US Military Doctrine
Lsn 4
Agenda
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Doctrine
Forms of Maneuver
Characteristics of the Offense
Characteristics of the Defense
METT-TC
OCOKA
Leadership Dimensions
Doctrine
• Describes (but does not prescribe), how the Army
conducts campaigns, operations, battles, and
engagements
– Must be detailed enough to provide meaningful guidance, yet
flexible enough to allow commanders to exercise initiative when
dealing with specific situations
• Rooted in time-tested principles but must be forwardlooking and adaptable to changing technologies, threats,
and missions
• To be useful, doctrine must be well known and
commonly understood
– Promulgated through field manuals and other publications and
through the professional military education system
Forms of Maneuver
Forms of Maneuver
• The five forms of maneuver are the
– envelopment,
– turning movement,
– infiltration,
– penetration, and
– frontal attack.
Envelopment
Envelopment
• The envelopment is a form of maneuver in which an
attacking force seeks to avoid the principal enemy
defenses by seizing objectives to the enemy rear to
destroy the enemy in his current positions.
• Envelopments avoid the enemy front, where he is
protected and can easily concentrate fires.
• Single envelopments maneuver against one enemy
flank; double envelopments maneuver against both.
Either variant can develop into an encirclement.
• Example: Chancellorsville
Turning Movement
Turning Movement
• A turning movement is a form of maneuver in which
the attacking force seeks to avoid the enemy's
principal defensive positions by seizing objectives to
the enemy rear and causing the enemy to move out
of his current positions or divert major forces to
meet the threat.
• A major threat to his rear forces the enemy to attack or
withdraw rearward, thus "turning" him out of his
defensive positions.
• Turning movements typically require greater depth than
other forms of maneuver.
• Example: Peninsula Campaign
Infiltration
Infiltration
• An infiltration is a form of maneuver in which an
attacking force conducts undetected movement
through or into an area occupied by enemy forces
to occupy a position of advantage in the enemy
rear while exposing only small elements to enemy
defensive fires
– Typically, forces infiltrate in small groups and reassemble to
continue their mission.
– Infiltration rarely defeats a defense by itself. Commanders
direct infiltrations to attack lightly defended positions or
stronger positions from the flank and rear, to secure key
terrain to support the decisive operation, or to disrupt enemy
sustaining operations.
– Example: Mosby’s raid on Fairfax Courthouse
Penetration
Penetration
• A penetration is a form of maneuver in which an
attacking force seeks to rupture enemy defenses
on a narrow front to disrupt the defensive system.
– Commanders direct penetrations when enemy flanks are not
assailable or time does not permit another form of maneuver.
Successful penetrations create assailable flanks and provide
access to enemy rear areas.
– Because penetrations frequently are directed into the front of
the enemy defense, they risk significantly more friendly
casualties than envelopments, turning movements, and
infiltrations.
– Example: Sherman’s March to the Sea
Frontal Attack
Frontal attack
• The frontal attack is frequently the most costly form of
maneuver, since it exposes the majority of the attackers to
the concentrated fires of the defenders.
– As the most direct form of maneuver, however, the frontal attack is
useful for overwhelming light defenses, covering forces, or
disorganized enemy resistance.
– It is often the best form of maneuver for hasty attacks and meeting
engagements, where speed and simplicity are essential to
maintain tempo and the initiative.
– Commanders may direct a frontal attack as a shaping operation
and another form of maneuver as the decisive operation.
– Example: Fredericksburg
Characteristics of the Offense
• Audacity
– “a simple plan of action, boldly executed”
• Surprise
– “attacking the enemy at a time or place he does not
expect or in a manner for which he is unprepared”
• Tempo
– “a faster tempo allows attackers to disrupt enemy
defensive plans by achieving results quicker than the
enemy can respond.”
• Concentration
– “the massing of overwhelming effects of combat
power to achieve a single purpose”
Characteristics of the Offense
Trenton
Trenton
• The British followed up their success on
Long Island with a series of landings on
Manhattan Island
– Compelled Washington to retreat, escaping
finally over the Delaware River into
Pennsylvania with about 3,000 men.
– Howe then went into winter quarters
Trenton
• In December 1776,
Washington determined
to make a surprise
attack on the British
garrison in Trenton, a
1,400-man Hessian
force
– Hoped that a striking
victory would lift the
badly flagging
American morale.
• Reinforcements had
raised Washington's
army to about 7,000
The Hessians were German
mercenaries hired by the British to
fight the colonists. The money
however went to the German
treasury, not the soldiers.
Trenton
• On Christmas night (December 25-26) he ferried about
2,400 men of this force across the ice-choked Delaware.
• At 8:00 a.m. they converged on Trenton in two columns,
achieving complete surprise. After only an hour and a
half of fighting, the Hessians surrendered.
– Some 400 of the garrison escaped southward to
Bordentown, N. J., when two other American columns
failed to get across the Delaware in time to intercept
them.
– About 30 were killed and 918 captured. American
losses were only 4 dead and a like number wounded.
Trenton:
Characteristics of the Offense
• Audacity
– Washington knew he had to do something to restore morale and
act decisively before the 1776 enlistments expired
– Risked poor weather, previous poor performance of troops, and
dividing his force
– In house to house fighting, American inspiration and initiative
countered British superior training and discipline
• Surprise
– Took advantage of British being in winter quarters and in poorly
defended, dispersed locations
– Bad weather and limited visibility
– Christmas had reduced British security
Trenton:
Characteristics of the Offense
• Concentration
– Washington led 2,400
men across the
Delaware at McConkey’s
Ferry above Trenton and
then proceeded by two
columns on different
routes, converging at
opposite ends of the
main street in Trenton
• Tempo
– Washington’s forces
attacked before the
British could react
Characteristics of the Defense
• Preparation
– “The defense has inherent strengths. The defender arrives in
the area of operations before the attacker and uses the available
time to prepare.”
• Security
– “provide early warning and disrupt enemy attacks early and
continuously”
• Massing effects
– “To obtain an advantage at decisive points, defenders
economize and accept risk in some areas; retain and, when
necessary, reconstitute a reserve; and maneuver to gain local
superiority at the point of decision.”
• Flexibility
– “Planning focuses on preparations in depth, use of reserves, and
the ability to shift the main effort.”
Characteristics of the Defense
Cowpens
Cowpens: Preparation
• Nathanael Greene was
commander in the
Carolinas and Georgia
– Only a little over 1,000
Continentals and bands of
ill-disciplined militia against
Cornwallis’ 10,000 men
• Had to create
circumstances to achieve
success
Cowpens: Preparation (cont)
• Greene divided his army into two divisions
which he posted to the northwest and
northeast of Cornwallis’ camp at Winnsboro
– Allowed him to better feed his own men,
sustain the militia, and harass the British
– Tempted Cornwallis to divide his main body,
making it more vulnerable
• Cornwallis did this in Jan 1781, sending 1,100 men
(commanded by Tarleton) to attack Greene’s
western division (commanded by Morgan)
Cowpens: Security
• Greene’s strategy was luring Cornwallis
away from his bases of supply
• Morgan applied the “troops” portion of
METT-TC and recognized his militia was illdisciplined
– Deployed militia in two lines, 300 and 150
yards in front of his Continentals
– He asked each militia line to fire twice before
retreating behind the Continentals
– A small force of 125 cavalry was posted in the
rear to cover the exposed flanks
Cowpens: Disruption and
massed effects
• Americans executed as
planned
– Militia in the first lines
checked the British
cavalry and fired two
effective volleys into the
infantry before retreating
behind the Continentals
– British rushed after the
retreating militia and
became disordered
– Continentals fired
repeated volleys into the
British
– British disintegrated
against American
counterattack
Cowpens: Results
• Americans suffered 6.2% losses (12 killed
and 60 wounded)
• British suffered 90% losses
• Cornwallis became obsessed with Morgan
and turned to pursue him
– Morgan retreated into Virginia (flexibility)
– In a month Cornwallis marched 225 miles
without achieving decisive battle
METT-TC
METT-TC
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Mission
Enemy
Terrain and Weather
Troops and Equipment
Time
Civilians
Mission
• Seize Vicksburg in order to control the
Mississippi River and separate the
Confederacy in two
Enemy
• Pemberton
– Five divisions totaling 43,000 effectives
• Pemberton fell under Johnston’s
Department of the West
– Represented some potential for a relief force
• No ironclads and only a few wooden
gunboats
Terrain
• Vicksburg located astride the
railroad that linked Shreveport,
LA (and thus the three states
west of the river) to the eastern
transportation network
• Line of bluffs that dominated
the river favored defense
• Northeast and west of
Vicksburg was wetland that
would inhibit offensive
movement
Troops
• Army
– Grant had a
maneuver force of ten
divisions (44,000
effectives)
• Navy
– Porter’s Mississippi
River Squadron had
about 60 combat
vessels of which 20 to
25 could support the
Vicksburg operation at
any one time
Time
• Pemberton had ample time to prepare his
defense
• Grant needed to attack before his supplies
run out and before Johnston could
reinforce
• Once the siege began, time benefited the
offense
Civilians
• About 5,000 lived in
Vicksburg
• Pemberton was
responsible for their
well-being
• Other civilians along
the Mississippi River
posed a guerrilla threat
to the Federal Navy
• Potential source of
intelligence
OAKOC
• Observation and Fields of Fire
– Being able to see and engage the enemy
• Avenues of Approach
– Create maneuver opportunities to get to the enemy
• Key Terrain
– Gives a marked advantage to whoever controls it
• Obstacles
– Slow and impede movement
• Cover and Concealment
– Cover protects against enemy fire. Concealment
protects against enemy observation.
Champion Hill (Vicksburg
Campaign)
• “Champion’s Hill, where Pemberton had chosen his
position to receive us, whether taken by accident or
design, was well selected. It is one of the highest points
in that section, and commanded all the ground in range.
On the east side of the ridge, which is quite precipitous,
is a ravine running first north, then westerly, terminating
at Baker’s Creek. It was grown up thickly with large trees
and undergrowth, making it difficult to penetrate with
troops, even when not defended. The ridge occupied by
the enemy terminated abruptly where the ravine turns
westerly. The left of the enemy occupied the north end of
this ridge. The Bolton and Edward’s station wagon-road
turns almost due south at this point and ascends the
ridge, which it follows for about a mile; then turning west,
descends by a gentle declivity to Baker’s Creek, nearly a
mile away.”
– Grant, Memoirs
OAKOC
• Obstacles
– “On the east side of the ridge, which is quite precipitous, is a
ravine running first north, then westerly, terminating at Baker’s
Creek”
• Avenues of approach
– “The Bolton and Edward’s station wagon-road turns almost due
south at this point and ascends the ridge…”
• Key terrain
– “one of the highest points in that section”
• Observation and fields of fire
– “commanded all the ground in range”
• Cover and concealment
– “grown up thickly with large trees and undergrowth”
Strategic Leadership
Strategic Leadership Skills
• Interpersonal Skills
– Communicating
– Using Dialogue
– Negotiating
– Achieving Consensus
– Building Staffs
Strategic Leadership Skills
• Conceptual Skills
– Envisioning
– Developing Frames of Reference
– Dealing with Uncertainty and Ambiguity
Strategic Leadership Skills
• Technical Skills
– Strategic Art
– Leveraging Technology
– Translating Political Goals into Military
Objectives
Strategic Leadership Skills
• Interpersonal Skills
– Communicating
• “When you first reached the vicinity of Vicksburg, I never had
any faith, except a general hope that you knew better than I,
that the Yazoo Pass expedition, and the like, could succeed.
When you got below, and took Port Gibson, Grand Gulf, and
vicinity, I thought you should go down the river and join
General Banks; and when you turned northward east of the
Big Black, I feared it was a mistake. I now which to make the
personal acknowledgement that you were right and I was
wrong.”
– Lincoln to Grant
Strategic Leadership Skills
• Interpersonal Skills
– Using Dialogue
• Pemberton preferred to command behind the scenes and had little
direct communication with his soldiers or subordinate commanders
– Negotiating
• Grant and Porter were able to achieve Army-Navy cooperation in
the absence of a hierarchical command relationship
– Achieving Consensus
• Pemberton’s superiors, Davis and Johnston, did not achieve
consensus on the proper strategy and gave Pemberton conflicting
guidance
– Building Staffs
• Grant drew great benefit from his logistical staff that kept him
resupplied after he “cut loose” from his base
Strategic Leadership Skills
• Conceptual Skills
– Envisioning
• Success at Raymond convinced Grant to shift his decisive
point from the Confederate railroads to Jackson, which
allowed him to isolate Vicksburg from reinforcements.
– Developing Frames of Reference
• Pemberton brought from Charleston a dictum that he must
not do anything to leave Vicksburg vulnerable.
– Dealing with Uncertainty and Ambiguity
• This was Pemberton’s chief failure. He was continually left
guessing by Grant’s diversions and maneuver and was
always a couple steps behind.
Strategic Leadership Skills
• Technical Skills
– Strategic Art
• Control of the Mississippi would separate the Confederacy
into two halves and controlling Vicksburg would give the
North control of the Mississippi
– Leveraging Technology
• At the time of the Vicksburg Campaign, the Confederacy had
no ironclads. The Federal Mississippi River Squadron
included thirteen ironclads.
– Translating Political Goals into Military Objectives
• The Anaconda Plan was rejected as a military strategy
because it failed to meet the political objective for a quick,
offensive war.
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Role in American Society