Anthropology
• as early as the 1700’s, scientists have tried to
figure out how/why plants and animals have
changed over time eg. Spotted Moths
• basically, organisms change in relation to their
environment
• the concept of Natural Selection is key to
theories of evolutionary science
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Universe is approximately 15 billion years old
‘Earth’ is approximately 5B years old
it was not even remotely as it is today
simply a grouping of gases, then rock particles,
then lavas, then solid masses when cooled
• the universe of today is still expanding
• imagine this process in reverse to go back to
the beginning of the earth’s formation
Earth’s life in steps
• *** imagine that each step you take is equal
to one century
• *** your starting point is Times Square NY
• 1 step – 100 years, Thomas Edison is alive and
in the middle of his 1100 patented inventions
• 3 steps – NY is farmland
• 7-10 steps – a native trail
• 70 steps – no Natives at all
• 100 steps – Mastodon grazing the ground
(similar to Woolly Mammoth)
• 150 steps (15,000 years) the end of the last ice
age
• you would have to walk to the North Pole to
get to the age of rocks
• you would have to walk around the entire
world to get the age of the earth
Visualize your area
• 1000 years ago there were no cities in North
America
• 10,000 years ago the glaciers have retreated
to their relative current states
• 1 million years ago, glaciers cut through the
landscape
• 100 million years ago, we are at the base of a
sea
• before that, North America and Africa are still
connected
• (studies of Plate Tectonics and Continental
Drift)
• 1 Billion years ago at the base of a huge
mountain range
• 4-5 billion years ago rocks still floating in space
• prior to that a collection of gases circling the
sun
Stephen Hawking
• author of A Brief History of Time
• very deep
• in response to criticism from religious groups
he states
• “Evolution and Science does not exclude the
possibility of a creator, it just lays into
question what his/her work involved and
when it took place”
Understanding vast concepts
• for many of us, our frames of reference tend
to be associated with what we know first hand
• or at least have been trained to acknowledge
as plausible
• understanding things that are outside of our
own personal experience can be difficult for
some
• examples include ‘Black Holes’
• What are they?
– negative mass?
• Speed of sound
– 768mph (343m/s) at sea level and 20 degrees C
(lower at warmer temperatures and higher
altitudes)
• Speed of light
– 300,000km/s or 186,000mps
– that’s 8 times around the world in one second
• only Superman can attain this
Significant milestones in Earth’s
History
• earth formed approximately 15 billion years
ago (bya)
• 1st forms of life, 4bya
• 1.8 bya free oxygen available (not in H2O)
• 450 mya, vertabrates
• 345 mya winged insects
• 280-225 mya reptiles
• 205 mya flighted birds
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65-135 mya, dinosaurs
65 mya 1st primates
2 mya 1st homonids
it is believed that our ancestors diverged from
apes about 6 mya
• by 4 mya, there are recorded fossils of
‘upright’ beings
Taxonomy of Humans
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Kingdom
Phylum
Subphylum
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Species
Subspecies
Animalia
Chordata
Vertebrata
Mammalia
Primate
Hominidae ( habitual species)
Homo (tool making omnivore)
sapiens (brain size 1000-2000mL)
sapiens
“Ape Man” Part 1
• Host: Walter Cronkite
1. Where are some of the place that anthropologists
look in order to find artifacts of ancient peoples?
2. Approximately how old is Lucy?
3. Genetically, approximately what percentage
difference is there between humans and chimps?
4. Bidpedal locomotion, the ability to walk on two legs,
began about how many years ago
5. How specifically did the ability to use stone flakes as
tools help our early ancestors in the overall picture?
• ‘Lucy’ is estimated to be about 3.2 mya
• genetic difference in % between
– humans and chimp 1.7%
– humans and gorillas 1.9%
Ape Man Part 1 review
• 4-5 mya, the start of our ancestors
• 100,000 ya, Homo sapiens
• anthropologists look in fire pits, graves, look at
bones and tools
• look in caves, valleys, old river/lake beds for
artifacts
• ancestors were nomadic because of the
changes in the environment and resource
availability
• Raymond Dart discovered working in Tuang
S.Africa discovered Australopithecus africanus
• showing bipedalism 3-5 mya
• Mary Leakey worked in Tanzania
• discovered footprints in the sand preserved in
volcanic ash
• carbon dating confirms that they were
approximately 3.5my old, confirming
bipedalism at that time
• Homo habilis refers to ‘skilled, or dextrous’
• their ability to use stone flakes greatly assisted
in meat eating
• now able to cut meat and bone rather than
scavenging at the site for food
• the availability of higher protein helped
greatly in brain development
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Natural Selection
is a problem solving process
those with good solutions survive
those without good solutions die off
99% of all species that ever existed are now
extinct
Homonid History
Time Frame
Name
Height
Weight
4.2mya
Australopithicus anemensis (male/female) 5’1”/4’3”
112/73lbs
3.8-3.0mya
Australopithicus afarensis
4’11”/3’5”
99/64lbs
3-2.3mya
Australopithicus africanus
4’6”/3’9”
90/66lbs
2.6-1mya
Australopithicus bosei
4’6”/4’1”
108/75lbs
2.0-1.2mya
Australopithicus robustus
4’4”/3’7”
88/71lbs
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Denotes ‘robust homonids’
Beginning of Homo
2.5-1.6mya
Homo habilis (“handy man”)
4’4”/3’10”
82/71lbs
1.7mya-100tya
Homo erectus (“upright”)
5’0”/5’3”
139/117lbs
800-100tya
Archaic Homo sapiens
5’9”/5’2”
137/112lbs
100,000 ya
Anatomically modern Homo sapiens
(engaged in the earliest burials)
5’9”/5’3”
143/119lbs
Today
Homo sapiens sapiens (?)
Similar
similar
***170,000-27,000
Homo neaderthalensis
5’5”/5”1”
185/176lbs
“Ape Man” Part 2
• 1. ‘Racial’ differences and superficial differences in humans likely
only changed in the last _______________ years.
• 2. Mitochondrial DNA is the way paleontologists trace our
descent back to one single ________________ and is called the
_________ hypothesis.
• 3. The process by which certain groups survive and others die off
is called _______________.
• 4. What types of physical problems have we inherited because of
upright walking?
• 5. Describe the ‘energy’ advantage discussed in regards to heat
from standing upright
• 6. The 1st dominant piece of technology used by our ancestors
was the __________________ about 1.5 mya
• 7. Why was fire so useful in our evolution?
Ape Man Part 2 review
• 4.5 mya our ancestors were on two legs
• racial differences are superficial and likely
changed only in the last 100,000 years
• Homo Erectus present around 1mya
• Mitochondrial DNA – the ‘family name’ passed
on through the female line
• ‘Eve’ Hypothesis dates Eve to about 200,000
years ago
• ‘Eve’ took over other homonid populations
such as Neanderthal and Erectus (?)
• Either we all came from Eve or we merged
with Erectus
• genetically we are virtually all the same
• bipedalism before tools, tools before big
brains
• The Price of upright walking?
• orthopedic problems such as back, neck and
knee pain
• child birth problems
• trees, food and cover begin disappearing as a
result of global climate changes
• the result is the nomadic movement of
populations to different areas of the African
continent or further north
• the changes in human motion my have (likely)
were the result of social structures leading in
part to selective traits
• in other words, those males who could better
care for the mates and offspring (upright
walkers) would be more popular and therefore
receive mating preference
Bipedalism in Heat
• the advantages of bipedalism of significant
importance in our evolutionary history
• biped have almost 40% less exposure to heat
than quadrapeds
• therefore:
– lower temperature
– less sweat
– less H20 loss
• also, air above the ground level is cooler and
more free moving
• therefore:
– heat lost due to convection
– less sweating
– less H20 loss
• early on, early ancestors were scavengers
• carnivores can more easily adapt to different
environments
• Why??
• animal meat can be digested worldwide,
because of the consistency of amino acids in
all animal flesh
• plant structure doesn’t allow for this
Fire’s Uses
• the use of fire is a significant innovation in our
history
• ancestors now able to cook food
• stay warm in colder temperatures and
environments
• increased light – therefore ‘daylight hours’
• scare off predators
Netbook usage
• *** either using netbooks or old textbook
pages, complete notes on Raymond Dart, the
Leakeys, Donald Johanson, Jane Goodall, Dian
Fossey, Birute Galdikas
• Bios that outline their significant contributions
to Anthropology
“Ape Man” Part 3
• “It’s All in the Mind”
1. The key difference in brain function between us and other animals is our
ability to ____________________
2. Origins of language are likely around _______, about the time of what
homonids presence.
3. Robust homonids living at the same time as Erectus were probably what
type of eaters?
4. At 60,000ya, what 2 homonids were living together and competing for
the same ___________.
5. What suggestions are given to explain why modern humans replaced
Neanderthals?
6. What purpose did cave painting serve?
7. Humans today are not perfect. In fact, the video suggests that evolution
is very __________________and solves problems as they arise.
Ape Man Part 3 review
“All in the Mind”
• diverse language major advantage over any
other species
• our language is also very complex
• useful in warning predators, news of food
• language for us is the ‘social glue’
• 60,000ya, Neanderthals and H.sapiens were
living together, sharing/competing for the
same resources
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Neanderthals eventually died off – why?
they were physically stronger than us
they were also hunters
they also had social groups that cared for the
injured and buried their dead
• So why are they extinct, or are they?
• Neanderthal language was likely not as good as
H. sapiens, probably as a result of their tongue
placement in the mouth
• may have had slower/lower fertility rates
• H. sapiens took over the caves, hunting grounds
because of sheer numbers advantage
• ***likely/probable/unlikely some genetic mixing
occurred between the species
• this suggestion is brought about by the
observation that some Southern Europeans have
Neanderthal like features
• a survival advantage of only 2% by a
competing species could lead to complete
replacement in only 30 generations (1000yrs)
• a 0.5% advantage would take only 5000 yrs
• at any rate, the individual species Neanderthal
disappeared around 35-40tya
• Cro Magnon – 30,000ya
• also exibited symbolic behaviour such as art, jewellery
• these behaviours indicate success
• time available for these activities would previously
have been earmarked for basic survival needs
• participation in these activities would increase the
thought processes of the brain
• Remember: evolution is very short sighted
“Ape Man” Part 4
• 1. Cronkite argues that evolution is no longer a theory
but rather a ___________________.
• 2. Two of the most prominent archaelogists in the field of
evolution are Richard ________ and Donald
______________.
• 3. Problems in science arise when scientists try to find
_________ to fit the ________ rather than the other way
around
• 4. The largest hoax in archeological study was the 1912
‘finding’ of ______________________.
• 5. The ‘Taung Baby’ was found by ___________.
• 6. Why did Europeans and archeologists want to believe
that humans evolved from Asia rather than Africa?
Ape Man Part 4 review
“Science and Fiction”
• evolution is scientifically sound fact
• Leakey and Johanson, are leaders in the field
of human anthropology
• - however, they disagree on the exact route of
our evolution
• Neanderthals are likely one of our closest
relatives
• “Piltdown Man” (1912)
• was a huge fake or fraud that set back human
origin studies over 40 years
• P.M. was supposed to simply ‘speed up’ what
the British scientists were trying to prove
• Raymond Dart’s find of the ‘Taung Baby’
finally discredited and exposed Piltdown as a
fake in 1925
• the preconceived ideas and prejudices of the
time made many people want to believe the
human origins were in Asia
• it was a much more romantic idea than Africa
• in 1948 a grown up version of ‘Taung’ was
found and research finally shifted to Africa
again
• one certainty is that evolution is continuing
and is the result of short term changes
What is the Future of the Human
Species?
• 1. Extinction
• - due to pressures on resources
• - fossil record shows that every other species known
to man has gone extinct
• 2. Divergent species formed
• - isolation required, likely through
colonization of other planets
• 3. We stay the same
• - because we control the environment we live in
• - because we now have a true international gene
pool
Human Variation
• humans do vary in skin colour, body type,
body shape etc.
• these variations however are not distinct and
clear
• 75% of the genetic make up of all humans is
the same
• ‘Race’ differences no longer (if ever) exist
Causes of Diversity
• physical differences develop as a response to
climate, geography, and history of culture
• eg. over 10’s of thousands of years, the
amount of ‘melanin’ or skin pigment changes
according to climate
• dark skin is resistant to UV rays which is
beneficial for protection in warm climates
• particularly in equatorial regions
• light skin absorbs more sunlight
• less pigment allows for sunlight to be
absorbed for the production of Vitamin D
• this is beneficial in polar and mid-latitude
regions of the world
• “Skin Deep” article
Brief Human History
• earliest fully modern humans (anatomically)
about 100,000 ya
• 40,000 ya humans entered Australia
• 15,000 ya (or 40,000) humans entered the
Americas
• Journey of Mankind website
• www.bradshawfoundation.com/journey
Similarities to Other Primates
• there are approximately 200 species of
primates
• 1. The senses, we all
• are visually dependant
• see in colour
• see true depth (stereoscopic, 3D)
• have eyes enclosed in a bony socket
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2. Locomotion
limbs are very flexible
hands and feet can grasp
opposable thumbs (pick up things easier)
3. Intelligence
largest complex brains of all mammals
ability to acquire, store and process
information
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4. Behaviour Patterns
primates are social creatures
live in groups
hunt/gather for the good of the group
raise “family” and maintain close ties
Differences from Other Primates
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1. Senses
virtually the same
2. Locomotion
we are bipedal (walk exclusively on two legs)
our muscles and skeleton are adapted to
upright walking
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3. Intelligence
we are the most complex
have the largest neo-cortex (base of the brain)
4. Behaviour
ours reflects cultural norms and values and
not so much instinct
Human Separation
• humans likely separated from African Apes
between 5-6mya
• fossil evidence from 8mya and later and 4mya
and younger
• Bonobo
• likely separated from common chimp around
1.5mya
• likely very close to us
• social structure has distinct jobs and status
for males and females
• sex is often face to face
• sex is not always male to female
• they appear to be constantly sexually
receptive, indicating sex for pleasure as
opposed to simply reproduce
• are significantly more bipedal than other
primates excluding humans
Genetic Differences from other
Primates
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Notable feature differences
1. lack of body hair
2. rounded cranium and flat face
3. spinal cord at the base of the skull
4. non-opposable big toe
5. slow growth of brain
• full size around 10 years compared to < 5yrs.
• 6. - lack of external tail
• 7. - muscle attachment to levers
• Neoteny - is the study of ‘juvenile’ features in
primates and how they relate to humans
• basically a comparison of species during their
infancy
• shows how similar our facial features are
during prepubesence with other primates
Processes of Evolution
• Mutations
• random unpredictable changes in loci or and
entire chromosome (many loci)
• may occur as a result of mechanical errors in
production of genetic code or from outside
stimuli such as cosmic or nuclear radiation or
chemical insecticides
• mutations are frequent (happening right now)
however the only ones of lasting affect are the
ones that occur on the sex chromosomes (23rd)
Genetic Mixing
• Gene Flow
• when members of the same species, but
different populations interbreed, genes from
each other are said to “flow” from on another
and vise versa
• Genetic Drift
• genetic changes within a population
• splits in the genetic code (mutations or
responses to other environment pressures)