Chapter 16
Towards a New
Worldview
1540-1789
Major Breakthroughs of the
Scientific Revolution
 Growing
humanistic/secular interest in world
made people want to understand the world
of “Natural Philosophy” (Science)
 Took knowledge and theories from classical
age to new levels with direct observations.
Believed in power of human reason,
reinforced changes in world view from
Renaissance and Reformation.
Science and Religion
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Universities were still most commonly run by RC
church. Condemnation of Galileo etc… gave
perception of church as “anti- science”- but it
was really Reformation, if someone questions
church doctrine they must be squashed
before they cause problems.
And it did seem against common sense- the
earth is moving…..?
Scientists did not question God’s existence.
Science/religion won’t really clash until
Darwin. And magic isn’t entirely out of the
picture either….
Scientific Thought in 1500
 Aristotle
(really smart- but often
wrong) was the main expert- not
allowed to dispute ideas which had
been accepted by the church – like
the earth is the center of the
universe. Ptolemy “corrected”
Aristotle's theory of perfect circles to
epicycles to explain movement of
stars
 4 elements (light: air and fire, Heavy:
water and earth) and 4 humors for
medicine
Origins of the Scientific Revolution
 Medieval
universities included “Natural philosophy”
(science, math, astronomy, physics) as a branch of
study. Fall of Byzantine empire meant many Christian
scholars (and their Greek & Islamic books) came to
Europe- new info available. Printing press spread
that info faster than ever before
 Renaissance art had sci/math needs to make things
look real.
 Navigational issues led to new needs and
discoveries (telescope, barometer, thermometer,
microscope, air pump) AND there was huge interest
in the plants/animals of new world
Astronomy
 1st
“modern” science- 1st to question and prove
beliefs considered “infallible” wrong.
 Develop idea of working from empirical
evidence- borrowed start from Muslims (Nasir-alDin)
 Again – not what we would call “pure” science,
a major job for these guys was making
horoscopes (for life and medicine – taught in
colleges) as well as studying “magical”
connections within the universe
The Copernican Hypothesis
 Copernicus
was a Polish monk who came to
Italy to study during Renaissance (lived 14731543)commissioned by pope to revise the Julian
Calendar (based on work of Ptolemy) which
said earth was the center of the universe. But
Copernicus’s calculations showed the earth and
stars were moving.
 Wrote “On the Revolutions of Heavenly Spheres”
which described his findings, but didn’t publish
until dying, and didn’t LIKE that his work
questioned doctrine. Freaked people out- even
Luther and Calvin condemned
Geocentric vs. Heliocentric
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Geocentric: theory of
Aristotle and Ptolemy
(330 bc, 200 ad) – the
earth is the center of
the universe.
Accepted by churchtherefore infallible
fact. (which was
logical to a point- you
can watch the sun
move…and if God
made the world, and
gave it his son…..)
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Heliocentric: theory of
Copernicus. The Sun
and stars don’t moveplanets move.
Therefore the sun is the
center of the universe.
(don’t quite get whole
universe thing yet)
Freaky for people to
think of themselves as
one piece of an
infinite- aren’t we
special?
Proving Copernicus Right:
Brahe and Kepler
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Tycho Brache: Danish (1546-1601) Built a massive
observatory and collected tons of data on universe
(Rudolphine Tables). His data backed Copernicus.
Irony was that he began collecting data because he
didn’t like idea of heliocentric theory
Johannes Kepler: (Brahe’s asst 1570-1630) Discovered
that planets move in ellipses. Published as a young
man (1609), got in plenty of hot water. First protestant
scientist. Proved Copernicus mathematically,
developed 3 laws of planetary motion. (ellipses not
constant speed, closer to sun the faster you go)
Galileo
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Italian Lived 1564-1642
Invented telescope for astronomy in 1609. Confirmed
Copernicus- and wrote for general audience- not just
scientists- made idea widespread (wrote in Italian)
Used newly developed experimental method to verify
his work. Also studied gravity and laws of inertia
(object in motion….)
Forced to recant- his book “the Starry (Sidreal)
Messenger” put on Index of Forbidden books
Isaac Newton


Incorporated
astronomy/physics of
Galileo into one
extraordinary theory
that explained the
order and design of
the universe.
Reconciled seemingly
conflicting discoveries
with ideas like gravity.
Principa Mathematica
1687- all motion can
be measured with the
same formulas


Because the “laws”
of the universe are
constant- no divine
power is required to
run the natural world
(foundation of
deism- got made the
world and let it go)
Also invented
Calculus (gee,
thanks Isaac)
Newtonian Synthesis
 Everything
is the universe is governed by
the same set of laws – and the entire
universe is united by gravity (all bodies are
attracting all other bodies constantly) into
one majestic system.
 Revolutionary b/c even other scientists
had considers heavens and earth two
separate things- Newton brought them
together
Important
Changes in
Scientific
Thinking
Haven’t defined
elements or atoms yetso that limits them, but
still there are significant
discoveries made.
Gunpowder an
important practical
improvement (how to
store more safely etc…)
Bacon and Descartes and
the Scientific Method
 Both
philosophical in approach- asking
questions, and questioning “assumed”
knowledge.
 Deductive: starts with an accepted truth
and moved forward from there using
assumptions/facts. Used by Greeks and
Scholasticism. But science asked- what if
base assumption is wrong?
 Inductive (Empiricism) : does not start with
assumption of truth- but finds truth after
long process of experimentation. Modern
Scientific Method
Deductive v. Inductive
 Deductive:
starts with an accepted truth
and moved forward from there using
assumptions/facts. Used by Greeks and
Scholasticism. But science asked- what if
base assumption is wrong?
 Inductive: does not start with assumption
of truth- but finds truth after long process
of experimentation. Modern Scientific
Method
Francis Bacon
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1561-1626 British
Not actually a scientist- Lord Chancellor of Eng. , but
was interested in HOW to acquire knowledge. Wanted
to start from scratch, abandon all preconceived
ideas, look at world through new eyes.
Inductive reasoning= empirical method.
Didn’t get math… (not a full time scientist) so
“observations” sometimes faulty
Confident that humans can understand the world,
and when we understand we will be able to control it
Rene Descartes
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1596-1650 French
Deductive: Said you just had to go backwards
“systemic doubt” far enough to find a “truth” I think therefore I am.
Separation of mind and matter- Cartesian
Dualism- they are 2 different things- detach
and analyze. More deduction, with math
serving as the starting truth.
Criticized saying he encouraged atheism
“Discourse on Method”- man should depend
on logic alone. Start with clear (math facts),
subdivide problem into as many parts as
necessary until you can solve them
Medicine, the Body, and
Chemistry
Greek author Galen had been main source of
knowledge- you have 4 “humors” (blood,
phlegm, black bile, yellow bile) and when
those are out of balance- you are sick.
(Bloodletting)
 Andreas Vesalius: Book “Structure of the
Human Body” (1543) renewed and modernized
the study of anatomy. Found errors in Galen’s
knowledge (by dissecting bodies of criminals)
and corrected
 William Harvey: “on the movement of the heart
and blood” – first to suggest circulation and
heart/lungs role in it.

Anton Van Leuwenhoek
 1632-1723
 Father
of microscopydeveloped 1st
microscopes. 1st to see
and write about
bacteria, and see
circulation in the
capillaries
Empire and Natural History
A
lot of work in astronomy and medicine
was jumping off work of ancient Greek
scholars – but Greeks knew little of Asia
(and now Europeans go there) and
nothing of the New World’s biology.
 Scientific expeditions to gather specimens
– collecting them became a popular
pastime, and museums (British Museum)
founded to display to public
Scientific Societies
 By
1650 there were “clubs” being founded for
groups of scientists to share/discuss ideas.
 England particularly strong in this area. Royal
Society of London founded for improvement of
natural knowledge 1660, Paris 1666 and Berlin
1700. Nationalism kept countries wanting to be
on the cutting edge of knowledge
 Women participate indirectly – but science
(like so much else) is a man’s domain- though
interesting that nature was viewed as a female
Consequences of the
Scientific Revolution
 Improvements
to technology
 Spirit of experimentation that helped lead
to agricultural and Industrial Revolutions
 Reduces witch hunts and superstition
(eventually)
 Church reaction moves centers of science
into protestant territories (helps them grow
more advanced and powerful)
 Leads the way for the Enlightenment
The
Enlightenment
What is it?
 The
Enlightenment advocated applying principles
of the Scientific Revolution to understanding all life.
 Thinkers believed their role was to bring progress to
the world through the use of reason. Wanted ideas
to reach the public- and have ordinary people
apply critical thinking to their own lives (don’t just
accept- think)
 Emergence of a secular world view for 1st time since
ancient Greece- autonomy of intellect (completely
separate from Religion) and you USE this
knowlegde/reason to make the world a better
place
Impact of Science on
Enlightenment
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

Single biggest factor in creating the worldview which
would inspire the enlightenment
Spirit of experimentation also led to agricultural
improvements and improvements in sanitation etc…
Characterized by….
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
Reason: Application of methods of Science to other parts
of life. Accept nothing on faith- everything must be
examined (even Faith itself)
Laws of science apply to human society, discover the
forces that govern human nature (like gravity does for the
universe)
Progress: Once you figure out how things work- you can
USE that info to create better societies and better people.
Progress can be made, social problems solved
Early Thinkers
They set the stage…….
Thomas Hobbes
Leviathan 1651. Written just
after Eng. Civil War and
execution of Charles I.
 1st to define the idea of the Social Contract.
We give up our freedom to the gov’t and in
return- gov’t keeps us safe. Humans are
naturally violent and selfish- and gov’t needs
to be strong to protect us from our own
nature. Agreed with absolutism, but thought
king had obligation to use powers for good of
subjects

John Locke

“Essay Concerning
Human
Understanding” 1690.
Explained human
psychology in terms
of their experience.

Tabula Rosa: we are
born “blank slates”and experience (not
nature) determines
who we are- so
human nature can
be modified


We are not born
condemned by
original sin (or
automatically sinful in
nature)- but are
masters of our fate
Talks about the
importance of our
environment- therefore
education in the key to
progress.
Natural Rights



Second Treatise on Government 1690. Talked
about the role of gov’t in an individual’s life. In the
“state of nature” people are free and equal, but
through civilization we have created inequality
and chaos.
We are born with natural rights (Life, Liberty and
Property) We give up freedom to the gov’t – (per
Hobbes) but do NOT abdicate those rights. Gov’t
is only legal if it rules with the consent of the
governed.
With Locke’s social contract- People have the
right to overthrow a gov’t that does not protect
their rights
Why France?
 First
thinkers were English- but the soul of
the Enlightenment will be in France- the
center of a “Republic of Letters” which
transcended national boundaries
 What made France
the Center?
International Language
 Most
educated people (even in other
countries) spoke French.
 Cultural center of Europe- richest and
largest population
Government
 Louis
XIV may have been the “poster
child” for absolutism- but didn’t really use
his power to interfere with subject’s lives
(as was common in Eastern Euro)
 And because they WERE absolutist (had
no voice) thinkers were interested in rights
etc… in a way they might not have been
if it was a constitutional gov’t
Support for Reform
 Looking
for REAL change- wanted to
understand how society worked so they
could make it better. Wanted recognition
for individual freedoms and political rights
Salons
 This
is where the conversations were
happening- bringing together writers,
philosophers, artists, scientists etc… all the
people with new ideas.
 People anxious to debate- affirming the
idea that talent/intellect were more
important than noble heritage
The Philosophes

French word for
enlightenment thinkers.
Not “philosophers”
(who sought truth) but
“lovers of wisdom” –
wanted to reform
thought, society, and
government to
promote liberty. Spoke
at Salons, wrote
pamphlets,
newspapers, novels
etc..
 Not
generally
professional
thinkers (like Locke,
or Newton) this was
their passion.
 Generally really
optimistic (perhaps
overly)- and in
favor of radical
change
Voltaire: Francois Marie Arouet




1694-1778
Began as a playwright.
Used a careful balance
between creativity and
flaunting authority (would
get him exiled from France
and Prussia in the end)
Admired English- found
their society open and free.
Candide- famous satire on
noble priv.
Probably least optimisticwarned change would
take tremendous struggle




Very sarcastic- ridiculed
those who disagreed with
him (which would earn him
powerful enemies)
Challenged RC theologycalled for toleration for ALL
faiths
Advocated “Enlightened
Despotism” in government.
Believed in equality before
the law
Denis Diderot
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
1713-1784
Editor and author of
Encyclopedia: a
Rational Dictionary
of the Sciences, and
Arts and the Crafts
(took 25 years to
compile) an attempt
to classify all
knowledge (disliked
by church because it
questioned doctrine)


Central idea:
knowledge is rationalit follows the laws of
nature, it can be
understood
Compendium of viewssome conflictinghelped popularize the
ideas of the
philosophes- teach
people to think
critically and
objectively
Caesar Beccaria
 “On
Crimes and Punishment” 1764
 Sought to humanize criminal law.
Punishment for crime should relate to
amount of damage done- not sin. Said it
should be more about rehabilitation
(what made person commit crime in first
place)
 Opposed use of death penalty and
torture.
Baron de Montesquieu
 1689-1755
A
noble, but against absolutism and
noble privilege. “Persian Letters”- 2
despots come to France, and ridicule it as
backwards.
 “Spirit of the Laws” 1748- applied scientific
principles to gov’t, advocated separation
of powers and checks and balances.
 Shaped evolution of liberal democracy
Immanuel Kant
 1724-1804
 Greatest
German philosophe. Said
science and morality are separatescience can only describe nature, not
evaluate it as right/wrong.
 Believe in a Moral Imperative- that is
something is wrong it is ALWAYS wrong, no
gray areas
Jean Jacques Rousseau

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

1712-1778.
A reluctant philosophe- he
said they were part of the
problem.
His big issue was freedom
(said society was
destructive to the individual)
said people should return to
simpler times- characterized
by exercise, self reliance
and independent thought.
(state of nature)
“Emilie”- education to allow
free expression- create a
“Noble Savage”


General Will: (from the
“social contract”
1762)- the consensus of
the majority should rule
the nation.
(Democracy- like
ancient Athens, but
even then all
Athenians couldn’t
vote)
Actually closer to ideas
of Romanticism
(founding father of it)
than Enlightenment
David Hume
 Scottish
1711-1776
 A Scientist as well as philosophe, and a
strong skeptic. Wanted to understand
human nature. Afraid we were ruled by
desire rather than reason.
 Said human beings can only understand
things they have experienced
 Also introduced ideal of “Utility” (he was
1st to use the word) focus on how USEFUL
any idea/action/theory is.
Adam Smith
 Scottish.
Wrote about economic rather
than social issues (this was another type of
enlightenment thinker- called Physiocrat)
 1776 published The Wealth of Nations- in
which he defined free market capitalismwhere “Invisible Hand” manages
supply/demand. “Laissez Faire”- gov’t
control interferes with natural laws of the
marketplace.
 Assumes econ is cyclical- will regulate its
own ups and downs
Francois Quesnay
 French
Physiocrat- wanted
to reform agrarian system
with Laissez Faire policy (end
tariffs and price supports)
Said gov’t/noble ownership
of land was bad- peasants
work it, they know it best,
but can’t produce in own
best interest.
Enlightenment
And…
Religion
 Many
philosophes were
against est. religious doctrine- saying it
hampered scientific discovery and caused
tension
 David Hume: said faith is based in superstition
rather than reason
 Philosophes discounted the concept of
original sin (which said humans were born
evil)and predestination (which was against
free will) argued that organized religion not
necessary for a good society
Deism
of
religion and reason
(Voltaire a big fan)
 God created the
world- and let it goit operates through
natural laws rather
than divine
intervention

 Combination

Existence of God
rationalizedaccepted that there
still WERE some things
beyond human
understanding
God a divine
clockmaker (the
highest tech of the
day)
Toleration
 Pierre
Bayle: Critical and Historical
Dictionary 1697 Condemned Christian
church for persecution and fanaticismtrying to force all people into thinking the
same way. Advocated complete
tolerance (echoed by Voltaire)
 Edict of Toleration: Austria 1781. Issued by
Joseph II- 1st time gov’t recognized rights
of non-christians. (although only RC
allowed to worship publically)
Women
 Women’s
role in
society also debated
for the first time- but
most philosophes did
not advocate equal
rights. Said the
“natural, biological”
differences made
them inferior- both
physically and
intellectually.
Salons
 Irony
is that women hosted the Salons
where all these ideas were being
discussed…. (though the hostess herself
might be the only woman there)
 Madame de Geoffrin
 Madame de Stael
 Louise de Warens
Mary
Wollstonecraft
 Often
viewed as founder of feminism.
Wrote Vindication of Rights of Women in
1792 (takeoff on Declaration of the Rights
of Man 1791)
 Two main points


If kings are not to be automatically obeyedwhy must men?
If all men are born free- why are all women
born slaves?
Politics: Liberalism
 Enlightenment
inspired movements for
political action. Liberty of Individual and
Equality before law (most not so interested
in democracy- yet)
 Natural rights and the social contract key
features in American and French
Revolutions
 The idea is that people are interested in
change (that is what Liberalism is)- try an
new idea rather than stick with tradition
(which is what Conservatism is)
Impact of the Enlightenment
 Dominance
of Secular world view (which
has been growing since Renaissance)
 The reform- actual change- in this period
was modest: some religious toleration,
streamlining of legal code, access to
education, reduction of torture
 But the ideas here will all come to
fulfillment- it just takes time to get there.