Chapter 6
Learning
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Classical Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
Observational Learning
Factors That Affect Learning
Learning and Health and Wellness
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Types of Learning
Learning
…a systematic, relatively permanent change in
behavior that occurs through experience
Behaviorism
Associative Learning/Conditioning
Observational Learning
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Types of Learning
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Classical Conditioning:
Terminology
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helps to explain involuntary behavior
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unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
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unconditioned response (UCR)
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neutral stimulus (NS)
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conditioned stimulus (CS)
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conditioned response (CR)
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Classical Conditioning:
Procedure
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acquisition
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UCS produces a UCR (reflex)
neutral stimulus (NS) paired with a UCS
after pairings, NS produces a CR
the NS has become a CS
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contiguity – time between CS and UCS
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contingency – is CS regularly followed by
the UCS?
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Classical Conditioning: Pavlov
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Unlearned/Reflexive
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UCS – meat powder
UCR – dog salivates
NS – sound of Pavlov’s bell (prior to
pairings with meat powder)
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Learned
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CS – sound of Pavlov’s bell
CR – dog salivates
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Classical Conditioning: Pavlov
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Classical Conditioning
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Generalization
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CRs may appear after various NS that
are similar to the CS
Discrimination
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CRs appear after the CS but not after
other CSs
discrimination generally learned by
presenting other CSs without the UCS
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Classical Conditioning
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Extinction
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Spontaneous Recovery
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CR is weakened by presenting the CS without the UCS
Pavlov rang the bell but did not present food, and the dog
stopped salivating
CR recurs after a time delay and without additional learning
when Pavlov rang the bell the next day, the dog salivated
Renewal
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recovery of the CR when organism is placed in novel
context
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Classical Conditioning
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Classical Conditioning:
Applications
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Phobias
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Watson and Rayner (1920) – Little Albert
white rat (CS) paired with loud noise (UCS)
Counterconditioning
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associate CS with new, incompatible CR
CS paired with new UCS
aversive conditioning
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Classical Conditioning:
Applications
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placebo effect
immune and endocrine responses
taste aversion
advertising
drug habituation
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Operant Conditioning
 better at explaining voluntary behaviors
 the consequences of a behavior change
the probability of that behavior’s
occurrence
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Operant Conditioning
Thorndike’s Law of Effect
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consequence strengthens or
weakens a S – R connection
B.F. Skinner
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expanded on Thorndike’s work
shaping (reward approximations
of the desired behavior)
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Reinforcement
Reinforcement increases behavior.
Positive Reinforcement
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behavior followed by rewarding consequence
rewarding stimulus is “added”
Negative Reinforcement
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behavior followed by rewarding consequence
aversive (unpleasant) stimulus is “removed”
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Reinforcement
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Principles of Reinforcement
Avoidance Reinforcement
…by making a particular response, a negative
stimulus can be avoided
Learned Helplessness
…an organism learns it has no control over
negative outcomes
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Types of Reinforcers
Primary Reinforcers
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innately satisfying
Secondary Reinforcers
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become satisfying through experience
repeated association with a pre-existing
reinforcer
token economy
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Schedules of Reinforcement
Generalization
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stimulus “sets the occasion” for the response
responding occurs to similar stimuli
Discrimination
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stimuli signal when behavior will or will not be
reinforced
Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery
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behavior decreases when reinforcement stops
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Schedules of Reinforcement
Continuous Reinforcement
Partial Reinforcement
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fixed
variable
ratio
interval
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Schedules of Reinforcement
Fixed Ratio (FR)
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reinforcement follows a set # of
behaviors
Variable Ratio (VR)
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reinforcement follows an
unpredictable # of behaviors
(e.g., an average)
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Schedules of Reinforcement
Fixed Interval (FI)
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reinforcement follows behavior that occurs
after a set amount of time has elapsed
Variable Interval (VI)
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reinforcement follows behavior that occurs
after an unpredictable amount of time has
elapsed
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Schedules of Reinforcement
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Punishment
Punishment decreases behavior.
Positive Punishment
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behavior followed by aversive consequence
aversive (unpleasant) stimulus is “added”
Negative Punishment
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behavior followed by aversive consequence
rewarding stimulus is “removed”
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Punishment
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Comparing
Operant Procedures
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Controversy Over Punishment
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corporal punishment
 used by 70-90% of parents in the U.S.
 correlational research studies
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problems associated with punishment
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why should parents avoid spanking?
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is physical punishment necessary?
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Operant Conditioning
Timing of Consequences
 immediate versus delayed reinforcement
 immediate versus delayed punishment
 immediate versus delayed reinforcement and
punishment
Applied Behavior Analysis
 behavior modification
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Observational Learning
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learning that occurs when a person observes and
imitates behavior (modeling)
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Albert Bandura – Social Cognitive Theory
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four processes
- attention
- retention
- motor reproduction
- reinforcement
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Observational Learning
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Cognitive Factors in Learning
Do cognitions matter?
Does learning involve more than
environment-behavior connections?
Purposive Behavior in Humans
- goal directed
- goal setting
- self-regulation and self-monitoring
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Cognitive Factors in Learning
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expectancy learning
- information value
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latent learning/implicit learning
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insight learning
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Other Factors in Learning
Biological Constraints
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instinctive drift
preparedness
Cultural Influences
Psychological Constraints
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mindset: fixed v. growth
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Learning and
Health and Wellness
Factors influencing degree of stress
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predictability of stressor
control over stressor
improvement of (reduction in) stressor
outlets for frustration
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Chapter Summary
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Explain what learning is.
Describe classical conditioning.
Discuss operant conditioning.
Understand observational learning.
Discuss the role of cognition in learning.
Identify biological, cultural, and psychological
factors in learning.
Describe how principles of learning apply to health
and wellness.
© 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Chapter Summary
Learning is a relatively permanent change in
behavior that occurs through experience.
Classical Conditioning
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association between two stimuli
terminology: CS, CR, UCS, UCR
generalization and discrimination
extinction and spontaneous recovery
phobias and counterconditioning
© 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Chapter Summary
Operant Conditioning
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stimulus  response  consequence
positive and negative reinforcement
positive and negative punishment
schedules of reinforcement
Observational Learning
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attention, retention, motor reproduction,
and reinforcement
© 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Chapter Summary
Cognitive Factors in Learning
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purposive behavior
insight learning
Other Factors in Learning
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biological, cultural, psychological constraints
Learning and Health and Wellness
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variables aggravating stress
© 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.