Human anatomy
SHANDONG UNIVERSITY
Liu Zhiyu
Special techniques
X-rays radiograph
MRI scan of head in sagittal plane.
MR scan showing an enhancing mass which
is a meningioma growing from the meninges
at the edge of the foramen magnum. The
tumour is benign but is causing compression
of the brain stem
and secondary hydrocephalus.
Examination
Identify 20 structures (30 marks)
Written examination
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35 single-choice questions (35 marks)
15 multi-choice questions (15 marks)
4 short answer questions (20marks)
Descriptive anatomical terms
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The anatomical position:
The body is upright, legs
together, and directed forwards.
The palms are turned forward,
with the thumbs laterally.
The terms of the direction

superior (cranial )
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inferior (caudal )
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Anterior (ventral )
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Posterior (dorsal )
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medial
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lateral
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internal
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external
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superficial
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profound
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proximal
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distal
The terms of the direction
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ulnar
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radial
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tibial
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fibular
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left
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right
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vertical
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horizontal
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central
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unilateral
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bilateral
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contralateral
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homolateral
Anatomical axes and planes
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Axis ：
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Vertical axis
Sagittal axis
Coronal axis
Anatomical axes and planes
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Plane:
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Sagittal plane
Coronal plane
Horizontal plane
or transverse plane
Planes of the Body
Fig
2.8
Sagittal
Frontal
Transverse
Abbreviations of terms

a., aa.
artery, arteries
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ant.
anterior
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f.
fibre or fiber
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inf.
inferior
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lig.
ligament
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ln.
lymph node
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m., mm.
muscle, muscles
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n., nn.
nerve, nerves
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post.
posterior
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sup.
superior
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v.
vein
The Locomotor System
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Composed
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Bones
Joints
Muscles
Major function
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Support
Protection
Locomotion
Introduction of the osteology
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Classification of bone
Bones in adult are 206 in number. Bones
are classified according to their position
and shape.
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The position can be:
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skull
bones of trunk
appendicular skeleton
Types of shape include:
1. long bone
2. short bone
3. flat bone
4. irregular bone
Introduction of the osteology
1. Long bones (found in
limbs):
 Diaphysis or shaft , which is
hollow (medullary
cavity ,filled with bone marrow
 Two ends－epiphysis
 Articular surface
 Metaphysis
 Epiphysial cartilage
 Epiphysial line
2. Short bones: cuboidal in
shape, e.g. carpal bones
Introduction of the osteology
3. Flat bones: thin,
4. Irregular bones:
have any irregular or
mixed shape, e.g.
vertebrae, pneumatic
bones
* Sesamoid bones
develop within tendon
General structures of bone
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Bony substance
Periosteum
Bone marrow
General structures of bone
1. Bony substance
 compact bone
 spongy bone
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Trabeculae
General structures of bone
※In the flat bones of the skull, the layers of compact
bone are called the outer plate ,and inner plate ,
while the layer of spongy bone is called the diploë
General structures of bone
2. Periosteum :
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Outer or fibrous layer
Inner layer is vascular and provides the
underlying bone with nutrition. It also
contains osteoblasts
Endosteum is a single-cellular osteogenic layer
lining the inner surface of bone.
3. Bone marrow
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Red marrow ：haematopoietic 造血
Yellow marrow: fatty
Chemical composition and physical properties
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Organic material ：the main one is
collagen
gives the bones resilience and toughness
Inorganic salts ： the main one is calcium
phosphate give the bones hardness and rigidity
Organic material
Inorganic salts
Children
1
1
Adult
3
7
Old
1
4
Ⅰ. Bones of trunk
Composition:
 Vertebrae
 Sacrum
 Coccyx
 Sternum
 Ribs
1. Vertebrae
There are 33 vertebrae in children, arranged as
follows:
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Cervical vertebrae C. 7
Thoracic vertebrae T. 12
Lumbar vertebrae L. 5
Sacral vertebrae S. 5 →sacrum
Coccygeal vertebrae Co.3-4 →coccyx
1）General features of vertebra
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Vertebral body
Vertebral arch
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pedicle of vertebral arch :
sup. and inf. vertebral notch
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lamina of vertebral arch
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process (7):
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spinous process
transverse process
sup. and inf. articular processes
Vertebral foramen
Vertebral canal
Intervertebral foramen
2）Regional variations of vertebrae
（1）Thoracic vertebrae
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Vertebrae Body ：
heart-shape, superior and
inferior costal fovea
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Vertebral foramen：
smaller, rounder
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Spinous processes：
long, point obliquely
downward
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Transverse processes：
transverse costal fovea
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Articular processes:
coronal
（2）Cervical vertebrae
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Vertebrae Body:
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small
uncus of vertebral body
Vertebral foramen: large and
triangular in shape
Spinous processes:
short and bifid in C3 to C5, long in
C6, and longer in C7
Transverse processes:
short and bifid, transverse foramen
Articular processes: horizontal
Atypical vertebeae
Atlas (C1)
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Body and spinous
process absent
consists of anterior and
posterior arches, and two
lateral masses
Groove for vertebral
artery
Atypical vertebeae
Axis (C2):
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Distinguished by dens
Which articulates with dental
fovea of anterior arch of atlas
Atypical vertebeae
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Carotid tubercle:
anterior tubercle of
transverse process of
C6
Vertebra prominens
(C7):contains long and
non-bifid spinous
process, it is visible
with neck flexed, used
as clinical landmark in
counting cervical and
thoracic spinous
processes
（3）Lumbar vertebrae
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Vertebrae Body：
larger, kidney-shape
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Vertebral foramen:
larger and triangular
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Spinous processes:
projects horizontally
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Transverse processes:
long
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Articular processes:
sagittal
Regional variations of vertebrae
Cervical vertebrae
Thoracic vertebrae
Lumber vertebrae
Body
Small
Heart-shape, have
superior and inferior
costal fovea for rib heads
Larger, kidney-shape
Vertebral
foramen
Larger and triangular
Smaller, rounder
Larger and triangular
Spinous
processes
Short and bifid in C3
to C5, long in C6,and
longer in C7
Long, point obliquely
downward
Projects horizontally
Transverse
processes
Short and bifid,
transverse foramen
Have transverse costal
fovea for rib tubercles
Long
Articular
processes
Horizontal
Coronal
Sagittal
（4）Sacrum
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Anterior surface:
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Posterior surface:
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Promontory
anterior sacral foramina
(four pairs)
median sacral crest
posterior sacral foramina
(four pairs)
sacral canal
sacral hiatus
sacral cornu
Lateral part:
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auricular surface
sacral tuberosity
Cornua
Sacral hiatus
palpation
caudal anaesthesia
2. Sternum
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Manubrium sterni
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Body of sternum
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jugular notch
clavicular notch
Costal notches
Xiphoid process
2. Sternum
★ Sternal angle :
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the junction of
manubrium and body
which connects 2nd
costal cartilage
laterally
lies opposite lower
border of T4
posteriorly
3. Ribs
General features
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12 pair
Ribs 1~7 called true ribs
Ribs 8~10 called false ribs
Ribs 11~12 called floating
ribs
1）Characteristics of “typical” rib
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Posterior end
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Shaft
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costal head
costal neck
costal tubercle
costal angle
costal groove
Anterior end
Atypical rib
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First rib:
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tubercle for scalenus
anterior
sulcus for subclavian
vein and artery
11th and 12th ribs lack
costal necks, tubercles
and angles
You must identify follow structures！
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Vertebral body
Vertebral arch
pedicle of vertebral arch
sup. and inf. vertebral notch
lamina of vertebral arch
spinous process
transverse process
sup. and inf. articular
processes
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Vertebral foramen
Intervertebral foramen
superior and inferior
costal fovea
transverse costal fovea
transverse foramen
Atlas
Groove for vertebral
artery
Promontory
anterior sacral foramina
median sacral crest
posterior sacral foramina
You must identify follow structures！
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sacral canal
sacral hiatus
sacral cornu
auricular surface
sacral tuberosity
Manubrium sterni
jugular notch
clavicular notch
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Body of sternum
Xiphoid process
Sternal angle
costal head
costal neck
costal tubercle
costal angle
costal groove