Introduction to Research and the
Scientific Method
What is research?
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We ask questions all the time
Research is a formal way of going about asking questions
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Ways of acquiring knowledge
Uses methodologies
Many different kinds (e.g. market research, media research
and social research)
Basic research methods can be learned easily
Ways of acquiring knowledge/belief
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The method of tenacity:
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We know/believe because we know/believe.
Knowledge/belief derives from and is validated by what we hold on to as
our knowledge/belief.
Just because ….
The method of authority:
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Know/believe because authority (somebody or something with the right,
power or special knowledge to say so) says so.
Authority can be any combination of:
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The method of intuition:
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Expertise , tradition/history, public sanction, religion, superstition
Knowledge is acquired/validated with reference to reason or intuition,
otherwise called common sense.
NON-SCIENTIFIC or PRE-SCIENTIFIC
Ways of acquiring knowledge?
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Weaknesses of non-scientific or pre-scientific approaches
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It is difficult, if not impossible to resolve conflicts
Which does not facilitate progress.
Knowledge derived tends to be space-specific, source-specific,
time-bound, not universal, and highly perishable.
What is science?
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William Whewell's classification of
the sciences from Philosophy of
the Inductive Sciences, 2nd 3dn.
vol.2, 1847, p. 117.
What is science?
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Not every human knowledge is science
Science (from the Latin scientia, meaning "knowledge")
In its broadest sense Science is:
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any systematic knowledge-base or prescriptive practice that is
capable of resulting in a prediction or predictable type of
outcome.
In this sense, science may refer to a highly skilled technique or
practice
Also Science is
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The concerted human effort to understand, or to understand
better, the history of the natural world and how the natural
world works, with observable physical evidence as the basis of
that understanding.
Science is a method
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A procedure to produce
knowledge
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i.e. discovering
uniformities/ principles,
laws in this universe.
Results are organized,
systematized, and made
part of the body of
knowledge.
Knowledge Theories
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Empiricism
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Knowledge comes primarily from sensory experience
Central concept in science
Rationalism
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Knowledge is intellectual and deductive
Starting with basic principles all knowledge can be derived
through deduction
Scientific Method
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The scientific method
is popularly attributed
to Galileo who, in
1590, dropped iron
balls of two different
weights off the
Leaning Tower of
Pizza.
Scientific Method
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Galileo Galilei
Born: 15 February 1564
Died: 8 January 1642
Born in Pisa, Italy
Italian physicist,
mathematician,
astronomer, and
philosopher
improvements to the
telescope
Scientific Method
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He wanted to test his
hypothesis that the
forces acting on a
falling object were
independent of the
object's weight.
Scientific Method
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He was correct and so
refuted the previously
held belief that heavier
objects would fall
faster than light
objects.
Scientific Method
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The steps he took:
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observation,
hypothesis generation,
testing of the hypothesis
and refutation or acceptance of the original hypothesis
Process of “sensory experiences”
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Observation  Repetition  Re-observation.
By repeating the observation researchers want to be
definite/positive.
This approach is called positivism
Scientific Method - Characteristics
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Produces/validates knowledge
 With reference to standards and
procedures that are largely
external to the individual, are
more or less permanent
Systematic and controlled method.
 Must follow a well-ordered, tightly
disciplined procedure.
Allows for replication.
 Insists on full disclosure and
explicitness of procedures, the
method
 Can therefore be repeated by
others with a view to
corroborating or refuting its
findings.
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Empirical, grounded in observation
and experience.
 Leads to the collection of
evidence and the testing of such
evidence.
 Largely focuses on what is,
rather than what ought to be
 Seeks to validate knowledge
from evidence
Self-correcting and ‘provisional’
 There is no “final solution”
under this method. It is openended.
Scientific Method - Characteristics
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The ultimate goal of the method is to seek explanation,
rather than mere description.
It seeks to answer the “why” question.
Scientific Method
1. Observation of phenomena;
2. Development of hypothesis to explain observation;
3. Development of predictions based on hypothesis;
4. Experiments conducted to test predictions;
5. Data collection and analysis (data can be numerical,
graphical, visual observations, case studies, etc.);
6. Modify hypothesis until it is consistent with the
observations; and
7. Derive conclusion.
Special
Features of Scientific Method
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Empirical
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Verifiable
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Use senses to confirm or refute the observation.
Intuitions and revelations are out.
Replicability needed.
Cummulative
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Observable phenomenon
Knowledge grows.
Need not start from scratch.
Deterministic
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Explains why things happen?
Parsimony  Minimum No. of variables that explain variance
Special
Features of Scientific Method
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Ethical and ideological neutrality
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Statistical generalization
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Value free. Objectivity. Is it possible?
Subjecting information to statistical analysis.
(Statistics is a device for comparing what is observed and what
is logically expected).
Rationalism
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Employ rigorous rules of logic. Argumentation
Scientific Research Process
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Formulate the Research Idea/Problem.
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Conduct a Literature Review:
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From your own experience/interest/observation/work
Find out and review what work is already done or ongoing
Identify and define your key concepts.
Formulate Research Questions, Objectives and
Hypotheses as appropriate.
Collect your Data.
Analyse and Discuss your Data.
Draw Appropriate Conclusion(s).
Write the Research Report/Dissertation.
Generating Scientific Knowledge
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Induction: moving from specific observations to a general
conclusion.
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Observe phenomena and record them.
Study data recorded for possible patterns and regularities.
Seek explanation(s) to such patterns where they exist.
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This is where a theory that explains what has been discovered, can
emerge.
Deduction: movement from a theory to specific
observations
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on the basis of a theory, an investigator predicts certain
phenomena.
Next, the investigator observes and collects data to ascertain
whether the phenomena occur as predicted.
Inductivism
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General statements (theories) have to be based on empirical
observations, which are subsequently generalized into
statements which can either be regarded as true or probably
true.
The classical example goes from a series of observations:
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Swan no. 1 was white,
Swan no. 2 was white,
Swan no. 3 was white,…
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to the general statement: All swans are white.
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Proof by Induction
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Laws of Logic
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The Law of Identity
The Law of Non-Contradiction
The Law of Rational Inference
The Law of the Excluded Middle
plus Occam’s Razor
Laws of Logic
The Law of Identity
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This states that if
something is true, it is
always true.
That which is, is.
For example, men are
men, women are women
and small furry creatures
from Alpha Centauri are
small furry creatures from
Alpha Centauri;
The Law of NonContradiction
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This states that two
statements which are
antithetical (opposite)
cannot both be true.
For example, Aristotle
cannot be both alive and
dead at the same time;
Laws of Logic
The Law of Rational
Inference
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This states that if
statement A is equal to
statement B and if
statement B is equal to
statement C, then
statement A is equal to
statement C.
The Law of the Excluded
Middle
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This states that if a
statement is not true, then
the opposite of that
statement is taken to be
true.
For example, if Aristotle is
not alive, he must be dead
Or, the disjunctive
proposition "Either it is
raining or it is not raining"
must be true.
Laws of Logic
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Occam’s Razor
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"Entities should not be multiplied unnecessarily" {"Pluralitas
non est ponenda sine neccesitate"},
taken to mean in this case that if two theories present
themselves that are both equally likely to be true, pick the one
that makes the fewest assumptions.
Logic Puzzle
Logic Puzzle
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Aristotle said that there is
a difference between the
following two statements;
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“The wood is not white”
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“It is not white wood”
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Can you see the
difference?
Logic Puzzle - Solution
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“The wood is not white”
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This statement means that the thing under discussion IS wood
BUT isn’t white, so, from example, it could be green wood,
yellow wood or black wood
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“It is not white wood”
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This statement means that it is anything other that white
wood, so, for example, it could be blue wood, green metal, or
white plastic.
Scientific Research
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Involves both deduction and induction.
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May start with a theory and deduce certain phenomena that he then sets out
to observe.
If successive observations do not fit the theory, then the theory can be
revised and, ultimately, rejected.
Observations then lead to a new theory through induction.
Can be either quantitative or qualitative in method and approach.
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Quantitative approach - relies heavily on statistical data collected through
empirical observation or from statistical digests.
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Analysed through the use of statistical tools with a view to testing hypotheses and offering
explanations
Qualitative approaches rely more on data that are in the form of words
rather than numbers.
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Categorized into themes and evaluated with a view to describing or discovering phenomena.
Getting Started With Your
Research
Getting Started
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Start with a valid statement of the problem the research
seeks to address
This problem arises from accepted knowledge or practice
w.r.t topic under investigation
Should show clearly
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Gap to be filled
Issues to be clarified
By the proposed research study
Research Comfort Zone
What’s out there?
Start broad…
One search term…
Lots of results
Come at
it …
Narrow down.
Add search words
Find your focus
Ask a research question
But does
it get you
anywhere
?
Source Williams K. (2009), Getting Critical, Palgrame Macmillan
… from different
angles
Get very
specific
Steps in Research Process
Problem Stage
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Identify the PROBLEM area.
Survey the LITERATURE relating
to the problem
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I.E. answerable research questions
and research objectives as
appropriate.
Construct the RESEARCH DESIGN
to maximize validity:
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in light of the literature, explain the
problem for investigation in clear,
specific terms.
Identify and define relevant
CONCEPTS or VARIABLES and
relate them to each other in
testable HYPOTHESES
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Planning Stage
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(a) select your subjects (if required;)
(b) control and/or manipulate variables (if
required;)
(c) establish criteria to evaluate
outcomes;
(d) engage in instrumentation – select or
develop measuring instrument(s), if
necessary.
Specify the DATA COLLECTION
procedures, and
Select and specify the DATA
ANALYSIS methods.
Steps in Research Process
Execution Stage
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Execute research as planned;
ANALYSE the data
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answering research questions,
meeting research objectives
and
testing hypotheses specified;
report findings of tests and
any additional information of
interest to the research
problem.
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EVALUATE the results and
draw CONCLUSIONS
relating these to the
problem area.
Finding the Topic
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Selecting a topic for your research is an important
decision
It should be
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Interesting
Relevant
Something you will want to work on
If you have a passion for a particular area of research, this
passion will give you the determination you need to reach
your goal.
Planning your research:
Key questions
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What do you want to know?
How do you find out what you want to know?
Where can you get the information?
Who do you need to ask?
When does your research need to be done?
Why? (Getting the answer)