Agenda Deep or Shallow Environmentalism Radical Environmental Groups Anti-environmental Backlash Global Issues • Public Opinions and Environmental Protection – “Post materialist” values • Sustainable Development • International Nongovernmental Organizations Green Government and Politics • Green Politics – “Green” Parties • • • • • • Green Plans National Legislation Courts Executive Branch Environmental Impact Statements International Environmental Treaties and Conventions