5th Edition
Psychology
Stephen F. Davis
Emporia State University
Joseph J. Palladino
University of Southern Indiana
PowerPoint Presentation by
Cynthia K. Shinabarger Reed
Tarrant County College
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Chapter 6
5th Edition
Motivation and
Emotion
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What Is Motivation?
•
•
Motivation refers to physiological or
psychological factors that account for the
arousal, direction, and persistence of behavior.
The aspects of motivation are
a) a factor or motivational state that prompts the
behavior,
b) the goal(s) toward which the behavior is directed,
and
c) the reasons for differences in the intensity of the
behavior.
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Theories of Motivation
• Incentive theories see motivated behavior
as being pulled by the incentive or goal;
the larger or more powerful the incentive,
the stronger the pull.
• According to Maslow's theory, motivational
needs are arranged hierarchically from
basic physiological needs to selfactualization.
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Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
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Theories of Motivation
• Maslow’s theory is often characterized as
a growth theory of motivation because
people strive to satisfy successively higher
needs.
• Critics note that not everyone proceeds
through the hierarchy as Maslow outlined.
• What’s more, in some societies people
have difficulty meeting basic needs, yet
they may be able to satisfy higher needs.
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Theories of Motivation
• Biological theories of motivation focus on
the importance of biological or
physiological processes that determine
behavior.
• Among these processes are unlearned
behaviors that are part of an organism’s
repertoire from birth.
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Theories of Motivation
• Instincts are
unlearned, speciesspecific behaviors that
are more complex than
reflexes and triggered
by environmental
events called releasing
stimuli.
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Motivation and Imprinting
• Konrad Lorenz’s research
• Geese, Ducks, “Mary’s Little Lamb”.
• Critical periods of sensitivity
– Precocial vs altricial species
• Evolutionary Significance for survival
– Short Term survival significance
• Safety, nurturance, food
– Long Term survival significance
• Sex and reproduction foster species survival
• Connections to “imitation”
• Connections to neuroscience.
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Theories of Motivation
• A drive is an internal motivational state
created by a physiological need.
• The drive-reduction theory views
motivated behavior as designed to reduce
a physiological imbalance and return the
organism to “homeostasis”.
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Theories of Motivation
• Drive reduction signals the organism that a particular
need has been reduced and that behaviors designed to
reduce other current drives can be engaged.
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Theories of Motivation
• Optimum-level theory states that the
body functions best at a specific level of
arousal, which varies from one individual
to another.
• To reach this level, the organism may seek
added stimulation or arousal.
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Theories of Motivation
• Cognitive theories of motivation focus on
how we process and understand
information.
• According to cognitive-consistency
theories, we are motivated to achieve a
psychological state in which our beliefs
and behaviors are consistent because
inconsistency between beliefs and
behaviors is unpleasant.
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Theories of Motivation
• Cognitive
dissonance occurs
when incompatible
thought creates an
aversive state that
the organism is
motivated to reduce.
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Theories of Motivation
• Because cognitive dissonance produces
discomfort, it motivates us to reduce the
discomfort.
• We seek to reduce the discomfort by
creating cognitive consonance—the state
in which our cognitions are compatible
with one another.
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Theories of Motivation
• Once a difficult decision has been made,
many people wonder whether they made
the right decision.
• This postdecisional dissonance is reduced
by raising one’s evaluation of the chosen
item and decreasing the evaluation of the
rejected item.
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Theories of Motivation
• The existence of multiple motives often
results in conflicts.
• The most common conflicts are:
– approach-approach,
– avoidance-avoidance,
– approach-avoidance,
– and multiple approach-avoidance.
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Specific Motives
• One factor in hunger regulation is blood
glucose (blood sugar) levels.
• When our supply of glucose is high and
the cells of the body are able to use it,
hunger is low.
• As the blood sugar supply decreases,
hunger increases.
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Specific Motives
• The amount of stored body fat also serves
as a hunger signal.
• When a person’s weight falls, fat is
withdrawn from the fat cells and a hunger
signal is sent to the brain.
• When fat cells are full, no signal is sent.
• The hypothalamus is the brain structure
that receives hunger signals.
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Specific Motives
• Dietary factors contribute substantially to
the burden of preventable illnesses and
premature deaths in the United States.
• Obesity is a significant risk factor for heart
disease, high blood pressure, and
diabetes.
• Obesity and being overweight are
associated with several types of cancer
(colon, gallbladder, prostate, and kidney).
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Specific Motives
• Obesity is defined as body weight of 20% or
more in excess of desirable body weight.
• Body mass index (BMI) is a numerical
index calculated from a person’s height and
weight that is used to indicate health status
and disease risk.
• Genetic factors play a key role in
determining a person's weight.
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Specific Motives
• Heredity may influence what we weigh by affecting
our basal metabolic rate (BMR), the minimum
energy needed to keep an awake, resting body
alive.
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Specific Motives
• Accumulating research suggests that
biological factors alone do not fully explain
obesity; thus, we should also consider
social and cultural factors.
• Among women, obesity is related to social
class.
• Rates of obesity are higher among people
in the lower socioeconomic classes than
among those in the middle and upper
socioeconomic classes.
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Specific Motives
• When considering diets, it is important to note
that the body does not treat all calories alike.
• One gram of carbohydrates or protein contains 4
calories, whereas 1 gram of fat contains 9
calories.
• What’s more, high-fat diets require fewer
calories for digestion than high-carbohydrate
diets.
• Once the fat is deposited in the body, few
calories are needed to maintain it, so it is difficult
to remove.
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Specific Motives
• Anorexia nervosa is a potentially lifethreatening eating disorder occurring
primarily in adolescent and young adult
females.
• It involves an intense fear of becoming fat
that leads to self-starvation and weight
loss accompanied by a strong belief that
one is fat despite objective evidence to the
contrary.
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Specific Motives
• Bulimia nervosa is an eating disorder in
which a victim alternatively consumes
large amounts of food (gorging) and then
empties the stomach (purging), usually by
induced vomiting.
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Specific Motives
• Although sex is classified as a biological
motive, it is different from other biological
motives in important ways.
• An individual’s potential to respond
sexually to persons of the same sex, the
opposite sex, or both is called sexual
orientation.
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Specific Motives
• Growing evidence suggests that biological
factors play an important role in the
development of sexual orientation.
• Sexual behavior is influenced by external
factors, brain mechanisms, and hormones.
• Pheromones are chemical odors emitted
by some animals that appear to influence
the behavior of members of the same
species.
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Specific Motives
• Sex hormones are highly significant in
directing sexual behavior in lower animals;
however, their role in directing human
sexual behavior is less clear.
• The hypothalamus regulates sexual
behavior.
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Specific Motives
• Masters and Johnson
outlined the stages of
sexual arousal:
excitement, plateau,
orgasm, and
resolution.
• They also pioneered
the development of
techniques to treat
sexual dysfunctions.
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Specific Motives
•
Achievement consists of three
components:
a) behaviors that manipulate the
environment in some manner,
b) rules for performing those behaviors,
and
c) accepted performance standards
against which people compete and
compare their performance.
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Specific Motives
•
•
•
The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) has
been used to measure levels of
achievement motivation.
When you take the TAT, you are asked to
create a story about a series of pictures that
depict people in ambiguous situations.
Participants are believed to attribute their
own motives to the figures in the ambiguous
pictures.
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The What and The Why of Emotion
• Emotion refers to physiological changes
and conscious feelings of pleasantness or
unpleasantness, aroused by external and
internal stimuli, that lead to behavioral
reactions.
• When the subjective feelings associated
with emotions last for an extended period
of time, we call them moods.
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The What and The Why of Emotion
• Charles Darwin suggested that emotional
expressions have a biological basis.
• Emotions can increase the chances of
survival by providing a readiness for
actions such as fighting predators that
have helped us survive throughout our
evolutionary history.
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Darwin’s observations
Of smiling
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The Physiological Components of
Emotion
• The commonsense view of emotions
states the sequence of events in emotional
responding as:
– stimulus
– emotion
– physiological changes.
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The Physiological Components of
Emotion
• The James-Lange theory states that
physiological changes precede and cause
emotions.
• In the James-Lange theory the sequence
of events in emotional responding is:
– stimulus
– physiological changes
– emotion.
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The Physiological Components of
Emotion
• The Cannon-Bard theory states that the
thalamus relays information
simultaneously to the cortex and to the
sympathetic nervous system, causing
emotional feelings and physiological
changes to occur at the same time.
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The Physiological Components of
Emotion
• Establishing the physiological specificity of
emotions does not require that every
emotion have a unique physiological
signature, only that some emotions differ
from others in consistent ways.
• Research suggests that there are several
differences among emotions.
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The Physiological Components of
Emotion
• One consistent finding is that anger tends to be
associated with cardiovascular changes.
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The Physiological Components of
Emotion
• We can observe physiological patterns in
certain emotions such as embarrassment,
which can lead to blushing.
• Blushing may communicate the message
that the person values the positive regard
of others.
• Blushing can also occur when we are
praised or told that we appear to be
blushing.
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The Physiological Components of
Emotion
• The limbic system is probably the most
important in a discussion of emotion.
• Joseph LeDoux has found that the
amygdala reacts instantly to sensory
inputs and can trigger the fight-or-flight
response while the cortex is evaluating
inputs and making decisions.
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The Physiological Components of
Emotion
• The entire brain plays a role in emotion.
• The right hemisphere appears to be
specialized for perceiving emotion from
facial expressions.
• When normal people report negative
emotions such as fear or disgust, there is
increased activity in their right hemisphere;
the left hemisphere is more active during
positive emotions such as happiness.
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The Physiological Components of
Emotion
• Alexithymia is a marked inability to
experience and express emotions.
• People with alexithymia lack selfawareness; they rarely cry, are described
as colorless and bland, and are not able to
discriminate among different emotions.
• They are often unaware of what others
around them feel.
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The Physiological Components of
Emotion
• The polygraph is an electronic device
(often called a lie detector) that senses
and records changes in several
physiological indices including blood
pressure, heart rate, respiration, and
galvanic skin response.
• Because polygraph tests measure
physiological responses, efforts to modify
these responses can affect test accuracy.
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The Expressive Components of
Emotions
• There is strong evidence for universal
recognition of at least six basic emotions:
anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness,
and surprise.
• Recently, researchers reported a high
degree of reliability in identifying the
emotion of pride, which participants
distinguished from related emotions such
as happiness.
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The Expressive Components of
Emotions
• Robert Plutchik has
offered a model of
how emotions can be
combined to yield
blends that differ in
intensity.
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The Expressive Components of
Emotions
• He proposes eight basic emotions: joy,
trust, fear, surprise, sadness, disgust,
anger, and anticipation.
• These primary emotions can be viewed as
four pairs of polar opposites, and each
emotion exists in varying degrees of
intensity.
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The Expressive Components of
Emotions
• These primary emotions are building
blocks that can be combined to create
more complex emotions, just as primary
colors are combined to form different
hues.
• The result is a three-dimensional structure
consisting of eight groupings of primary
emotions arranged in tiers representing
degrees of intensity and purity.
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The Expressive Components of
Emotions
• The facial feedback hypothesis
contends that feedback from facial
muscles affects our experience of
emotion.
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The Expressive Components of
Emotions
• Display rules are culturally specific
prescriptions that tell us which emotions to
display, to whom, and when.
• Such rules account for some cross-cultural
differences in the expression of emotion.
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The Expressive Components of
Emotions
• Smiling is a social act; we rarely smile
when we are alone.
• It is such a prominent social signal that we
can recognize a smile 300 feet away.
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The Expressive Components of
Emotions
• A real smile of
enjoyment, the
Duchenne smile,
involves activation of
muscles that are not
activated during faked
smiles.
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The Expressive Components of
Emotions
• Nonverbal communication is
communication that involves movements,
gestures, facial expressions, eye contact,
use of personal space, and touching.
• Tone of voice and posture can convey
information that is different from what we
verbalize.
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The Expressive Components of
Emotions
• There are four major categories of body
language: emblems, illustrators,
regulators, and adaptors.
• Emblems are nonverbal gestures and
movements that have well-understood
definitions.
• The meaning of certain gestures varies
with the culture.
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The Expressive Components of
Emotions
• Illustrators are nonverbal gestures or
movements made while speaking that accent or
emphasize words.
• Regulators are actions such as eye contact and
head nods that coordinate the flow of
communication among two or more people.
• Adaptors (or manipulators) are movements or
objects manipulated for a purpose; we use these
when we find ourselves in a particular mood or
situation.
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The Expressive Components of
Emotions
• Paralanguage is communication that
involves aspects of speech such as rate of
talking and tone of voice, but not the
words used.
• Emotions are often associated with shifts
in tone of voice.
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The Expressive Components of
Emotions
• Across ages, cultures, and stimulus persons,
women are more accurate than men in decoding
emotion from nonverbal cues offered by the
face, body, and voice.
• Compared with men, women display more
emotional awareness.
• One possible explanation is that women's roles
and occupations tend to require greater
sensitivity to the emotional expressions in
others.
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The Cognitive Components of
Emotion
• Cultures and languages differ in the
number of terms they use to describe
emotion.
• Some English words describe categories
of emotion that have no equivalents in
other languages; other languages have
emotion words with no equivalents in
English.
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The Cognitive Components of
Emotion
• Schachter and Singer proposed a theory
that described emotion as beginning with
undifferentiated arousal.
• The labels we use to describe our
emotions depend on our immediate
environment and what is on our mind at
the particular moment.
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The Cognitive Components of
Emotion
• Appraisal theories of emotion propose that
how we make judgments about events
leads to emotional reactions.
• Cultural values can influence people's
emotions.
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The Cognitive Components of
Emotion
• Emotions in infancy range from general distress
to pleasure.
• Joyful expression emerges as infants smile and
appear to show excitement and happiness when
confronted with familiar events such as the faces
of people they know.
• Sadness emerges at about 3 months in
connection with the withdrawal of positive
stimulus events.
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The Cognitive Components of
Emotion
• Early on, children learn that emotional
expression is more than making faces and
sounds; it requires timing, an
understanding of context, and knowledge
of the audience receiving the
communication.
• At approximately 3 years of age, the
emotions a child experiences become
highly differentiated.
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The Cognitive Components of
Emotion
• A key cognitive ability is evaluating one's
behavior in relation to standards.
• This ability is the basis of the selfconscious emotions such as shame, guilt,
and pride.
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The Cognitive Components of
Emotion
•
The term emotional intelligence
describes four qualities:
a) the ability to perceive emotions in
others,
b) the ability to facilitate thought,
c) understanding emotions, and
d) managing emotions.
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