Geografi Pertanian
Tipe Pertanian
Perkembangan Pertanian
• Hunter-Gatherers
• Neolithic Revolution
– Domestication of Plants and Animals
– Diffusion of Agriculture
• Agricultural Industrialization
• The “Green Revolution”
– Hybrids, scientific application of fertilizer, pesticide,
and water
• Modern Agribusiness
• Genetic Engineering of Crops
Neolithic Revolution
Primary effects:
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Urbanization
Social stratification
Occupational specialization
Increased population densities
Secondary effects:
 Endemic diseases
 Famine
 Expansionism
Origins of Agriculture
Which of these areas are considered cultural hearths?
Contemporary Food Consumption
Is there a spatial relationship to the original hearths?
Contemporary Food Production
Agriculture is a global economy.
Developed Countries Undercut Free Markets
in Agriculture
•
Farmers in the developed
world are paid an average
of 2/3 more than the free
market would provide.
•
These subsidies to the
world’s richest farmers
directly damage the
agricultural economies of
the poorest nations.
Agricultural Revolutions
Technology allows much greater production
(surplus) with less human labor, but often
has high social and environmental costs.
 Metal plows, Reapers, Cotton Gin
 Tractors (Internal Combustion Engine)
 Combines
 Chemical Pesticides/Fertilizers
 Hybrid Crops
 Genetically-modified Crops
Agribusiness:
The industrialization of agriculture
 Modern commercial farming is very dependent
on inputs of chemical fertilizer, pesticides,
herbicides.
 Oil is required to make fertilizer and pesticides.
 It takes 10 calories of energy to create 1 calorie
of food in modern agriculture.
 Small farmer can’t buy needed equipment and
supplies.
 Fewer than 2% of U.S. population works in
agriculture
Classifying Agricultural Regions
Subsistence
Agriculture
• Shifting Cultivation
• Pastoral Nomadism
• Intensive Subsistence
Agriculture
Commercial Agriculture
• Mixed Crop and Livestock
Farming
• Dairy Farming
• Grain Farming
• Livestock Ranching
• Mediterranean Agriculture
• Truck Farming
Subsistence Agriculture Regions
Shifting Cultivation
Vegetation “slashed” and then
burned. Soil remains fertile for
2-3 years. Then people move
on.
 where: tropical rainforests.
Amazon, Central and West
Africa, Southeast Asia
 Crops: upland rice (S.E. Asia),
maize and manioc (S.
America), millet and sorghum
(Africa)
Declining at hands of ranching
and logging.
Perladangan Berpindah
 Lahan ditanami berpindah secara berkala, sehingga lahan yang
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telah dipanen sebelumnya dibiarkan bera dan menjadi hutan
kembali kemudian akan ditanami lagi setelah siklus waktu tertentu
Dijumpai di wilayah hutan tropik basah (di Indonesia: di sebagian
daerah Sulawesi, Kalimantan, Irian dan sebagian kecil Sumatra)
Lahan adalah milik bersama dan dikuasai oleh kelompok sosial
( suku). Kepala suku/adat umumnya menentukan lahan yang boleh
dimanfaatkan oleh setiap keluarga/anggota sukunya.
Masa regenerasi perpindahan akan mempertahankan kesuburan
lahan, kalau hal itu berlangsung cukup lama dan jumlah penduduk
sedikit.
Pekerjaan dilakukan keluarga, pembagian kerja menurut adat
istiadat. Pria membuka lahan, wanita bertanggung jawab
menanami, mengolah dan yang lebih maju lagi menangani
pemasaran hasil pertanian.
Pastoral Nomadism
The breeding and herding of
domesticated animals for
subsistence.
Bedouin Shepherd
Somali Nomad and Tent
 where: arid and semi-arid areas
of N. Africa, Middle East, Central
Asia
 animals: Camel, Goats, Sheep,
Cattle
 transhumance: seasonal
migrations from highlands to
lowlands
Most nomads are being pressured
into sedentary life as land is
used for agriculture or mining.
Penggembalaan Berpindah
 Merupakan tipe penggembalaan dimana ternak digiring
secara periodik ke padang rumput
 Dua sistim utama penggembalaan berpindah : (1) Sistim
tranchumance - imigrasi secara periodik kawanan
hewan milik orang yang hidup menetap, (2) Sistim
pastoral nomadism---penggembalaan oleh kelompok
sosial (suku atau keluarga besar) dengan hewan
gembalanya melewati wilayah suku berupa padang
rumput yang umumnya dimiliki atas dasar tradisi dan
kekuasaan
 Ternak--cadangan pemenuhan kebutuhan sendiri dan saat
nomadik serta sebagai simbol martabat
 Penggembalaan berpindah nampaknya masih bisa dilacak
di wilayah Indonesia bagian timur terutama untuk
daerah-daerah padang rumput di Nusa Tenggara Timur
Intensive Subsistence Agriculture
• Wet Rice Dominant
The Fields of Bali
Thai Rice Farmers
 where: S.E. Asia, E. India,
S.E. China
 very labor intensive
production of rice,
including transfer to
sawah, or paddies
 most important source of
food in Asia
 grown on flat, or
terraced land
Double cropping is used
in warm winter areas of
S. China and Taiwan
Pertanian Keluarga
 Hak milik dan hak pakai ada di tangan masing-masing
keluarga. Pengelolaan dan pekerjaan dilakukan oleh keluarga
yang memiliki lahan pertanian, dan dengan demikian tidak
terikat kepada kelompok sosial yang lebih besar
 Lahan adalah faktor pemersatu dalam sistim sosial pedesaan
sekaligus sebagai landasan kehidupan, faktor produksi,
kemakmuran dan tempat tinggal.
 Sesuai dengan tradisi, lahan tidak dijual, melainkan
dimanfaatkan dan kemudian diwariskan kepada generasi
berikutnya (keberlanjutan generasi)---- keep in mind of family
farming in Japan case !!!!
 Jika luas cukup--memenuhi kebutuhan kel. tani-- pertanian
keluarga merip sistim yang stabil dengan perbedaan sosial
kecil, sehingga cocok bagi kegiatan koperasi----dapat dikelola
secara komersial
Pertanian Feodalistik
• Feodalisme--stratifikasi sosial-kepemilikan aset: Dua tipe
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pertanian feodalistik yaitu (1) feodalisme persewaan dan (2)
latufundia (hacienda)
Feodalisme Persewaan-- kekuasaan ekonomi sbg dasar tuan
tanah untuk menguasai petani kecil dan landless. Petani kecilterpaksa membayar sewa tinggi, tergantung secara pribadi pada
pemilik aset besar-terjadi konsentrasi pemilikan modal
Bagi tuan tanah-lahan sbg. kekayaan untuk disewakan dan juga
martabat dan kekuasaan -baca buku James Scott (Moral
Economy).
Latufundia -pemilikan lahan yang luar biasa luasnya (exp.
Amerika Latin). Bentuk hacienda (facenda)- UU kolonial yang
memperbolehkan kerja paksa/ pemberian hadiah lahan bagi jasa
kemiliteran
Lahan merupakan sumber kehormatan, kekuasaan, dan
spekulasi ekonomi.
Commercial Agriculture
Value-Added
 Very little of the value
of most commercial
products comes from
the raw materials
 “adding value” is the
key to high profit
margins
Roughly 6% of the price of cereal is the cost of the grain.
Mixed Crop and Livestock Farming
Mixed Crop and Livestock Farming
Where: Ohio to Dakotas, centered on Iowa;
much of Europe from France to Russia
 crops: corn (most common), soybeans
 In U.S. 80% of grain production is fed to pigs and
cattle!
 Highly inefficient use of natural resources
 Pounds of grain to make 1 lb. beef: 10
 Gallons of water to make 1 1b wheat: 25
 Gallons of water to make 1 1b. beef: 2500
Pertanian Kapitalistik
• Tipe pertanian kapitalistik yang paling penting di
negara yang sedang berkembang adalah plantation
/esatate /“perkebunan”.
• Sebuah perkebunan ialah sebuah pertanian yang
berskala besar yang mengutamakan tanaman tahunan
misalnya pohon, semak atau perdu, seringkali sistim
penanamannya satu jenis (monokultur)--- sawit, karet,
cengkeh, kopi, dll
• Hasilnya biasanya diolah secara industri di pabrik
pengolahan perkebunan itu sendiri dan diarahkan
untuk ekspor---- mendahulukan kepentingan asing dan
merupakan suatu gugus yang tertutup –ada persepsi-only has small economic impact to the peasant/villagers.
Pertanian Kolektif
 Didalam pertanian kolektif , produksi telah
diserahkan kepada rakyat dan produksi
direncanakan oleh negara.
 Pertanian kolektif umumnya bukan hanya
merupakan sistim ekonomi tetapi lebih
merupakan pandangan hidup secara
keseluruhan, berdasarkan politik, etika
Pertanian Komunistik
• Sindrom politik atau etika keagamaan. Contoh—China
komune/masyarakat memunyai satu bentuk kolektif yang
meliputi semua sektor kehidupan dan ekonomi tidak hanya
terbatas peda sektor pert. saja.
• Kesatuan ini dapat mencapai luas sebuah desa mancakup
produksi pertanian dan industri, jasa, pendidikan, pelayanan
kesehatan, kebudayaan, administrasi dan masalah-masalah
politik maupun aspek-aspek konsumsi dan kehidupan pribadi.
• Tata kerja diatur ketat menyerupai militer. Kebutuhan dasar
diatur atas persamaan hak dan dipenuhi oleh upah dasar dalam
bentuk uang kontan dan natura berupa makanan pokok maupun
pembebanan biaya pendidikan, pelayanan kesehatan dan
sebagainya.
• Perbedaan pendapatan --- antar komune --Penggunaan paksaan -menjamin peran serta masyarakat- tekanan politik maupun
keadaan darurat
Pertanian Sosialistik
 Ideologi sosialistik--- pemikiran pribadi atas lahan
mengarah pada “pemerataan”.
 Pertanian sosialistik memiliki konsepsi bahwa
pertanian kecil telah ketinggalan oleh kemajuan
teknik dan oleh karena itu harus digabungkan
dengan unit-unit ekonomi yang besar -- perencanaan
produksi yang ketat oleh pemerintah Contoh: Rusia kolkhoz, pengendalian produksi dibawah pengaruh
negara namun negara tidak diharuskan menanggung
resiko ekonomi – membawa perbaikan pada
sebagian kelompok rumah tangga yang
berpenghasilan rendah -- Kelemahan: terjadi
penumpukan unskilled workers, pengawasan dan
birokrasi komplek dan tingkat produksi rendah
Dairy Farming
Where: near urban
areas in N.E. United
States, Southeast
Canada, N.W. Europe
- Over 90% of cow’s milk is
produced in developed
countries. Value is added as
cheese, yogurt, etc.
Dairy Farm, Wisconsin
Von Thunen’s theories are the beginning of
location economics and analysis (1826)
Locational Theory : butter and cheese more
common than milk with increasing distance
from cities and in West.
Milkshed : historically defined by spoilage
threat; refrigerated trucks changed this.
Prairie Cereal Farming
Where: worldwide in semi-arid midlatitudes, but
U.S. and Russia predominant
Crops: wheat
 winter wheat: Kansas, Colorado, Oklahoma
 spring wheat: Dakotas, Montana, southern Canada
Highly mechanized: combines, worth hundreds of
thousands of dollars, migrate northward in U.S.,
following the harvest.
Livestock Ranching
Where: arid or semi-arid areas of western U.S.,
Argentina, Brazil, Uruguay, Spain and Portugal.
History: initially open range, now sedentary with
transportation changes.
Environmental effects:
1) overgrazing has
damaged much of the
world’s arid grasslands
(< 1% of U.S. remain!)
2) destruction of the
rainforest is motivated
by Brazilian desires for
fashionable cattle
ranches
Pertanian Mediterania
Where: areas surrounding the Mediterranean,
California, Oregon, Chile, South Africa, Australia
Climate has summer dry season. Landscape is mountainous.
• Highly valuable crops: olives, grapes, nuts, fruits and
vegetables; winter wheat
• California: high quality land is being lost to suburbanization;
initially offset by irrigation
Commercial Gardening
and Fruit Farming
Where: U.S. Southeast, New
England, near cities around
the world
• crops: high profit vegetables
and fruits demanded by
wealthy urban populations:
apples, asparagus, cherries,
lettuce, tomatoes, etc.
• mechanization: such truck
farming is highly mechanized
and labor costs are further
reduced by the use of cheap
immigrant (and illegal) labor.
• distribution: situated near
urban markets.
Plantation Farming
• large scale mono-cropping of profitable products
not able to be grown in Europe or U.S.
• where: tropical lowland Periphery
• crops: cotton, sugar cane, coffee, rubber, cocoa,
bananas, tea, coconuts, palm oil.
What are potential problems with this type of
agriculture? Environmental? Social?
Making
Sense of
the Map of
US
Agricultural
Regions
The
Green Revolution
in Agriculture
The term green revolution refers to the development and
adoption of high yielding cereal grains in the less developed
world during the 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s. Very large short
term gains in grain output have allowed food supplies to
grow faster than populations, until very recently.
Green Revolution History
 Acreage and Yield Trends
 Technical Problems
 Ethical Issues

1943 Rockefeller Foundation begins work on
short stature hybrid corn in Mexico
1960s Hybrid strains of rice, wheat, and corn
show great success in S.E. Asia, and Latin
America.
1970 Head of Mexican corn program, Borlaug,
wins Nobel Peace Prize
1990s Growth in food supply continues, but
slows to below the rate of population
growth, as the results of unsustainable
farming practices take effect.
Acreage and Yield Trends
Gains were made by:
• Dwarf varieties: plants are bred to
allocate more of their photosynthetic
output to grain and less to vegetative
parts.
• Planting in closer rows, allowed by
herbicides, increases yields.
• Bred to be less sensitive to day length,
thus double-cropping is more plausible.
• Very sensitive to inputs of fertilizer and
water.
Acreage and Yield Trends
Acreage and Yield Trends
Acreage and Yield Trends
Acreage and Yield Trends
Notice the trend in recent years is level or down.
Technical and Resource Limitation Problems
Technical and Resource Limitation Problems
• Heavy Use of Fresh Water
• High Dependence on Technology and
Machinery Provided/Sold by Core
Countries
• Heavy Use of Pesticides and Fertilizer (and
associated pollution and waste)
• Reduced Genetic Diversity / Increased
Blight Vulnerability
Technical and Resource Limitation Problems
Ethical Issues
• Starvation of many prevented, but extra food may lead
to higher birth rates.
• Life expectancy in less developed countries increased
by 10 years in less than two decades (43 in 1950’s to 53
in 1970’s).
• Dependency on core countries increased; rich-poor gap
increased.
• Wealthy farmers and multinational companies do well,
small farmers become wage laborers or unemployed –
dependent.
• More at risk? More people malnourished/starving today
than in 1950 (but lower as a percentage).
• U.S. spends $10,000,000,000 year on farm subsidies,
damaging farmers and markets in LDCs.
Agricultural ‘Success’?
“Our incredible successes as a species are largely derived from
this choice, but the biggest threats to our existence stem from
the same decision.”
Jared Diamond, 1999
 Emergence of new human diseases from animal
diseases (i.e. smallpox, measles)
• Dense urban populations allow spread/persistence of disease
 Lower standard of living for many people.
• Archaeological evidence of serious mal-nourishment among
early farmers.
• Many modern impoverished and malnourished farmers.
• Famine virtually non-existent in hunter-gatherer societies.
 Increased susceptibility to plant blights and increased
dependence on complex economic systems.
 Environmental degradation
• topsoil loss (75% in U.S.), desertification, eutrophication, PCBs in fish,
DDT and other pesticides
Biotechnology in Agriculture
• Cloning
• Recombinant DNA
BT Corn Debate (transgenic maize)
Biotechnology in Agriculture
• Potential Benefits of Genetic Engineering
of Crops
– Increased Yields
– Increased Nutritional Value in Some Staple
Crops (e.g., Vitamin A added to Rice)
• Strong Political Resistance in Europe and
Among Environmentalists Worldwide
• Concerns about Long Term Safety and
Risks
Future Challenges
• World Population Expected to Increase to
10-12 Billion Before Stabilizing
• Food Production Already Exerting
Extreme Environmental Pressures
– 25% of All Greenhouse Gas Release in U.S.
is from Agriculture. That’s more than all
transport.
– Much Soil is Already Badly Damaged
• Developed Countries Still Undermining
3rd World Agriculture with Subsidies and
Taxes