MGT8033: Design, implementation and
evaluation of interventions
Learning objectives
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To define the term `intervention’
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To identify and discuss the different types of
interventions
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To identify considerations related to the design of
interventions
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To describe and understand implementation: steps and
activities
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To familiarize and understand the role and importance of
evaluation of interventions (change programs)

To identify issues associated with institutionalizing
intended changes
Defining ‘intervention’
An intervention is a series of (planned) actions
intended to increase the effectiveness of an
organization.
In crude terms perhaps, the intervention is the
treatment (or plan to seize the opportunity)
Also …. the change program
Choice of intervention is informed by the
diagnosis which precedes it
Interventions purposely disrupt the status quo.
Characteristics of an effective intervention
Three criteria
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1. fits the organisation’s needs
relevant (to the org. & its members)
valid info about the org’s functioning
enable members free and informed choice
members have commitment (ownership)

2. based on (causal) knowledge of intended outcomes (see
difficulties Waddell et al p. 155)

3. transfers the competence to manage the change to the
organisation (the client)
i.e not same reliance on consultant in future change programs
How to design effective interventions
Contingencies (things that can affect
achievement) related to the change
situation

Readiness for change (what indicators might be
useful?)
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Capability to change (e.g. skills to lead, develop
support, sustain the urgency)
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Cultural context (e.g. team-based interventions may not
fit with usual practices)

Capabilities of the change agent (knowledge &
skills required may be beyond the agent’s capacities)
How to design effective interventions
Contingencies related to the target of change
 Organisational issues

Strategy
certain interventions enable organisations to make better
strategic decisions
more recent additions to the range of OD interventions

Technology and structure
includes how to divide/allocate work (differentiation)
includes how to then coordinate work to achieve strategic
goals & objectives (integration)
How to design effective interventions
Contingencies related to the target of
change
 Organisational issues (continued)

Human Resources
interventions that address how to attract the
suitably skilled, developing, retaining, etc

Interpersonal
focus on social processes
typically, group dynamics, communication,
leadership, decision-making
Categories of interventions
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Interpersonal (formerly human process):
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focuses on people within organisations and the processes
through which they accomplish goals e.g. T-Group, Grid organisation
development
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Technostructural:
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focuses on technology and structure of the organisation
e.g. downsizing

Human Resource Management:
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focuses on personnel practices used to integrate people into the
organisation e.g. career planning
Strategic:
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focuses on linking the internal functioning of the organisation to
the external environment e.g. open systems planning
Implementing change - a six step process
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Step 1: Motivating Change
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Cannot expect members’ support. Typically, heavy
investment in status quo
Support given when compelling reasons are evident
Requires creating a culture which is ready for change
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Ensure org. members aware of pressures for change
Identify gap between current & desired states
Communicate achievable & positive expectations
Managing resistance to change:
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Resistance can be positive and constructive if there is
empathy and support, communication and involvement
Implementing change
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Step 2: Creating a vision
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Describing a desired future state
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Ideally, consistent with org. members’ view
Needs a clear justification
Achievable, otherwise impetus for change will not occur
Leader-driven - with broad support/participation necessary
Clear valued outcomes to drive the change program
Energising commitment

Should be exciting, connected to the past, present and future …
and compelling
Implementing change
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Step 3: Developing political support:
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Organisations are loosely structured coalitions
Change typically upsets existing balance of power
Threatened groups typically resist: beneficiaries will
typically promote/agitate for the change
Conflict, disinformation, and other ‘political’ behaviour
should therefore be expected
Implementing change
Step 3: Developing political support:
Involves the following activities …
1. Assessing change agent power
 May need to build power sources – viz. knowledge,
personality and others’ support
2. Identifying key stakeholders

Who are the other powerbrokers (individuals & groups)?
3. Influencing stakeholders

Playing it straight, social networks and utilising the formal
system (see Waddell et al 2011, pp. 170-1).
Implementing change

Step 4: Managing the transition:
from current
state … to transition state … to future state
 Activity planning
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Commitment planning
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Detailed ‘road map’ with top management support, and
flexibility as feedback determines
Identification of key stakeholders, and how to gain their support
Management structures
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Allocation of key roles and responsibilities (see Waddell et al
2011, pp. 172-3 for the range of possible structures)
Implementing change
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Step 5: Sustaining momentum:
continual reinforcement of the need to succeed with the
change process … otherwise, commitment wanes
 4 specific activities
i. Providing resources for change

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Substantial change cannot develop without extra financial, human
resource, energy and time allocations
ii. Building a support system for change agents
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A professional network of like-minded personnel
Emotional support (for all participants incl. change agents
Implementing change
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Step 5: Sustaining momentum:
4 specific activities (continued)
iii. Developing new competencies and skills
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Change often demands new skills, knowledge &
behaviours
Required learning includes technical & social skills
iv. Reinforcing new behaviours
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Prevent return to the ‘old ways’
Reward behaviours that support intended change
Intrinsics included … & linked to early successes
Implementing change
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Step 6: Start all over again
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Change is a continual process and never
finished
The end of one cycle is the beginning of
the next
Resources (including energy) must be
made available for the longer term. The
temptation to backslide (to what was
known, understood and accepted) is
invariably strong.
Implementation and Evaluation Feedback
Evaluating interventions
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Implementation and evaluation feedback
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Achievement of change goals cannot be taken for granted
Change agents often required to justify investment in
change … hard data (bottom-line) warranted
Evaluation aimed at guiding implementation (ongoing and
informs the change process) is implementation feedback
Assessment intended to discover intervention outcomes
are called evaluation feedback
Implementing change
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Measurement (provision of useful feedback
involves two key elements)
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Selecting variables
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Should derive from the intent that underlies the
interventions; should incorporate the key
features as well as expected results
Designing good measures
Operational definition
 Reliability
 validity
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Framework –
Institutionalising interventions
Institutionalising interventions
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Occurs when change is part of normal
functioning, i.e. embedded in the organisation’s
culture
Contemporary concerns about
‘institutionalising’ as this infers setting or
(Lewin’s) refreezing. Perceptions that change is
a constant in the contemporary organisation,
has meant a rethink.
Institutionalising has ‘morphed’ a little … to the
point that the need for (continual) change has
in many instances become the focus of any
refreeze.
Institutionalising interventions:

Organisation characteristics (important elements of an
organisation that can affect (impede?) efforts to institutionalise
changes)
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Congruence
– The extent to which an intervention is in harmony with
strategy, structure (remember the 7-Ss?) & managerial
orientation
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Stability of environment and technology
– Degree of protection of the change target from the vagaries
of other environmentally-driven changes
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Unionisation
– Unions can be strong supporters of change, but the opposite
may also hold when their interests are confronted by
intended changes
Institutionalising interventions

Intervention characteristics (important elements of an
intervention that can affect (impede?) efforts to institutionalise
changes)
 Goal specificity (the greater the specificity the better)
 Programmability (when intervention characteristics are clear
at outset, commitment and reward allocation are easier to
manage)
 Level of change target (individual, group or organisationlevel, each has supporters & inhibitors)
 Internal and external support
 Sponsor(s) (the presence of a powerful sponsor from the
upper levels of the organisation can legitimise and help to
control use of resources
Institutionalising interventions
Institutionalisation processes
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Socialisation
 learning & experimenting accompany intervention, meaning effort
is required to encourage persistence
Commitment
 Required throughout the levels of organisation hierarchy
Reward allocation
 When linked to desired behaviours increases likelihood of
refreezing
Diffusion
 Take-up by other areas limits probability of opposition
Sensing and calibration
 Detecting deviations from desired outcomes & correction
Institutionalising interventions

Indicators of institutionalisation (or how to assess
degree of persistence with the intervention)
 Knowledge do the org. members know the behaviours
associated with the intervention?
 Performance frequency or number of members adopting the
preferred new behaviours
 Preferences genuine personal acceptance is much stronger
than peer-induced consent or acquiescence
 Normative consensus the extent to which the desired
behaviour becomes routine
 Value consensus social consensus on values that are
relevant to the intended changes
Summary

Only the most appropriate interventions
should be used in a change process
 Two questions will help to determine which
intervention is required: What is the type of
change required? What is the impact of the
change intended?
 Once interventions have been selected they
must be implemented and evaluated as part
of the formal process.