

Any substance taken into the assimilated by a plant or animal
to keep it alive and enable it to grow and repair tissue;
nourishment
Anything that nourishes or stimulates; whatever helps
something to keep active, grow, etc
◦ Webster’s New World College Dictionary – 4th edition. 1999.

Complex mixture of chemicals that an organism takes in and
assimilates to:
◦ Promote growth
◦ Expend energy
◦ Replace worn or injured tissue
◦ Prevent some diseases

Encompasses many processes= many
definitions

The series of processes by which an organism
takes in and assimilates food for promoting
growth and replacing worn or injured tissues
◦ Webster’s New World College Dictionary – 4th
edition. 1999.


Extremely complex mixtures of thousands of
chemicals
97% of food’s mass is made up of:
 Proteins
 Carbohydrates
 Lipids

The remainder of food consists of thousands of
compounds that exist in small amounts (measuring
parts per million) and are often important in:
 Taste
 Odor
 Color

Vitamin and minerals also exist in minute amounts
and are very important in body function.




For adults, overweight and obesity ranges are determined by
using weight and height to calculate a number called the
“body mass index” (BMI). BMI is used because, for most
people, it correlates with their amount of body fat.
An adult who has a BMI between 25 and 29.9 is considered
overweight.
An adult who has a BMI of 30 or higher is considered obese.
BMI is an estimate of body fat so sometimes it can show that
a person is overweight when they are not actually
 Like athletes
Weight in pounds
BMI =
(Height in inches)2
BMI =
(
)2

Diabetes

Hypertension

Cancer

Stroke
◦ Breast
◦ Colon

Respiratory issues

Heart disease

Sleep disturbances

Liver disease
Rank1
Causes of death
All causes
1.
2.
3.
4.
Diseases of heart
Malignant neoplasms
(cancer)
Cerebrovascular diseases
Chronic lower respiratory
diseases
All persons
2,397,615
652,486
553,888
150,074
121,987
5.
Unintentional injuries
112,012
6.
Diabetes mellitus
73,138
7.
Alzheimer's disease
65,965
8.
Influenza and pneumonia
59,664
Source: U.S. National Center for Health Statistics, Health, United States, 2007.
1. Multiply grams of fat times 9 calories per gram to get
calories from fat
2. Divide calories from fat by total calories and multiply by 100
to get % of calories from fat
3. Multiply grams of saturated fat by 9 calories per gram to get
calories from saturated fat
4. Divide calories from saturated fat by total calories and
multiply by 100 to get percent calories from saturated fat

Quarter Pounder from McDonalds
◦ Calories – 410
◦ Total fat – 19 grams
◦ Saturated fat – 7 grams


Calculate the % fat and % saturated fat in the quarter
pounder.
Dietary recommendations are to consume less than 10% of
calories from saturated fats and keep total fat intake
between 20-35% of total calories…does a cheeseburger do
this?

Food
◦ Anything that nourishes or stimulates; whatever
helps something to keep active, grow, etc
 Webster’s New World College Dictionary – 4th edition. 1999.

Nutrient
◦ Nutritious ingredient or substance in a food
 Webster’s New World College Dictionary – 4th edition. 1999.
 Carbohydrates
 Vitamins
 Proteins
 Minerals
 Lipids
 Water




Chief organic constituent of muscle and other
tissues
Major components of enzymes that regulate
and carry out general metabolism and
functions
Part of intracellular and extracellular
structures of animals
Make up structure of many hormones and
antibodies






Nitrogen
Carbon
Hydrogen
Oxygen
Sometimes sulfur and phosphorus
All proteins contain approx 16% Nitrogen, thus
when determining total protein in a food, we
analyze for protein Nitrogen, then multiply by 6.25
R group represents any one of a variety of
chemical structures that makes each protein
unique.



Not all protein is made up of suitable materials to
properly supply the body with what it needs
Proteins from animal products are considered high
quality
◦ Meat
◦ Milk
◦ Eggs
High quality proteins contain
◦ All essential amino acids in amounts needed to
support protein tissue formation by body

Most plant proteins are NOT considered
complete
◦ Soybeans are close
 Some consider them to be complete or high
quality proteins

Essential
◦ Can’t be synthesized
by the body in
adequate amounts
◦ MUST be supplied by
the diet

Non-essential
◦ Can be produced by
the body
 As long as there are
adequate amounts of
essential amino acids
being provided in diet


If ANY essential amino acids are missing from
the diet, NO proteins formed.
WHY??
 Because if the body did not stop all protein
production, cells would end up with an
imbalance of proteins
 Seriously affect cell function
Essential Amino Acids Non-essential Amino
Acids
Histidine
Alanine
Isoleucine
Arginine
Leucine
Asparagine
Lysine
Aspartic acid
Methionine
Cysteine
Phenylalanine
Glutamic acid
Threonine
Glutamine
Tryptophan
Glycine
Valine
Proline
Serine
Tyrosine
 Solubility
◦ Differs greatly among proteins
 Depends on amino acid content
 Depends on amino acid sequence
Protein Type Function
Solubility
Histones
Protein replication
Soluble in pure water
Albumins



Soluble in pure water
Keratin
Collagen
Hair and fingernails
Myosin
Muscle tissue
Insoluble in water;
Soluble in weak salt solution
Lactoglobulins
Milk
Insoluble in water;
Soluble in weak salt solution
Wheat, glutenin,
orzenin (rice0




ovalbumin - egg white
lactalbumin – milk
blood albumins
bones
cartilage
connective tissue
epidermis
Insoluble in water
Insoluble in water
Not soluble in water; soluble in
acids or alkali


Proteins like those in
muscle tissue of
meats are able to
bind water molecules
through hydrogen
bonding.
Advantageous when
making ground or
comminuted
products
◦ Hot dogs
◦ Bologna

Emulsion made with
◦ Fat
◦ Protein
◦ Water



Product cooked
(smoked)
Retains much of the
moisture
Becomes palatable,
attractive product

Primary structure
◦ made up of
◦ Molecular weight
◦ Amino acid
composition and
◦ Sequence along the
polypeptide chain

Secondary structure
◦ Shape of a coiled
helix

Tertiary structure
◦ Result of the folding
of the chain over
itself
◦ Three-dimensional
state
◦ Very important to
level of protein
activity

Quaternary structure
◦ Possible of two or more polypeptide chains join
together
◦ Huge tangled, complicated chain of amino acids
◦ Fragile molecules
 Good to be aware of these reactions when exposing
product to




Heat
Acid
Salt
Other conditions that could disturb their stability


The change in molecular structure without
breaking covalent bonds or altering amino
acid sequence
Protein conformation (secondary, tertiary,
and quaternary) structures can be very
fragile and thus can be altered by a number
of factors that can be used in food
processing


Denaturation usually results in the loss of
biological activity and significant changes in
physical and functional properties (such as
solubility)
Occurs only in proteins and protein-like
substances

Different levels of effect on individual
proteins
◦ Enzymes (primarily protein substances) can be
denatured which causes the biochemical function
they catalyze to cease

Caused by many
factors
◦ Heat
◦ Acids
◦ Solvents
 Ethyl alcohol
◦ Concentrated
solutions of some
salts
◦ Surface forces


Loss of biological
activity and
solubility
Irreversible gels
may be formed
◦ More susceptible to
enzymatic hydrolysis
 Makes them more
digestible





Practically irreversible
Control of denaturation is essential to food
technology
Inactivation of enzymes = storage problems
“Blanching” step in freezing and canning of
fruits and veggies done to denature
enzymes
Contributes to flavor and texture of food


Cheeses and yogurt are direct results of
denaturation of milk proteins
Cooking affects denaturation of proteins and
impacts flavor of protein-rich foods like eggs
and milk
◦ Hardening of egg whites in frying pan = denaturation
◦ Whipping of egg whites to form foam results from
exposure to surface forces
◦ Many meat proteins are cooked to 134°F to 167°F =
profound changes in
 Texture
 Water holding capacity
 Shrinkage

Body requires a
constant source of
energy

◦ Carry out day-to-day
physiological functions
◦ 55% - 65%
◦ Can also utilize fats
and proteins for this
purpose
◦ Maintain constant body
temperature
◦ Needs larger amounts
to do work
Humans derive
energy mainly from
carbohydrates

Made up of
◦ Carbon
◦ Hydrogen
◦ Oxygen

Carbohydrates that
are important in
nutrition include
◦
◦
◦
◦

Sugars
Starches
Dextrins
Glycogen
Other
carbohydrates that
are not digestible
(fibers)
◦ Don’t supply calories
◦ Very important in
overall health of the
body

Sugars are the
simplest form of
carbohydrates



Simplest of all
sugars
Cant be broken
down further by
hydrolysis
Most common ones
found in foods are
hexoses (6-carbon
sugars)

Five that occur
freely in nature
◦
◦
◦
◦
◦
Glucose
Mannose
Galactose
Fructose
Sorbose

Sweetener

◦ Not all sugars are
very sweet
◦ Consistency
◦ Body
◦ Mouth feel
 Lactose – 16% as sweet
as sucrose
 See table


Added for texture
an appearance
qualities
Contributes to
viscosity
High refractive
properties
◦ Shiny appearance in
high-sugar products
 Syrup
 Jellies
 Dried fruits

Water can be available for microbial use
◦ Can be bound by sugar and unavailable for
microbes
◦ Still offer moist product
◦ Water available for microbial use is measured
 Water activity (Aw)
◦ Sugars have affinity for water
 Suppress water activity
 Jams, jellies, etc
 Preservative effect
Sweetener
Sucrose
Fructose
Glucose
Lactose
Maltose
Galactose
Saccharin1
Sodium cyclamate2
Neohesperidin
dihydrochalcone3
Degree of Sweetness
100
173.3
74.3
16
32
32
30,000 – 50,000
10,000
1,000,000
Sweet ’N Low
formerly used as a low calorie sweetener, but since been
banned due to possible carcinogenic effects
3 sweetener derived from citrus – not widely used yet
1
2



Polymers
◦ Compounds of many smaller molecules
Simple monosaccharides joined together by
glycosidic bonds
May contain the same monosaccharides or
several different monosaccharides joined
together
◦ When more than 10 units are joined together =
polysaccharide
 Most contain hundreds of thousands of
monosaccharides


NOT sweet
Responsible for
Texture – including:
◦
◦
◦
◦
◦
◦
Viscosity
Mouth feel
Consistency
Gelatin
Smoothness
Toughness

Nutritionally, starch
is the most
important
polysaccharide
◦ Main source of
calories in human
diet

Made up of two polymers (large molecule
made up of repeating chemical structures)
◦ Amylose – linear compound
◦ Amylopectin – branched compound

Alpha-amylase
◦ Widely distributed in
nature
◦ Saliva
◦ Pancreatic excretions
in mammals
◦ Plants
◦ Microorganisms




Beta-amylase
◦ Found almost
exclusively in higher
plants
Pullulanase
Amyloglucosidase
◦ Found mainly in
molds
Maltase

Generally not readily soluble in cold water
◦ When heated, uptake water, swell, and gelatinize
 Viscosity increases; forming a paste
 Gel is formed when cooled
 Often used to thicken foods
 Can be modified when combined with sugar or acid and
used in puddings

Very important
◦ Starches used in products like
 Canned soup/stews
◦ Important because of exposure to heat for long
periods of time during canning etc.
 Maintain a smooth but thick texture
◦ Generally – amylase rich structures will form a
stronger gel
 Pile of branches = amylopectin
 Pile of cut logs = amylase

Can be treated with acids or enzymes
◦ Hydrolysis of some bonds
◦ Results in low viscosity
 For some sauces, toppings, and gravy

Can be treated with oxidizing agents such
as sodium hypochlorate
◦ Results in reduced viscosity and paste clarity
◦ Used as emulsion thickeners and stabilizers in
dressings and spreads



Animal starch
Produced in liver from glucose
Stored in liver and muscles
◦ Available for immediate use as energy
◦ Can only store limited amount

Excess carbohydrate intake = excess
glycogen production = excess carbohydrate
converted to fat and stored in the body as
such



Body maintains an equilibrium between
glucose (energy-producing sugar) and
glycogen (can quickly be converted to
glucose)
Nutritional value of glycogen in foods is
minimal
Animal foods not considered a good source
of carbohydrate




Used as food additive for texture
Not readily digested
Contains 1 calorie per gram
Used as “bulking agent” in low-calorie
products to
◦ Replace sugar
◦ Bind water

Add to textural attributes without greatly
increasing calories


Includes the nondigestible
carbohydrates
Water soluble
◦ Cereal brans
◦ Pectin
◦ Lower serum
cholesterol levels
 Binding with bile
acids and causing
removal of
cholesterol in feces

Water insoluble
◦ Wheat products
◦ Wheat bran
◦ Thought to reduce
colon cancer
 Increases bulk and
dilutes effect of
secondary bile acids

Cellulose
◦ Makes up most of the
structural material in
plants
◦ Main component of
many industrially
important substances
 Wood
 Paper
 Fibers (cotton)


In nature
◦ Fibers that are
very high
mechanical
strength
◦ Insoluble in water
Pectin
◦ Water soluble fiber
◦ Intercellular spaces
of plant tissue

Gums
◦ Have ability to give
highly viscous
solutions at relatively
low concentrations
◦ Used for
 Gelling
 Stabilizing
 Suspending
◦ Used in
 Candies
 Fruit sauces
 Syrups
 Toppings
 Spreads
 Baked goods
 Salad dressings
 Beverages

Definition
◦ The heterogeneous group of substances,
associated with living systems, which have
the common property of insolubility in
water but solubility in nonpolar solvents
such as hydrocarbons or alcohols.

Types of lipids
◦
◦
◦
◦
◦
◦
Fats
Oils
Waxes
Phospholipids
Sphingolipids
Sterols

Fats and oils
◦ Contain 9 calories
per gram
◦ Proteins and
carbohydrates
contain 4 calories per
gram

Glycerol esters of fatty acids
◦ Ester = alcohol and acid join and produce a water
molecule. The result is an ester

Contain
◦ Carbon
◦ Hydrogen
◦ Oxygen
 Proportion of oxygen is much less than in
carbohydrates
Alcohol
Acid
Ester
R-OH
R1-COOH
R-OOCR1




Fuel foods that are
more concentrated
Produce more than
twice the heat
energy as
carbohydrates
1g fat = 9 cal.
1 g carb. = 4 cal.

Stores well in large
amounts in body
◦ As adipose tissue
◦ Considered a great
reserve of energy for
the body
◦ Health hazards of
obesity
 Affluent societies

Occur in foods as
◦ Lipid materials
 Solid at room temperature
◦ Oils
 Liquid at room temperature

Variation of lipids vs. oils depends on fatty
acid components


Open chain carboxylic acids
Natural fatty acids most commonly found in
fats and oils almost always contains an even
number of carbon atoms
◦ Ranging from 4 – 28

Fatty acid chain may be
◦ Saturated
 Have the maximum number of hydrogen atoms
attached
◦ Unsaturated
 Lacking hydrogen atoms at certain points
◦ Butyric acid
◦ Lauric acid
◦ Carproic acid
◦ Myristic acid
◦ Caprylic acid
◦ Palmitic acid
◦ Capric acid
◦ Stearic acid

Unsaturated fatty
acids
◦ Occur in both plant
and animal sources
◦ More prevalent in
most oils from plant
sources
 Corn oil
 Safflower oil
 Canola oil

Common
unsaturated fatty
acids
◦
◦
◦
◦
Oleic acid
Linoleic acid
Linolenic acid
Arachidonic acid

Monounsaturated
 One double bond (one
H missing)

Polyunsaturated
 Two or more double
bonds

Essential fatty acids
◦ Must be supplied by
the diet
 Linoleic
 Alpha-linolenic

Fatty acid
components of fats
and oils not only
affect the melting
point but also have
nutritional
implications
◦ Saturated fats in diet
 Lead to increased
serum cholesterol

Oils can be
“hardened”
 Production of hard
cooking oils
 Margarines
◦ Melting point is
raised
 Easier to transport
 Easier to spread on
foods

Unsaturated fatty acids can exist in
different configurations
◦ Because of those points of “unsaturation”
◦ In nature, most occur in the cis- form
◦ When oils are hydrogenated (hardened) they
can change to the trans- form
 Increase in trans-fatty acids can lead to increase in
serum cholesterol

Hydrolyzed to glycerine and fatty acids
◦ By lipase enzymes
◦ In small intestine
◦ Eventually oxidized at the cellular level for
energy, carbon dioxide, and water

Emulsified (particles dispersed within)
◦ Carried to adipose tissue
◦ Stored


Made from
◦ Glycerol
◦ Fatty acids
◦ Phosphoric acid
◦ Often an amino alcohol
In body they are important part of cell
membranes and are involved in the building
of these membranes

Very good emulsifiers in food industry
◦ Due to their polarity at one end and nonpolarity at the other
◦ Used in
 Chocolate
 Salad dressing
 Mayonnaise
 Component of egg yolks
◦ Help hold stuff together (polarity)


Made from fatty acids and monohydric alcohols
In body
◦ Serve as protective, water repellent coatings on tissue
surfaces
◦ Functions
 Prevent over evaporation of moisture
 Prevent invasion of water from the environment into tissues

In food industry
◦ Used in some packing
◦ As ingredients in some candies and confections
 For texture or appearance
◦ Not digestible

SPHINGOLIPIDS
◦ Sphingomyelin is important constituent of nerve
and brain tissues

STEROLS
◦ Sterol cholesterols
 Involved in
 Composition of bile salts
 Play role in emulsification of fats in the intestines
 In other words, digestion of fats
◦ Ergosterol
 May be converted to vitamin D in the body under the
influence of sunlight or UV light


Many vitamins are required in small
amounts by the body
2 types
◦ Fat-soluble
◦ Water-soluble

Vitamin A

Vitamin D

Vitamin E

Vitamin K


Found only in
animals
◦ Retinol
Plants contain
carotene
◦ Vitamin A can be
produced in body
◦ Beta-carotene

Formed in body from
yellow pigments
(containing carotene)
◦ From many fruits
and veggies
◦ Especially carrots
◦ Also found in fats
and oils
 Especially in liver oils of
many saltwater fish


Required for vision
and resistance to
infection
Epithelial cells
◦ Cells in the lining
of body cavities
and in the skin
and glands
◦ Require vitamin A

Deficiency may
cause
◦ Impairment in
bone formation
◦ Impairment of
night vision
◦ Malfunction of
epithelial tissues
◦ Defects n teeth
enamel


Necessary for
normal tooth and
bone formation
Deficiencies
◦ Rickets
 Deformities of bone
 Bow-legs
 Spine curvature
 Tooth defects


Fish oils (especially
fish liver oils) =
great source
Body can make
vitamin D by
converting sterols
(cholesterol) with
use of UV light

Four different forms (tocopherols)
◦ Alpha Most common
 Antioxidant
 Unsaturated fatty acids
◦ Beta◦ Gamma◦ Delta
Enhance absorption of iron

Sources
◦ Corn oil
◦ Cottonseed oil
◦ Peanut oil

Deficiency
symptoms not
clearly identified in
humans
◦ Animal studies show





Reproduction issues
Injury to CNS
Growth retardation
Muscular dystrophy
Interference with
normal heart action

Essential in production of prothrombin
◦ Compound involved in the clotting of blood

Sources
◦
◦
◦
◦
◦
Cabbage
Spinach
Cauliflower
Liver
Can be synthesized by bacteria in human intestine
 Antimicrobial therapies that destroy intestinal bacteria
can lead to deficiencies in vitamin K

Symptoms of deficiency
◦ Loss of ability to clot blood
◦ Humans typically get adequate amounts of vitamin
K in the diet

B1

Pantothentic Acid

B2

Choline

Niacin

B12

B6

Folacin

Biotin

C



Also called thiamin
Involved in bodily oxidations that lead to
formation of carbon dioxide
Necessary for:
◦ Nerve function
◦ Appetite
◦ Normal digestion
 Growth
 Fertility
 Lactation




Retardation of growth
Palpitation and
enlargement of the
heart
Hypertension
Various effects of
nerve center
disturbance
◦ Forgetfulness
◦ Difficulty in thinking
clearly

Beri-beri
◦ Affects muscles, heart,
and nerves
◦ Common in parts of SE
Asia
 Where white rice is the main
food source
◦ In US, primarily seen in
those with chronic
alcoholism

Sensitive to sulfur
dioxide (SO2) and
sulfite salts
◦ SO2 destroys Vitamin B
and shouldn’t be used
as preservative in foods
that are a major source
of the vitamin
◦ FDA and Meat
Inspection laws
prohibit such uses

Stable in heat in
foods with a high
acidity
◦ Less stable in foods
with more neutral or
alkaline pH levels

Sources
◦
◦
◦
◦
Fresh pork
Wheat germ
Cereals containing bran
Beef and lamb are fair
sources


Also called
riboflavin
Makes up part of
the enzyme
systems involved in
oxidation and
reduction of
different materials
in the body

Deficiency
Growth retardation
Vision impairment
Scalding of skin
Lesions on mucous
tissues
◦ Neuritis
◦
◦
◦
◦

Sources

Sensitive to light
◦ Good
 Milk
 Liver
 Eggs
◦ Fair
 Meats
 Leafy green vegetables
◦ Packaging should be
considered
 Cardboard for milk
 Other light-resistant
packaging



Part of enzyme system
regulating reduction
reactions in the body

Deficiency
◦ Pellagra
 Disease that causes




Dilates blood vessels
Part of coenzyme
nicotinamide adenine
dinucleotide (NAD)
◦ Involved in breaking
down glucose

Diarrhea
Dermatitis
Nervous disorders
Sometimes death
Sources
◦
◦
◦
◦
◦
◦
◦
Yeast
Meat
Fish
Poultry
Peanuts
Legumes
Whole grains

Part of enzyme
system that
removes CO2 from
acid group (COOH)
of certain amino
acids and transfers
amine group (NH2)
from one
compound to
another

Deficiency

Sources
◦ Doesn’t cause well
described disease
◦ Bananas
◦ Barley
◦ Grain cereals with
bran
◦ Muscle meat
◦ Liver
◦ Green vegetables


Has been taken by women taking steroid
contraceptives
Has been used to treat PMS
◦ Not recommended without blood tests

Coenzyme in
synthesis of aspartic
acid
◦ Plays a role in carbon
dioxide fixing

Sources
◦
◦
◦
◦
◦
Peanuts
Peas
Beans
Whole cooked eggs
Liver = excellent
source

Deficiency
◦ Unusual
◦ Can be tied up by
aviden
 Substance in raw egg
whites
◦ Been seen in feeding
studies in mice
◦ Produced by microbial
flora of intestines
 Dietary requirement is
unknown

Required for
◦
◦
◦
◦
Normal growth
Nerve development
Normal skin
Involved in
metabolism

Deficiency
◦ Rare

Sources
◦ Widespread in foods
◦ Animal organs, eggs,
whole wheat
products, and
peanuts = excellent
sources

Sometimes listed with B vitamins

Typically consumed in adequate amounts

Produced by intestinal flora

Component of cell membranes and brain
tissues



Largest vitamin
molecule
Requirement for
normal
development of red
blood cells
Deficiency
◦ Acute pernicious
anemia

Cobalt is part of the
structure
◦ Why cobalt is
required in the diet

Some synthesized
by intestinal flora
but some must be
consumed in diet



Required for formation of blood cells by bone
marrow
Involved in formation of blood pigment
(hemoglobin)
Required for synthesis of some amino acids

Deficiency
◦ Some types of
anemia
 Pernicious

Requirement is
about 1.25 times
greater in pregnant
women
◦ May act to prevent
some birth defects

Sources
◦
◦
◦
◦
◦
Liver
Leafy vegetables
Legumes
Cereal grains
Nuts

Required for
formation of
intracellular
substances in the
body
◦ Dentine
◦ Cartilage
◦ Protein network of
bone

Important in
◦ Tooth formation
◦ Healing broken bones
◦ Healing of wounds

Enhances absorption
of iron

Deficiency
◦ Scurvy
 Spongy, bleeding gums,
 Loss of teeth
 Swollen joints
◦ Fragile capillary walls
◦ Impaired healing of
wounds

Sources
◦ Excellent






Orange juice
Tomato juice
Green peppers
Broccoli
Cabbage
Brussels sprouts
◦ Fair
 Potatoes
 Fruits

Easily destroyed by
oxidation and heat
◦ Can be lost in
cooking water during
processing
◦ Fortification may be
necessary
 Before and after
processing



Human body
contains about 3%
minerals
Most in skeletal
system
Exist in minute
amounts


Function is
necessary for
normal growth and
reproduction
Categories
◦ Major
◦ Trace
 Based on amounts
in body

Calcium

Phosphorous

Sodium

Magnesium

Chlorine

Sulfur

Potassium








Iron
Iodine
Flourine
Copper
Cobalt
Zinc
Manganese
Selinium







Vanadium
Silicon
Tin
Chromium
Aluminum
Boron
Cadmium
Major Minerals

Required for

◦ Bone and tooth
structure
◦ Function of nerves and
muscles
◦ Blood clotting
mechanism
Deficiencies
◦ Osteoporosis
(especially in older
women)
◦ Symptoms not
apparent until later in
life

Other
◦ Essential for calcium
absorption
◦ Lactose may also help

Required for

◦ Extracellular fluids to
maintain osmotic
equilibrium and
body-fluid volume
Deficiencies
◦ Little known except
in cases of prolonged
diarrhea or vomiting

Other
◦ Excess consumption
can result in
hypertension

Required for
◦ Extracellular fluid –
major negatively
charged ion
◦ Role in controlling
blood pH
◦ Necessary for
production of HCl

Deficiencies
◦ Component of table
salt
◦ Never really lacking
in diet
◦ Can need
replenishing during
times of great losses
of body fluids

Required for
◦ Present in body cells as chief intracellular cation
◦ Associated with function of muscles and nerves and
with metabolism of CHO
◦ Maintaining fluid volume inside cells
◦ Maintaining acid-base balance

Meats

Bananas

Eggs

Fresh milk

Oranges

Other
◦ Cell membranes = very permeable to K, but as
leaks out, highly active pump returns it to the cell
in exchange for sodium
◦ If as little as 6% of K contained in the cells escaped
into the blood, heart would stop

85% of P found in body is combined with Ca

Part of bodies major buffers (phosphoric acid and
its salts)

Part of DNA and RNA

Some lipids contain

Key role in energy transfer

Meat

Fish

Eggs

Nuts

Required for

◦ Minor component of
bone
◦ Unusual

◦ Present in soft tissue
cells where it is
involved with protein
synthesis
Deficiencies
Sources
◦
◦
◦
◦
◦
Veggies
Cereals
Cereal flours
Beans
Nuts

Required for
◦ Present in virtually all proteins

Deficiencies
◦ Associated with protein deficiencies
Trace Minerals



May be due to poor absorption of sources
found in plants
Animal sources and those found in fortified
foods are more readily absorbed
Essential in hemoglobin and myoglobin




Most common deficient trace mineral in
industrialized world
Cause anemia
Amount needed is related to growth rate and
blood loss
Menstruating women should take special
precautions

Sources
◦
◦
◦
◦
◦
Liver
Meat
Eggs
Oatmeal
Wheat flour

Other
◦ Toxicity is rare but
can happen with
supplement tablets
◦ 6-12 tablets can be
fatal if ingested by
small child
◦ Vitamins E and C aid
in absorption

Required
◦ Part of hormone
thyroxine (regulates
metabolism levels)

Other
◦ Toxicity symptoms are
similar to deficiency
(enlarged thyroid)
◦ Industry is reducing
use of iodized products

Deficiencies
◦ low-level metabolism
◦ lethargy
◦ goiter (enlarged
thyroid)
◦ rare if consuming
saltwater fish
◦ iodized salt today
prevents

Required
◦ Helps prevent tooth
decay

Sources
◦ Drinking water
◦ Fish

Other
◦ Too much fluorine
via supplements can
cause flourosis
(mottling of tooth
enamel)

Required
◦ Aids in use of iron in
hemoglobin
synthesis
◦ Required by some
enzyme systems

Deficiencies
◦ Virtually unknown

Sources
◦
◦
◦
◦
◦
◦
◦
Fruits
Beans
Peas
Eggs
Liver
Fish
Oysters


Toxic in high concentrations
Happens when using copper utensils for
storage or distribution of acidic foods (lining
of tubs distributing lemonade)

Required
◦ Component of Vitamin B12
◦ Only place known in the body

Deficiencies
◦ Sufficient amounts present in foods
◦ Can be absorbed from some cooking utensils

Required for:
◦ Cofactor for more than 70 enzymes for specific
tasks in the eyes, liver, kidneys, muscles, skin,
bones, and male reproductive organs
◦ CHO and protein metabolism
◦ Nucleic acid synthesis

Deficiencies
◦
◦
◦
◦
Rare
Dwarfism
Gonadal atrophy
Possible damage to
immune system

Sources
◦ Shellfish
◦ Meat
◦ Liver

Required for:

◦ Normal bone
structure
◦ Fat production
◦ Reproduction
◦ Functioning of CNS

Sources
◦ Meats
Deficiencies
◦ Bone disorders
◦ Sexual sterility
◦ Abnormal lipid
metabolism

Other
◦ Adequate sources
found in most diets

Required for:
◦ Antioxidant with
Vitamin E

Sources
◦ Meat
◦ Seafood
◦ Grains

Deficiencies
◦ Anemia
◦ Muscle pain
◦ Sometimes heartfailure

Sources
◦ Unpolished rice and grains

Deficiencies
◦ Diseases related to connective tissue

Required for:
◦ Growth rates
◦ Essential to structure of protein

Deficiencies
◦ None noted

Other
◦ Present in many foods

Required for:
◦ Physiological role related to glucose metabolism

Sources
◦ Whole, unprocessed foods

Other
◦ Content decreases with age
◦ Linked to adult-onset diabetes

Roles are unknown

Deficiencies unknown


Affected parts of brains of those with
Alzheimer’s have found to have excess
amounts of Aluminum
Still not good to store food long-term in
aluminum containers

Some plants can produce compounds that
serve as protectors or help ensure
reproduction
◦ May attract pollinating insects, repel animals or
insects that may eat them
◦ Can be toxic to humans
◦ Some mushrooms produce specific nitrogencontainng bases or alkaloids that cause severe
physiological issues
◦ Heavy metals such as lead, mercury and arseninc
 Found in soils and water
Toxin
Food Source
Cyanide-generating compounds
Lima beans
Safrole
Spices
Prussic acid
Almonds
Oxalic acid
Spinach, Rhubarb
Enzyme inhibitors and hemagglutinins
Soybeans
Gossypol
Cottonseed oil
Goitrogens (interfere with iodine binding by thyroid gland)
Cabbage
Thyamine
Cheese
Avidin (antagonistic to growth factor biotin
Egg whites
Thiaminase (destroys vitamin B1
Fish and shellfish
Vitamins A & D methionine (toxic effects in excess concentrations)
Many foods