History / Evolution of Civilization
CHAPTER 1:ANCIENT EGYPT
Prof.Dr. Halit Hami ÖZ
Kafkas Üniversitesi/Kafkas University
Kars, Turkey
hamioz@yahoo.com
Learning Objectives

For convenience sake, historians divide
history into three major periods:
Ancient history (3000 BC--AD 476)
 Medieval history (AD 325--1500)
 Modern history (AD 1350--Present)

http://www3.northern.edu/marmorsa/histor
y121.htm
2
Evolution of Civiization

Note that these periods overlap--there
are no sharp breaks between these
different periods, though there are some
broad general differences.

The ancient period of history, for instance,
is dominated by polytheistic societies,

while the medieval period sees the rise of
monotheistic civilizations
http://www3.northern.edu/marmorsa/histor
y121.htm
3
Evolution of Civiization

Note also that history has for us a beginning: roughly 3000
BC.

There were people on earth before that time, and the
anthropologists and archaelogists can tell us some things
about them and their societies.

However, until the emergence of writing (roughly 5000 years
ago), we can't investigate the kinds of questions historians
really care about.

We don't know people's religious beliefs or their laws. Most
of all, we can't know anything about individuals, their choices
and the consequences of those choices.
http://www3.northern.edu/marmorsa/histor
y121.htm
4
Evolution of Civiization

The 1st third of this course will be devoted to
ancient history. We will be discussion the
following:

The Ancient Near East
◦ Egypt
◦ Mesopotamia
◦ Ancient Israel

The Ancient Far East
◦ India
◦ China
http://www3.northern.edu/marmorsa/histor
y121.htm
5
Evolution of Civiization

During the 2nd third of the course we
will still concentrate on the ancient
period, this time focusing on Europe.

Ancient Greece

Ancient Rome
http://www3.northern.edu/marmorsa/histor
y121.htm
6
Evolution of Civiization

After the midterm, we will move on to the
following for the last 3rd of the course:

The Middle Ages
◦ Byzantium (The Eastern Roman Empire)
◦ Islam
◦ Western Europe

The earliest part of the Modern history
◦ The Renaissance (1350-1600)
◦ The Reformation (1517-1648)
http://www3.northern.edu/marmorsa/histor
y121.htm
7
Introduction to Egypt

One of the first great human civilizations grew up in
Egypt. The Egyptians created for themselves a society that
lasted for more than two thousand years. Obviously, a
society that lasts that long must be doing something
right. What was it?
Henry Bamford Parkes suggested that, in order to survive, a
civilization needed to provide three things to its members,
physical security,
 ethical guidance, and
 emotional fulfillment,


and it seems to me that, for the most part, Ancient Egyptian
civilization did an excellent job providing these three things.
http://www3.northern.edu/marmorsa/histor
y121.htm
8
Introduction to Egypt

[Physical Security involves those things necessary to physical survival, e.g.


food,
water,
shelter,
protection from enemies, etc.

Ethical Guidance involves


rules to live by including rules for family life,
rules for extended social relationships, and
rules for our business/economic relationships.

Emotional Fulfillment involves convincing people that

their society is a good one,
that it is better than the alternatives, that it is worth making sacrifices for.]




http://www3.northern.edu/marmorsa/histor
y121.htm
9
Physical Security in the Old Kingdom period [3000-2200 BC]

When it came to providing physical security, Egypt had some natural geographical
advantages:
1. The Nile river. As one Greek historian observed, Egypt was the "gift of the Nile," a
recognition that, without the Nile, there would have been no Egypt. Egypt is a land with
little rainfall, and, without the Nile, there would have been no water for irrigation.

But Egypt is also the gift of the Nile in another sense. Every year, the Nile river floods,
and, when the flood waters recede, they leave behind a rich black soil, called by the
Egyptians KEMET, the Black Land. This is the name the Egyptians gave their country (our
name "Egypt" is derived ultimately from this word Kemet as well--as is the name Ham, one
of the sons of Noah).

Because the Egyptians had this rich top soil deposited year after year, the Egyptians didn't
have to worry about crop rotation or letting land lie fallow. The could plant the same land
year after year--and sometimes more than once a year!

The Nile also served as a natural highway for the Egyptians, making transportation
relatively easy and inexpensive. This enabled the Egyptians to take advantage of another
geographical advantage, the fact that they had most of the raw material for creating a fairly
advanced civilization within reach (e.g, building stone, clay, copper).
http://www3.northern.edu/marmorsa/histor
y121.htm
10
Physical Security in the Old Kingdom period [3000-2200 BC]

2. Warm climate.

Egypt's warm climate simplified women's work.

They did not have to spend as much time weaving
and making clothes for their families since
relatively simple linen garments were enough
protection from the elements.

Likewise men didn't have to spend as much time
building elaborate shelters.
http://www3.northern.edu/marmorsa/histor
y121.htm
11
Physical Security in the Old Kingdom period [3000-2200 BC]

3. Egypt is a land "fortified by nature"
(as another Greek historian observed).

Since Egypt is protected on three sides by
deserts and by the Nile cataracts in the
south, not as much effort was needed to
defend the country from outside invasion.
http://www3.northern.edu/marmorsa/histor
y121.htm
12
Physical Security in the Old Kingdom period [3000-2200 BC]

This last advantage helps only when the Egyptians are *not*
fighting among themselves, and, at first, the Egyptians were
not united.

The Egyptians lived in 42 independent NOMES, independent
city-states along the Nile, each ruled by a nomarch, a sort of
king.

Finally, though, one strong man called Menes (or Narmer)
united all of Egypt, becoming the first PER-0 (PHARAOH).

Menes and his successors united Egypt by convincing the
people that there were not mere humans, but gods, and that
they should receive the loyalty due to gods.
http://www3.northern.edu/marmorsa/histor
y121.htm
13
Physical Security in the Old Kingdom period [3000-2200 BC]

Menes and his successors did not entirely
destroy the government framework of
the old nomes.

Instead, they preserved the nomes as
administrative districts and used the
nomarchs as their administrators.

Here was a good basis for an effective
beaureaucracy.
http://www3.northern.edu/marmorsa/histor
y121.htm
14
Physical Security in the Old Kingdom period [3000-2200 BC]

Also helping administer the kingdom, the Egyptian priests.

The priests were particularly helpful because of their
mastery of HIEROGLYPHICS.

The development of writing facilitated all sorts of other
advances, advances in mathematics, medicine, etc.

Also, the devleopment of an effective means of organization
meant more land could be brought under cultivation.

And the fact that the Egyptians no longer had to worry much
about warfare meant they were free to advance in other
areas, e.g., metallurgy, making pottery, and other crafts
http://www3.northern.edu/marmorsa/histor
y121.htm
15
Ethical guidance in Old Kingdom Egypt

Since the pharaoh was regarded as a living god, he
could obviously serves as a source of ethical
guidance.

Whatever he said was law, the right thing to do.

But pharaoh can't be everywhere, and the Egyptians
needed more general principles of ethical guidance.

Fortunately for us, we know what standards the
encouraged because of hieroglypic texts like the
Maxims of Ptah Hotep.
http://www3.northern.edu/marmorsa/histor
y121.htm
16
Ethical guidance in Old Kingdom Egypt
Particualry wise advice from Ptah Hotep:
 If you are wise, look after your house; love your wife
without alloy. Fill her stomach, clothe her back; these
are the cares to be bestowed on her person. Caress
her, fulfil her desires during the time of her existence;
it is a kindness which does honor to its possessor. Be
not brutal; tact will influence her better than violence;
her . . . behold to what she aspires, at what she aims,
what she regards. It is that which fixes her in your
house; if you repel her, it is an abyss. Open your arms
for her, respond to her arms; call her, display to her
your love.

http://www3.northern.edu/marmorsa/histor
y121.htm
17
Emotional Fulfillment in Old Kingdom Egypt
In addition to providing physical security and ethical
guidance, OK Egypt provided much in the way of
emotional fulfillment, the sense that their society was a
good one.
Pharaoh himself was a source of emotional fulfillment.
After all, if you're lead by a god, obviously your society
is on the right track, yes?
We like to look up to our leaders, and, the more highly
we think of our leaders, the more highly we tend to
think of our whole society
http://www3.northern.edu/marmorsa/histor
y121.htm
18
Emotional Fulfillment in Old Kingdom Egypt

Another imporatant source of emotional
fulfillment for the Egyptians was their
religion.

The Egyptians were a polytheistic people,
worshipping gods associated with the forces
of nature, e.g.. Re (Ra), the Sun God.

The Egyptians believed that their gods were
benificent, kindly forces that favored them.
http://www3.northern.edu/marmorsa/histor
y121.htm
19
Emotional Fulfillment in Old Kingdom Egypt

Education was another source of emotional fulfillment.

Apparently, Egyptian schools had a place for able young men
regardless of class.

This is an important social saftey valve. Talented people who feel
they have no room to advance can create real problems for a
society.

If you let these people prove their ability through hard work in
shcool and give them the chance to join the governing class as
priests or officials, they will work with the system rather than
against it.

Further, these kind of individuals insure fresh ideas and fresh blood
in the administrative ranks--certainly a healthy thing.
http://www3.northern.edu/marmorsa/histor
y121.htm
20
Emotional Fulfillment in Old Kingdom Egypt

Maybe the most important source of emotional
fulfillment in Egypt was the strong family life.

There were few if any divorces--a good thing.

Egyptian art and literature depict husbands and wives
side by side, working together for a common
purpose--and this is true regardless of class.

We see the husband-wife team everywhere from
peasant couples to the pharaoh with his wife.
http://www3.northern.edu/marmorsa/histor
y121.htm
21
Emotional Fulfillment in Old Kingdom Egypt

For most individuals, their ability to form a
stable marriage is the most important single
factor in determining whether or not their
life will a happy one.

Likewise children feel much more secure
when their parents' marriages are stable.

Also, when husbands and wives stay together,
they are much better able to pass
their values on to the next generation.
http://www3.northern.edu/marmorsa/histor
y121.htm
22
Emotional Fulfillment in Old Kingdom Egypt

A final source of emotional fulfillment was
the Egyptian sense of history.

Note that Ptah Hotep looked back to
ancestral tradition.

People like a feeling of being part of
something that has lasted for a long time.

If it's good enough for our fathers and
mothers, well it's good enough for us.
http://www3.northern.edu/marmorsa/histor
y121.htm
23
Weaknesses in the Old Kingdom setup

It is common in history to want to turn our rulers into
supermen, and many civilizations go so far as to deify their
rulers.

But, when this happpens, the leader has a very difficult
position description to match up to!

How many of us could handle being a god?

It's not so easy, and, when we turn human beings into gods,
we are setting them up for some real potential problems.

We see just how bad these problems can get with a pharaoh
like UNAS (c. 2375-2345 BC).
http://www3.northern.edu/marmorsa/histor
y121.htm
24
Weaknesses in the Old Kingdom setup

The inscriptions on Unas' pyramid reflect his
struggles trying to live up to being a god.

There are constant reference to his control
over life and death:

They proclaim him a god "with an
indestructible spirit," and declare over and
over again that whoever Unas wishes one to
die will die and whoever he wishes to live
will live
http://www3.northern.edu/marmorsa/histor
y121.htm
25
Weaknesses in the Old Kingdom setup

Unas seems to have killed people arbitrarily,

to have practiced ritual cannibalism, and

to have taken whatever woman he wanted whenver he
wanted--all to prove that he was a god.

Not so good for ethical guidance or emotional fulfillment.

Unas is the last Pharaoh of his Dynasty (the fifth), so it seems
there may have been some way for the Egyptians to deal with
a pharaoh who went totally off the deep end, but we have no
idea how they might have gone about this.
http://www3.northern.edu/marmorsa/histor
y121.htm
26
Weaknesses in the Old Kingdom setup

But even a Pharaoh with none of Unas' problems is
eventually going to get tripped up by the god business. Real
gods don't die: men pretending to be gods do.

Now how do you preserve the illusion that pharaoh is a god
when he dies like everyone else?

It's easy enough to see *how* the Egyptians approached the
problem, but the reason why this seemed a good solution I
can't really figure out.

What the Egyptians *did* was to resort to elaborate funeral
rituals that enabled them (somehow) to pretend that their
god wasn't really dead.
http://www3.northern.edu/marmorsa/histor
y121.htm
27
Weaknesses in the Old Kingdom setup
http://www3.northern.edu/marmorsa/histor
y121.htm
28
Weaknesses in the Old Kingdom setup

The Egyptians started with "mastaba" tombs, "Castles of Eternity," where
pharaoh's were laid to rest along with plenty of good things they might
want or need for an enjoyable after life.

And what one might want most? Well, how about a body?

The Egyptians developed advanced techniques of mumification--supposing,
I guess, that the preserved body might eventually prove useful.
During the reign of the Pharaoh Zoser [maybe Djoser in Chodorow] (c.
2700 BC), one of his priests (Imhotep) came up with a new tomb idea, the
step-pyramid.

The Egyptians called these tombs "ladders of ascent," and the idea was that
the buried pharaoh ascended the ladder of ascent to his place with the
rest of the gods.
http://www3.northern.edu/marmorsa/histor
y121.htm
29
Weaknesses in the Old Kingdom setup

Soon, the pyramid style changed, The steps were filled in, and we
get the great pyramids that, for most of you, are the thing you most
connect with ancient Egypt.

They are certainly very impressive, but was the building of such
tombs really a good way to devote the wealth of Egypt?
The financing and maintenance of these tombs became an
increasing burden as more and more of them were constructed.

To gain the resources they needed for their projects, the pharaoh's
delegated more and more authroity to the nomarchs, and,
eventually, centrallized government broke down.

This leads to a period called the "first illness."
http://www3.northern.edu/marmorsa/histor
y121.htm
30
First Illness - 2,200 B.C. - 2,000 B.C.

During this two hundred year period, Egypt went through a
rough time.

There was no single pharaoh.
One text asks,
 "Was Pepi pharaoh?
 Was Teti pharaoh?


They were all pharaoh, and none of them was pharaoh."

Nevertheless, despite the struggles, Egyptians civilization
recovers--and ends up more successful than before.
http://www3.northern.edu/marmorsa/histor
y121.htm
31
Middle Kingdom Egypt (2000-1750)

Around 2000 BC, the nomarchs of Thebes became
powerful enough that they could make good their
claim to be pharaohs for *all* of Egypt.

his leads to a new period of prosperity, the Middle
Kingdom period.

During this period, Egypt has all the good things
originally developed during the Old Kingdom period.

In addition, there are two major advances.
http://www3.northern.edu/marmorsa/histor
y121.htm
32
1. Government change




During the Middle Kingdom period, pharaoh's put less emphasis on
elaborate tombs and instead concentrated on creating and
maintaining a good government. The values of this period are well
reflected in a story called....
The Plea of the Eloquent Peasant [See The Tale of the Eloquent
Peasant]
This story reflects the idea that the job of a good official is in part
to protect the weaker members of society from people who would
exploit them. Here's what it has to say about a good ruler:
For you are the father of the orphan, the husband of the widow, the
brother of the desolate, the garment of the motherless. Let me place
your name in this land higher than all good laws: you guide without
avarice, you great one free from meanness, who destroys deceit, who
creates truthfulness.
Good standards for leaders at any time.
http://www3.northern.edu/marmorsa/histor
y121.htm
33
2. Religious change

Another MK improvement was in the area of religion accompanied by a new emphasis on
the god Osiris.
According to Egyptian mythology, Osiris was once a king on this earth, a good and wise
king.

Unfortunately, Set [or Seth], Osiris’s brother, was jealous of his pharaoh brother. He kills
Osiris, and then chops up Osiris’s body and scatters the pieces all around.

But Osiris had the most wonderful thing any man could have: a good wife. Isis (Osiris's
wife) collects his body parts and with the water of life, restores Osiris.

She and Horus (their son) defeat Set, and Horace becomes the ruler. But what of Osiris?

He rules too...but in a new kingdom where there is no more death, and where everthing is
wonderful. And, most wonderful of all, there is a place in this kingdom for you...if you lead
the right kind of life.
http://www3.northern.edu/marmorsa/histor
y121.htm
34
2. Religious change

Egyptians of this period believed that, at the end of your life, you would stand before the
jakal-headed god Anubis.

Your soul would be weighed against the feather of Ma'at (truth).

If you had lived a good life...well, it's the kingdom of Osiris for you.

If not...well, it's Egyptian tradition (not the Bible) that give us our detailed vivid images of
torment in the afterlife.

A good source of ethical guidance here:
you are assured of reward for good conduct and punishment for bad conduct.
Also, the idea that wrong is ultimately punished and good rewarded is a great source of
emotional fulfillment.
Justice is done, and all's right with the world. And it's worth making a sacrifice or two for
what's right.
Reward is certain to come eventually




http://www3.northern.edu/marmorsa/histor
y121.htm
35
End of the Middle Kingdom

Now the Egyptians were doing so much right during
this Middle Kingdom period, one might have expected
this phase of Egyptian civilization to last even longer
than the Old Kingdom phase.

But around 1750, the Egyptians faced on outside
threat they couldn't deal with effectively.

A new group of people, the Hyksos, invaded Egypt.

The Hyksos soldiers had body armor and composite
bows, formidable weapons.
http://www3.northern.edu/marmorsa/histor
y121.htm
36
End of the Middle Kingdom

Meanwhile, the Egyptians had a weapon of their own:

the clay image.

Egyptians of this period tried to deal with problems by writing the name
of whatever problem they faced on a clay figure, then smashing that figure
with a curse.

Now suppose two armies are about to meet face to face: one equipped
with body armor and compound bows, the other with clay figures ready to
smash. Any guess as to what side is going to win?

Well, at least it's emotionally fuflilling to smash a clay figure I guess.

In any case, the Hysksos invasion marks the beginning of what the
Egyptians called....
http://www3.northern.edu/marmorsa/histor
y121.htm
37
The Second Illness

The second illness lasted from around 1750-1570 BC.

We don't know much about this period, except that the Hyksos dominated at this time.

The Hyksos rulers claimed the title "Pharaoh" for themselves, and we know the names of
the pharaohs from this period...but not much more.

Later Egyptians hated the Hyksos so much that they deliberately detroyed the records of
this period.

That's especially unfortunate for us because this is a period we'd like to know more about:
it's likely that the Israelites (Jacob and his sons) came into Egypt at this time.

If we knew more, it might shed some light on Biblical stories. The story of Joseph buying
up Egyptian land for pharaoh, for instance, might make sense if we're thinking of one of
the Hyksos pharaoh's struggling to gain control of a land whose people are resisting their
control

The "second illness" comes to an end with the rise of....
http://www3.northern.edu/marmorsa/histor
y121.htm
38
New Kingdom Egypt (1570 B.C. - 1000 B.C.)

New Kingdom Egypt begins with a man named Ahmose (c. 1570 - 1545 BC).

Ahmose imitates Hyksos military techniques, and turns the tables on them, driving the
Hyksos out.

He becomes the first pharaoh of the New Kingdom period.

The Egyptians of the New Kingdom had at their disposal all the good things developed
during the Old and Middle Kingdom periods.

In addition, the New Kingdom pharaohs add a powerful army.
The Egyptians want to make sure that they are never, ever conquered by foreigners again.


They want the best defense possible, and , since the best defense if a good offense, they go
on the offensive.

Particulary this is true with fighting pharaoh's like...
http://www3.northern.edu/marmorsa/histor
y121.htm
39
Thutmose I (1525 B.C. - 1495 B.C.)

Thutmose expands Egyptian control up through Palestine and down to Sudan.

This means tremendous wealth flooding into Egypt.

It also means expanded opportunities for trade and even more wealth.

Egypt at its height?

Well, sort of. But there are problems. The Egyptian military wants an aggressive foreign
policy at all times, and, if the person on the throne doesn't favor such a policy, there's
trouble.

Hatchepsut (wife of Thutmose II who takes over after his death) was an exceptionally able
leader, sponsoring extensive trade and other wise policies.

But the army wanted a more aggressive leader and so engineered a coup against her,
replacing Hatchepsut with her step-son Thutmose III. Note the potential problem with
such instability.
http://www3.northern.edu/marmorsa/histor
y121.htm
40
Thutmose I (1525 B.C. - 1495 B.C.)

But there was a far bigger problem.

As the Egyptians conquered other societies, they acquired
large numbers of slaves, slaves they treated very cruelly.

They feared slave revolt, and treated them more cruelly.

Note what the Bible says about the treatment of the
Israelites after they had been reduced to the status of slaves.
This leads to a real breakdown in ethical guidance.

Whenever a society treats one group of people badly, they
always end up treating other people badly as well
http://www3.northern.edu/marmorsa/histor
y121.htm
41
Thutmose I (1525 B.C. - 1495 B.C.)

But what about Anubis?

Did the Egyptians forget about their date with him?

Not at all. They still believed that they would be
judged by the jackal-headed god when they got to the
entrance of the kingdom of Osiris.

But they believed they could get past close scrutiny-if only they had recited for them (or buried with
them) the collection of mortuary texts we call the
Egyptian Book of the Dead.
http://www3.northern.edu/marmorsa/histor
y121.htm
42
Thutmose I (1525 B.C. - 1495 B.C.)

Priests sold copies of this book as if was an insurance policy to gain
entrance into the Kingdom of Osiris.

And as this happened, Egyptians now felt they had the choice of
leading a good life or buying the book to be guaranteed entry into
the Kingdom of Osiris--and, taking the easy way out, many decided
to just by the book.

Now the old standards were still there theoretically, but no one
really thinks they have to follow them.

Once you've got the book, you've got all sorts of official
recognition of one's goodness regardless of actual conduct. ("I have
not: done any harm, robbed the poor, caused pain, made anyone
suffer, cheated in the fields, I am pure, I am pure, I am pure, etc.") .
http://www3.northern.edu/marmorsa/histor
y121.htm
43
Thutmose I (1525 B.C. - 1495 B.C.)

Further, many Egyptians begin (rightly) to view the priests as
people who are simply in for the money--and, ofen enough,
as crooks.

And if the priests are crooks and the priests reflect the gods,
well, maybe the gods are crooks too.

Certainly many Egyptian texts from this period seem to
suggest as much.

The story of Osiris changes during the New Kingdom period,
and the depiction of the gods and their conflicts is pretty
disgusting to say the least.
http://www3.northern.edu/marmorsa/histor
y121.htm
44
Thutmose I (1525 B.C. - 1495 B.C.)

The decay in religion as a source of ethical guidance made the Pharaoh's
job more difficult.

They started making exceptionally harsh laws--a clear sign they felt they
were losing control.

Now Egypt was so wealthy and so powerful, the final collapse was not
going to come for quite some time.

Nevertheless, by the time of Isaiah (c. 750 BC) Egypt was a shadow of its
former self, a broken reed Isaiah calls it.
In 654 BC, The Assyrians conquer Egypt.
 In 525 BC, the Persians conquer Egypt.
 In 332 BC, Alexander the Great conquers Egypt, and
 in 31 BC, the Romans annex Egypt.

http://www3.northern.edu/marmorsa/histor
y121.htm
45
Thutmose I (1525 B.C. - 1495 B.C.)

Neverthess, through all these setbacks, the Egyptians
continued to get one thing right.

Even in some of the darkest days of Egyptian history,
the Egyptians produced some beautiful love poems,
and there remained in this society a strong sense that
there was one man or woman would should give
ones hear to with complete devotion.

As long as that foundation remains, the emphasis on
a solid love relationship between man and wife, a
society can survive quite a lot. Without it....
http://www3.northern.edu/marmorsa/histor
y121.htm
46