Consider these questions:
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Why does Rachels focus on cultural
relativism, subjectivism, and religious
ethics towards the beginning of The
Elements of Moral Philosophy?
And why did we skip these chapters?
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A short answer: Because these are examples of
“ethics-avoidance disorders” that obstruct
creative, constructive, ethical thinking.
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Relativism and subjectivism can sometimes lead to “a
kind of ethical laziness,” which could be called
“rationalizing” or “offhand self-justification” (e.g., one
often hears excuses such as “That’s just what I
think”).
Religious ethics can sometimes lead to dogmatism.
Metaethics
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What is the status of moral values? Is
ethics a viable intellectual enterprise?
Is the current state of moral discourse one
of grave disrepair? (as suggested by
Alasdair MacIntyre)
“Through the Moral Maze: The
Challenge of Cultural Relativism”
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Thinking about the Callatians, Greeks, and
Eskimos may lead to the view that there are no
absolute values, or no “universal truth in ethics.”
This is cultural relativism.
In short, the “Cultural Differences Argument”
infers from the premise that “different cultures
have different moral codes,” that “there is no
objective truth in morality.”
Is this argument valid and sound?
Problems with Cultural Relativism
Whose view do you
sympathize with
more, Calvin’s or
Hobbes’?
Problems with Cultural Relativism
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1. No blame of other cultures for “wrong” or
“evil” deeds. Are cultures morally infallible?
2. No criticism of our own culture.
3. No idea of moral progress.
4. In a relativist society the view of the majority
rules. Is this fair?
5. Is tolerance a universal value, in which case
relativism is paradoxical?
6. Isn’t relativism paradoxical in another sense?
7. Don’t we all instinctively believe that some
things are universally right and wrong?
Soft Universalism
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The view that all cultures have at least some values in
common, even if they are buried beneath layers of
different behavior patterns and systems of belief.
Such values commonly cited are not lying, not stealing,
and allowing enough young of the culture to live (i.e.,
not killing) in order to preserve the culture.
As Rachels states: “there are some rules that all societies
must embrace, because those rules are necessary for
society to exist.” (23)
A common standard: “Does the practice promote or
hinder the welfare of the people affected by it?”
Benefits of Cultural Relativism
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1. It teaches us to be cautious about “assuming
that all our preferences are based on some
absolute rational standard” when “they are not.”
(29)
2. It teaches us to be open-minded and to avoid
dogmatism.
Pluralism (diversity of points of view) is a view
related to relativism that is generally viewed
more positively by philosophers.
What do you know about
Friedrich Nietzsche?
Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900)
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Some Major Works
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The Birth of Tragedy (1872)
Thus Spoke Zarathustra (1883-58)
Beyond Good and Evil (1886)
Twilight of the Idols (1888)
The Antichrist (1888)
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Some Major Ideas
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“God is Dead.”
Der Übermensch (the
“Overman”)
Master and Slave
morality
Some Key Points
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Nietzsche’s Aim: Towards a Revaluation of
All Values
Philology and Perspectivism: every view is
only one among many possible
interpretations.
“Truth is a necessary lie.”
Dionysus: the central metaphor for
Nietzsche’s affirmative philosophy
How do you interpret Z’s
proclamation that god is dead?
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No absolutes, transcendental values or absolute
principles, e.g., Judeo-Christian tradition as ultimate
moral authority
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Emphasizes individual freedom in creation of values
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“Once the sin against god was the greatest sin, but god
died, and these sinners died with him.”
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Forget otherworldly salvation
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“…there is no devil and no hell. Your soul will be dead
even before your body: fear nothing further.”
How do you interpret Z’s teaching of
the overman?
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“I teach you the overman. Man is something that
must be overcome. What have you done to
overcome him?”
“The overman is the meaning of the earth.”
“He is this lightning, he is this frenzy”
Man as a bridge from “beast to overman”
A “creator”
Essentially metaphorical
Refers to humanity’s capacity for achieving a selftransformation of itself
Nietzsche, The Natural History of
Morals in Beyond Good and Evil
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Project: A Theory of Types of Morality
Against moralists, such as Kant: ”moral
systems are only a sign-language of
emotions”
Moral systems are against Nature and
Reason: they constrain freedom and
narrow perspectives
Master vs. Slave Morality
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Moral values originate
in the ruling caste
Good and Bad
Good=noble, one who
arouses fear,
necessary to have
enemies
Duty to equals, faith
in oneself, hardhearted, no
sympathy, pride
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Moral values originate
in those who are
ruled
Good and Evil
Evil: one who arouses
fear
Sympathy, kindness,
warm-hearted,
patience, humility
For Self-Reflection
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Who is the source of your values? Do they
come from within yourself or through a
reaction to others?
Do your values make you stronger or able
to flourish or do they just help you cope in
a cruel world?