Learning
THE INS AND OUTS OF LEARNING BEHAVIOR
Psychology Weekly Topics
 Monday
 Behaviorism Intro
 Tuesday
 Classical Conditioning Basics
 Wednesday
 Classical Conditioning

Class demonstration
 Thursdays
 Classical Conditioning in detail
Just for Kicks
Think About it
“The interpretation of dreams is the royal road to a knowledge of the
unconscious activities of the mind while the royal road to
understanding human behavior lies within the unconscious mind
itself.”
-- Sigmund Freud
 "Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified
world to bring them up in and I'll guarantee to take any one at random
and train him to become any type of specialist I might select--doctor,
lawyer, artist, merchant-chief, and, yes, even beggarman and thief,
regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and
race of his ancestors.
--John Watson
Learning: Classical and
Operant Conditioning
Chapter 6
Honors PSYCHOLOGY
Tinley Park High School
Mr. Reiser
Before Behaviorism
Introspection- (1879)
Not very Scientific
?
Psychoanalysis- (1895)
Not Scientific at all
?
A New Way of Thinking
Psychology finally
discovers a way to
measure behavior
scientifically
"Psychology as the
Behaviorist Views It"
John B. Watson
1913
7 main assumptions of Behaviorism that set it apart from other psychologies
Behaviorism Assumptions
 Psychology should be seen as a science.
 Theories need to be supported by empirical data obtained
through careful and controlled observation and measurement
of behavior
 Behaviorism is primarily concerned with
observable behavior

as opposed to internal events like thinking and
emotion. Observable (i.e. external) behavior can be objectively
and scientifically measured.
Behaviorism Assumptions
 Behaviorism is Naturalistic.
 The material world is the ultimate reality, and everything can
be explained in terms of natural laws.

Man has no soul and no mind, only a brain that responds
to external stimuli.
 Our behavior is the product of our
conditioning.

thoughts, feelings, intentions, and mental processes do not
determine what we do.

We are biological machines and do not consciously act
Behaviorism Assumptions
 We are not responsible for our actions
 “If we are mere machines, without minds or souls, reacting to
stimuli and operating on our environment to attain certain
ends, then anything we do is the responsibility of those who
taught us)

No Free will
 When born our mind is 'tabula rasa' (a blank
slate).

ALL behavior must be learned
 Behaviorism is manipulative.
 It seeks not merely to understand human behavior, but to
predict and control it.
Learning
 Relatively permanent change in knowledge or
behavior resulting from experience
 4 types of learning
 Habituation
 Classical conditioning
 Operant conditioning
 Observational learning (Social Cognitive)

They all operate under the same principle – learning by association
Learning’s Effects on Behavior
 In humans, learning has a much larger influence on
behavior than instincts.

Learning represents an evolutionary advance over instincts.
Conditioning - making an association between
two events by repeatedly having them occur close
together in time.
Two
Types
Classical
Operant
The ABCs of Learning
 Understanding learning is like
understanding the ABC’s

First, their has to be an Antecedent



Something to set the behavior off
Then there is a Behavior (response)
 The response to the antecedent
Finally the Consequence
 The reinforcement or punishment
 Paying close attention to what happens
after the consequence is key to
understanding how we learn
Psychology Exercise
Emotion
Or
Reaction
Associated Thoughts
Why?
Psychology Exercise
Emotion
Or
Reaction
Anger
Joy
Hate
Desire
Fear
Associated Thoughts
Why?
Types of Learning
SIMPLE AND COMPLEX LEARNING
Psychology today
 Today
A
story to remember (high school love??)
 Classical conditioning
Pavlov’s dogs
A sweet “A” youtube clip
The basics
John Watson
Little Albert- A sweet “A” youtube clip
Learning
 Relatively permanent change in behavior due to
experience

4 types of learning
Habituation
 Classical conditioning
 Operant conditioning
 Observational learning (Social Cognitive)
 They all operate under the same principle – learning by
association

Habituation
 Tendency to become familiar with a stimulus
merely as a result of repeated exposure
 Orienting
reflex
 Eyes
widen, eyebrows rise, muscles tighten, heart beats
faster, brain-waves indicate heightened physiological
arousal
 Effect weakens with continued presentation of stimulus –
we habituate
 Primitive form of learning
 Found
in all organisms
 Decreases the power of reward to motivate
Simple Learning
 Habituation: Learning not to respond to the
repeated presentation of a stimulus.

Ex-Emergency sirens in the city
How often do you
look when a car
alarm goes off?
Complex Learning
 Behavioral Learning: Forms of learning, such
as classical and operant conditioning which can be
described in terms of stimuli and responses.

Classical conditioning is more simple learning, operant
conditioning is more complex learning.
Classical Conditioning
INNATE REFLEXES USED AGAINST US
It’s Story time from Mr.
Reiser!
“High School Love?”
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CMiVeK5zGz8
Pavlov’s Experiment
Watch Pavlov’s Experiment Video
Ivan Pavlov
Ivan Pavlov and Classical
Conditioning
 One of most famous people in the study of learning is
Ivan Pavlov.
 Originally studying salivation and digestion, Pavlov
stumbled upon classical conditioning while he was
experimenting on his dog.

Classical Conditioning: A form of learning in which a
previously neutral stimulus (stimuli w/o reflex provoking
power) acquires the power to elicit the same innate reflex
produced by another stimulus.
Components of Conditioning
 There are 5 main components of conditioning.
Classical Conditioning always involves these parts.
They are:
 Neutral
Stimulus
 Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)
 Unconditioned Response (UCR)
 Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
 Conditioned Response (CR)
Pavlov’s Findings Explained
 Pavlov discovered that a neutral stimulus, when paired with
a natural reflex-producing stimulus, will begin to produce a
learned response, even when it is presented by itself.
 Neutral Stimulus: Any stimulus that produces no
conditioned response prior to learning.
Pavlov’s Experiment
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)
 UCS
 A stimulus that automaticallywithout conditioning or learningprovokes a reflexive response.
 In Pavlov’s experiment, food was
used as the UCS because it
produced a salivation reflex.

Classical conditioning cannot happen without UCS. The only
behaviors that can be classically conditioned are those that are
produced by unconditioned stimulus.
Unconditioned Response (UCR)
 UCR
 A response resulting from an
unconditioned stimulus without
prior learning.
 In Pavlov’s experiment, the UCR
was the dog salivating when its
tongue touched food.

Realize that the UCS-UCR connection involves no
learning or acquisition.
Some Real World Examples
Unconditioned Stimuli
(natural)
Unconditioned Responses
(natural)
 Loud Noises
 Being startled
 Physical/Emotional Abuse
 Pain (physical/emotional)
 Food
 Hunger
 Fake a physical attack
 Innate Reflexes
(flinching/jerking/etc…)
In Classical Conditioning, the goal is to get the unnatural to become natural
From Unconditioned to Conditioned
 During acquisition, a neutral stimulus is paired with the
unconditioned stimulus.

After several trials the neutral stimulus will gradually begin to elicit the same
response as the UCS.
 Acquisition

The learning stage during which a conditioned response comes to
be elicited by the conditioned stimulus.
=
Conditioned Stimulus
 A CS is the originally neutral stimulus that
gains the power to cause the response.
 In Pavlov’s experiment, the bell/tone began to produce
the same response that the food once did.
Conditioned Response
 A CR is a response elicited by a previously neutral
stimulus that has become associated with the
unconditioned stimulus.
 Although the response to the CS is essentially the same as
the response originally produced by the UCS, we now call it
a conditioned response.
Reiser’s Example
I’ll Be (Song)
Neutral Stimulus
Step 2.
Step 3.
Unconditioned
Stimulus
(UCS)
UCS
“paired with”
Conditioned
Stimulus
(CS)
Amanda Cain
Unconditioned
Response (UCR)
Lovey Dovey
Feelings
+
I’ll Be (Song)
Conditioned
Response
(CR)
Lovey Dovey
Feelings
A “Classic” Example
Watson’s Example
White/Furry Things
Neutral Stimulus
Step 2.
Step 3.
Unconditioned
Stimulus
(UCS)
UCS
“paired with”
Conditioned
Stimulus
(CS)
Loud Noises
Unconditioned
Response (UCR)
Startled/Fear
+
White Furry Things
Conditioned
Response
(CR)
Startled/Fear
Your Turn
Neutral Stimulus
Step 2.
Step 3.
Unconditioned
Stimulus
(UCS)
UCS
“paired with”
Conditioned
Stimulus
(CS)
Unconditioned
Response (UCR)
+
Conditioned
Response
(CR)
Psychology Today
 Classical Conditioning Examples
 You try 
 CC refresher
 Your examples?
 Some more key terms
Extinction
 Spontaneous recovery
 Generalization
 Discrimination

Psychology Today
 Little Albert
 Extra Credit Opportunity
 Psychology Game
 1 Person, 1 Place, 1 Thing
 Classical Conditioning Terminology
 Discrimination
 Generalization
 Extinction
 Spontaneous Recovery
Extra Credit Opportunity
A “Classic” Example
Psychology Game
1 Person
1 Place
1 Thing
Psychology Exercise
Emotion
Or
Reaction
1 Person
1 Place
1 Thing
Why?
Psychology Exercise
Emotion
Or
Reaction
Anger
Joy
Hate
Desire
Fear
Associated Thoughts
Why?
Classical Conditioning Question of the Day
 Think about it, should a UCS and a CS be paired at the
same time for best results? Or should one come before
the other?
Things to keep in mind…
 Classical – associate 2 things, thus anticipate events
 Based on associating a stimuli with an innate reflex
 Lightening . . . . Thunder………. Jump!


Lightening…………… Jump
Making the unnatural natural
 Unconditioned means doesn’t have to be learned
 Associations should be natural
 Response can be the same, but isn’t always
 Think about it, should a UCS and a CS be paired at the same time for best
results? Or should one come before the other?

Contingency – CS should precede UCS


Simultaneous pairing takes longer and isn’t as powerful
Backwards pairing rarely works
Things to Keep In Mind
 Do we respond similarly to similar stimuli?
 YES!
 Generalization
 The tendency to respond to a stimulus that is
similar to the CS
Stimulus generalization
I don’t care
if she is a
tape
dispenser.
I love her!
Things to Keep in Mind
 What if we could not distinguish between stimuli that were
similar?


The bell ending class vs. fire alarm
The door bell vs. our cell phones
 Discrimination:

The ability to distinguish between two similar signals
stimulus.
Things to keep in mind…
 Most classical conditioning has to occur
regularly on a consistent basis
 However:

Single-trial (or minimal-trial) learning
Phobias
 Little Albert
 Taste aversions
 Cancer patients & chemotherapy

Did you Know?
 Higher Order Conditioning
 A stimulus that was previously neutral is paired with
a conditioned stimulus to produce the same
conditioned response as the conditioned stimulus.
Food----- Drool
 Food + Bell-----Drool
 Bell----- Drool
 Bell + Blue Ball---- Drool
 Blue Ball----- Drool
 Etc…….

Extinction
What happens when the CS isn’t followed by the UCS?
 Extinction:

The diminishing (or lessening) of a learned response, when an
unconditioned stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus.

To acquire a CR, we repeatedly pair a neutral stimulus with the UCS. But, if we
want to reverse this learning, we must weaken the strength of the connection
between the two stimuli.

It is important to realize that extinction does not mean complete
elimination of a response.
Spontaneous Recovery
 Extinction merely suppresses the conditioned response,
and the CR can reappear during spontaneous recovery.
 Spontaneous Recovery:

The response after a rest period of an extinguished
conditioned response.

Spontaneous recovery is weaker than the original CR.
Classical Conditioning
Strength
of CR
Acquisition
(CS+UCS)
Extinction
(CS alone)
Spontaneous
recovery of
CR
Extinction
(CS alone)
Pause
Psychology Exercise
Emotion
Or
Reaction
Anger
Joy
Hate
Desire
Fear
1 Person
1 Place
1 Thing
Why?
Examples of Classical
Conditioning
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Eo7jcI8fAuI
Psychology Today
 Classical v. Operant Conditioning
 Operant conditioning
 Who
 What
 Types of
 Some Sweet “A” Youtube clips
Your Preference?
What teaching styles do you prefer
your teachers use to assist you in
learning?
Operant Conditioning
“If you want your dog to sit on command, you
may give him a treat every time he sits for you.
The dog will eventually come to understand
that sitting when told to will result in a treat.”
“If you want your dog to drool to the sound of a
bell, simply pair the sound of a bell to
something that naturally makes him drool,
such as food. Eventually the dog will learn to
associate the bell with food.”
Operant Conditioning
 B.F. Skinner (1904-
1990)
 elaborated
Thorndike’s
Law of Effect
 developed behavioral
technology
The Foundation of Operant Conditioning
Operant Behavior Is Voluntary &
Directed
by Consequences
 Edward Thorndike ‘s Law of
Effect:
 The relationship between
behavior and its consequences

So named because behavior becomes
more or less likely based on the effect
it has in producing desirable or
undesirable consequences.
Who- E.L. Thorndike
What – Educational
Psychologist
When- 1912
What- What connection
can be made between
education and
behavior?
Operant Conditioning Basics
Operant Behavior Is Voluntary & Directed
by Consequences
 B. F. Skinner made the law of effect the cornerstone for
his influential theory of learning, called operant
conditioning.
 Operant
conditioning
“Rewarded behavior is likely to reoccur while behavior
followed by a negative consequence is less likely to
recur.”
E. L. Thorndike

According to Skinner, the organism’s behavior is “operating” on the
environment to achieve some desired goal.
Operant and Classical Conditioning
Classical Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
Behavior is controlled by the stimuli
that precede the response (by the
CS and the UCS).
Behavior is controlled by
consequences (rewards,
punishments) that follow the
response.
No reward or punishment is involved
(although pleasant and averse
stimuli may be used).
Often involves rewards
(reinforcement) and punishments.
Through conditioning, a new
stimulus (CS) comes to produce the
old (reflexive) behavior.
Through conditioning, a new
stimulus (reinforcer) produces a new
behavior.
Extinction is produced by
withholding the UCS.
Extinction is produced by
withholding reinforcement.
Learner is passive (acts reflexively):
Responses are involuntary. That is
behavior is elicited by stimulation.
Learner is active: Responses are
voluntary. That is behavior is
emitted by the organism.
Classical V. Operant
 Classical




Involuntary reflexes
Reinforcement occurs
before a response
The role of the learner is
passive
A NS becomes a CS
through association with
US
 Operant




Spontaneous/voluntary
Reinforcement occurs
after the response
The role of the learner is
active
Probability of making a
response is altered by
consequences
 With classical conditioning you can teach a dog to salivate, but you cannot
teach it to sit up or roll over. Why?

Salivation is an involuntary reflex, while sitting up and rolling over are far more
complex responses that we think of as voluntary.
B.F. Skinner
 B.F. Skinner became famous for his ideas in behaviorism and his work
with rats.

Law of Effect: The idea that responses that produced desirable results would be learned, or “stamped” into the
organism.
B.F. Skinner and The Skinner Box
Key Terms of Operant Conditioning
 Reinforcement
 Any procedure that increases the response
 Punishment
 Any procedure that decreases the response
 Types of reinforcers:
 Primary: e.g. food or water
 Secondary: money or power
Reinforcement
 Reinforcer
 a condition in which the presentation or removal of a
stimulus, that occurs after a response (behavior),
strengthens that response or makes it more likely to happen
again in the future.
 Positive Reinforcement:
 A stimulus presented after a response that
increases the probability of that response
happening again.
 Ex:
Getting paid for good grades
Negative Reinforcement
Negative Reinforcement:

The removal of an unpleasant or averse stimulus that
increases the probability of that response happening
again.




Ex: Taking Advil to get rid of a headache.
Ex: Putting on a seatbelt to make the annoying seatbelt buzzer
stop.
The word “positive” means add or apply;
“negative” is used to mean subtract or remove.
Some Sweet You Tube Clips
 Positive v Negative Reinforcement
 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B_9ZZaPDtPk&feature=re
lated
 Positive Reinfocement
 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=euINCrDbbD4&feature=r
elated
Punishment
 Punishment
 an averse/disliked stimulus which occurs after a behavior,
and decreases the probability it will occur again.
 Positive Punishment:

An undesirable event that follows a behavior: getting
spanked after telling a lie.
Punishment
 Negative Punishment:
 When a desirable event ends or is taken away after a
behavior.

Example: getting grounded from your cell phone after failing your
progress report.
 Think of a time-out (taking away time from a fun activity with
the hope that it will stop the unwanted behavior in the future.)
Punishment vs. Negative Reinforcement
 Punishment and negative reinforcement are
used to produce opposite effects on behavior.

Punishment is used to decrease a behavior or reduce its
probability of reoccurring.

Negative reinforcement always increases a behavior’s
probability of happening in the future (by taking away an
unwanted stimuli).
 Remember, “positive” means adding something and
“negative means removing something.
Reinforcement vs. Punishment
 Unlike reinforcement, punishment must be
administered consistently. Intermittent punishment
is far less effective than punishment delivered after
every undesired behavior.

In fact, not punishing every misbehavior can have the effect of
rewarding the behavior.
 It is important to remember that the learner, not the
teacher, decides if something is reinforcing or
punishing.

Redi Whip vs. Easy Cheese
Positive and Negative Reinforcement,
Positive and Negative Punishment
Reinforcement/Punishment
Reinforcement/Punishment Matrix
The consequence
provides something
($, a spanking…)
The consequence
takes something away
(removes headache,
timeout)
Positive
Negative
Reinforcement Reinforcement
(+,+)
(-,+)
Positive
Punishment
(+,-)
Negative
Punishment
(-,-)
The consequence
makes the behavior
more likely to happen
in the future.
The consequence
makes the behavior
less likely to happen in
the future.
Your Task
 How has:




Positive reinforcement
Negative Reinforcement
Positive Punishment
Negative Punishment
been used on you?
Provide one example of how each of these processes has been
used on you by someone or something else.
Punishment
Punishment

Punishment defined



a procedure where an aversive stimulus is presented to
a subject contingent upon the subject emitting an
undesired behavior.
punishment should be used as a last resort in behavior
engineering; positive reinforcement should be used
first
examples include spanking, verbal abuse, electrical
shock, etc.
Punishment
 Dangers in use of punishment
 punishment is often reinforcing to a punisher (resulting in the
making of an abuser)
 punishment often has a generalized inhibiting effect on the
punished individual (they stop doing ANY behavior at all)
 we learn to dislike the punisher (a result of classical
conditioning)
Punishment

Dangers in use of punishment



what the punisher thinks is punishment may, in fact, be
a reinforcer to the “punished” individual
punishment does not teach more appropriate behavior;
it merely stops a behavior from occurring
punishment can cause emotional damage in the
punished individual (antisocial behavior)
Punishment
 Dangers in use of punishment
 punishment only stops the behavior from occurring in the
presence of the punisher; when the punisher is not present
then the behavior will often reappear and with a vengeance
 the best tool for engineering behavior is positive reinforcement
Punishment
 Guidelines for the effective use of punishment
 use the least painful stimulus possible; if you spank
your child, do it on the child’s bottom with an open
hand never more than twice and NEVER so hard as to
leave any marks on your child. That would be
classified as child abuse.
 reinforce the appropriate behavior to take the place
of the inappropriate behavior
Punishment
 Guidelines
 make it clear to the individual which behavior you are
punishing and remove all threat of punishment
immediately as soon as the undesired behavior stops.
 do not give punishment mixed with rewards for a
given behavior; be consistent!
 once you have begun to administer punishment do
not back out but use punishment wisely
Uses and Abuses of Punishment
 Punishment often produces an immediate change in
behavior, which ironically reinforces the punisher.
 However, punishment rarely works in the long run for four reasons:
1.
2.
3.
4.
The power of punishment to suppress behavior usually
disappears when the threat of punishment is gone.
Punishment triggers escape or aggression.
Punishment makes the learner apprehensive: inhibits learning.
Punishment is often applied unequally.
Making Punishment Work
 To make punishment work:
 Punishment should be swift.
 Punishment should be certain-every time.
 Punishment should be limited in time and intensity.
 Punishment should clearly target the behavior, not the person.
 Punishment should not give mixed messages.
 The most effective punishment is often omission trainingnegative punishment.
Psychology This Week
 Monday
 Schedules of Reinforcement
 Tuesday
 Shaping Behaviors
 You try it
 Wednesday
 Bobo Dolls
 Punishment revisited
 Thursday
 Unit Review
 Friday
 Quiz/Quest/Test
Questions to Ponder
 What is the difference between……
 Classical
Conditioning and Operant
Conditioning?
 Unconditioned Stimulus and Conditioned
Stimulus?
 Reinforcement and Punishment?
 Negative Reinforcement and Positive
Reinforcement?
 Negative Punishment and Positive Punishment?
A Scenario to Remember
 An 8th period class of 30 students who need my class to graduate are
complete nightmares. They are rude, disrespectful, and behave awfully.
My goal as the teacher is to shape their behaviors so that they follow the
rules, are respectful, do the work, and pass the class. Which option do
you think would work best? Why?
Option 1
- 5 Points every day
for coming to class
on time, doing the
work, and being
respectful
Option 2
- 25 Points every
week for coming to
class on time, doing
the work, and being
respectful. Each
week, a new
“random” day will be
selected as the point
day
Option 3
- 500 Points one time
at the end of the
semester. The points
will be based off one
one “random” day
chosen at the end of
the semester
Project Fun
 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hISRlatcmX0
 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lqT_dPApj9U
 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cbEKAwCoCKw
 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iynzHWwJXaA
Chapter 7
Operant Conditioning:
SCHEDULES AND THEORIES
OF REINFORCEMENT
Reinforcement Schedules
 Continuous Reinforcement/Punishment: A
reinforcement/Punishment schedule under which all
correct responses are reinforced.

This is a useful tactic early in the learning process. It also
helps when “shaping” new behavior.
 Shaping: A technique where new behavior is
produced by reinforcing responses that are similar to
the desired response.
Dog training requires
continuous reinforcement
Continuous Reinforcement
 Continuous Reinforcement:
A schedule of reinforcement
that rewards every correct
response given.

Example: A vending machine.
 What are other examples?
Reinforcement Schedules
 Intermittent Reinforcement: A type of
reinforcement schedule by which some, but not all,
correct responses are reinforced.

Intermittent reinforcement is the most effective way to
maintain a desired behavior that has already been learned.
Applying Psychology to Your World
Intermittent Reinforcement: A type of reinforcement schedule
by which some, but not all, correct responses are reinforced.
Sometimes we get reinforced or
punished after a specific amount
of responses are given
Sometimes we get reinforced or
punished after a random amount
of responses are given
(ex: You have to attend four classes in
order to play in tonight’s basketball
game)
(ex: a golfer has to shoot a varied
amount of shots before he finishes a
hole)
Sometimes, we get reinforced or
punished after a specific amount of
TIME has passed
Sometimes , we get reinforced or
punished after a random amount of
TIME has passed
(ex: after spending 55 minutes in detention,
a student is allowed to go home)
(ex: a fisherman may wait several hours
before a fish takes the bait)
Intermittent Schedules
 When you want to
reinforce based on a
certain number of
responses occurring
(for example, doing a
certain number of math
problems correctly), you
can use a ratio schedule
 When you want to
reinforce the first
response after a
certain amount of
time has passed (for
example when a teacher
gives a midterm test),
you can use an interval
schedule
Four Types of Intermittent Schedules
 Ratio Schedules
 Interval Schedules

Fixed Ratio

Fixed Interval

Variable Ratio

Variable Interval
Fixed Ratio Schedule
 Fixed Ratio Schedule,
 reinforcement is contingent upon a fixed, predictable
number of responses

Characteristic pattern:



High rate of response
Short pause following each reinforcer
Reading a chapter then taking a break is an example

A good strategy for “getting started” is to start with an easy task
Fixed Ratio, continued
 Higher Ratio requirements result in longer post-
reinforcement pauses

Example: The longer the chapter you read, the longer the
study break!
 Fixed Ratio is abbreviated “FR” and a number
showing how many responses must be made to get
the reinforcer is added:

Ex. FR 5 (5 responses needed to get a reinforcer)
Variable Ratio Schedule
 Variable Ratio Schedule
 reinforcement is contingent upon a varying, unpredictable
number of responses

Characteristic pattern:



High and steady rate of response
Little or no post-reinforcer pausing
Hunting, fishing, golfing, shooting hoops, and telemarketing
are examples of behaviors on this type of schedule
Other facts about
Variable Ratio Schedules

Behaviors on this type of schedule tend to be very persistent
This includes unwanted behaviors like begging, gambling, and
being in abusive relationships
 “Stretching the ratio” means starting out with a very dense, rich
reinforcement schedule and gradually decreasing the amount of
reinforcement
 The spouse, gambler, or child who is the “victim” must work
harder and harder to get the reinforcer

Variable Ratio: VR
 Variable Ratio: VR
 Variable Ratio is abbreviated “VR” and a number
showing an average of how many responses
between 1 and 100 must be made to get the
reinforcer is added:

Ex. VR 50 (an average of 50 responses needed to get a
reinforcer – could the the next try, or it could take 72!

Gambling is the classic example!
Fixed Interval Schedules
 Fixed Interval Schedule
 reinforcement is contingent upon the first response
after a fixed, predictable period of time

Characteristic pattern:

A “scallop” pattern produced by a post-reinforcement pause followed by a
gradually increasing rate of response as the time interval draws to a close
Glancing at your watch during class provides an example!
 Student study behavior provides another!

Fixed Interval: FI
 Fixed Interval is abbreviated “FI” and a number
showing how much time must pass before the
reinforcer is available:

FI 30-min (reinforcement is available for the first response
after 30 minutes have passed)

Ex. Looking down the tracks for the train if it comes every 30
minutes
Variable Interval Schedule
 Variable Interval Schedule
 reinforcement is contingent upon the first response
after a varying, unpredictable period of time

Characteristic pattern:


A moderate, steady rate of response with little or no post-reinforcement pause.
Looking down the street for the bus if you are waiting and have no
idea how often it comes provides an example!
Variable Interval: VI
 Variable Interval is abbreviated “VI” and a number
showing the average time interval that must pass
before the reinforcer is available:

VI 30-min (reinforcement is available for the first
response after an average of 30 minutes has passed)

Ex. Hilary’s boyfriend, Michael, gets out of school and turns on
his phone some time between 3:00 and 3:30 – the “reward” of his
answering his phone puts her calling behavior on a VI schedule, so
she calls every few minutes until he answers
Interval Schedules
 Fixed Interval Schedule (FI):
 A schedule that a rewards a learner only for the first correct
response after some defined period of time.

Example: B.F. Skinner put rats in a box with a lever connected to a feeder. It
only provided a reinforcement after 60 seconds. The rats quickly learned that it
didn’t matter how early or often it pushed the lever, it had to wait a set amount of
time. As the set amount of time came to an end, the rats became more active in
hitting the lever.
Interval Schedules
 Variable Interval Schedule (VI):
A reinforcement system that rewards a correct
response after an unpredictable amount of time.

Example: A pop-quiz
Ratio Schedules
 Fixed Ratio Schedule (FR):
A reinforcement schedule that rewards a response
only after a defined number of correct answers.

Example: At Safeway, if you use your Club Card to buy 7
Starbucks coffees, you get the 8th one for free.
Ratio Schedules
 Variable Ratio Schedule (VR):
A reinforcement schedule that rewards an
unpredictable number of correct responses.

Example: Buying lottery tickets
Schedules of Reinforcement
Number of
responses
Intermittent Reinforcement
Schedules-
Fixed Ratio
1000
Skinner’s laboratory pigeons
produced these responses
patterns to each of four
reinforcement schedules
Variable Ratio
Fixed Interval
750
For people, as for pigeons,
research linked to number of
responses (ratio) produces a
higher response rate than
reinforcement linked to time
elapsed (interval).
Rapid responding near
time for reinforcement
500
Variable Interval
250
Steady responding
0
10
20
30
40
50
Time (minutes)
60
70
80
Punishment
THE PSYCHOLOGY OF STOPPING BEHAVIOR
Question to Ponder
 What do you think is a more effective use Operant
Conditioning……..

Using reinforcement for encourage behavior


OR
Using punishment to discourage behaviors
What psychological side effects might
one encounter with the use of
punishment?
Punishment

Punishment Defined
A procedure where an aversive stimulus is presented to
a subject contingent upon the subject emitting an
undesired behavior.



punishment should be used as a last resort in behavior
engineering; positive reinforcement should be used first
examples include spanking, verbal abuse, electrical shock,
etc.
Punishment
 Dangers in use of punishment
 Punishment is often reinforcing to a punisher
resulting in the making of an abuser
 Punishment often has a generalized inhibiting
effect on the punished individual
they stop doing ANY behavior at all
 We learn to dislike the punisher
a result of classical conditioning
Punishment
 Dangers in use of punishment
 What the punisher thinks is punishment may, in
fact, be a reinforcer to the “punished” individual
 punishment does not teach more appropriate
behavior

it merely stops a behavior from occurring
punishment can cause emotional damage in the
punished individual


antisocial behavior
Punishment
 Dangers in use of punishment
 Punishment
only stops the behavior from
occurring in the presence of the punisher
when the punisher is not present then the
behavior will often reappear and with a
vengeance

 The
best tool for engineering behavior is
positive reinforcement
Punishment
 Guidelines for the effective use of punishment
 Use the least painful stimulus possible;


if you spank your child, do it on the child’s bottom with an
open hand never more than twice and NEVER so hard as to
leave any marks on your child. That would be classified as
child abuse.
Reinforce the appropriate behavior to take the place
of the inappropriate behavior
Punishment
 Guidelines
 Make it clear to the individual which behavior you are
punishing and remove all threat of punishment
immediately as soon as the undesired behavior stops.
 Do not give punishment mixed with rewards for a
given behavior; be consistent!
 Once you have begun to administer punishment do
not back out but use punishment wisely
Primary and Secondary reinforcement
 Primary reinforcement: something that is naturally
reinforcing: food, warmth, water…
 Secondary reinforcement: something you have learned is a
reward because it is paired with a primary reinforcement in the
long run: good grades.
Two Important Theories
 Token Economy: A therapeutic method based on operant
conditioning that where individuals are rewarded with
tokens, which act as a secondary reinforcer. The tokens can
be redeemed for a variety of rewards.
 Premack Principle: The idea that a more preferred activity
can be used to reinforce a less-preferred activity.
Psychology Today
 Bobo
 Dolls, kids, guns, and fun
 Review
 CC- Pavlov, Watson
 OC- Skinner
 OL – Bandura
 Notebook check list
Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning
Observational
Learning
A Third Type of Learning
Modeling Theory
Albert Bandura- 1960
Bobo Doll
Observational Learning
 You can think of observational learning as an
extension of operant conditioning, in which we
observe someone else getting rewarded but act as
thought we had also received the reward.
 Observational learning: Learning in which new
responses are acquired after other’s behavior and the
consequences of their behavior are observed.
Observational Learning
 After observing adults seeming to enjoy punching,
hitting and kicking an inflated doll called Bobo, the
children later showed similar aggressive behavior
toward the doll.
 Significantly, these children were more aggressive
than those in a control condition who did not
witness the adult’s violence.
Media and Violence
 Does violence on tv/movies/video games have an
impact on the learning of children?
 Correlation evidence from over 50 studies shows that
observing violence is associated with violent
behavior.
 In addition, experiment evidence shows that viewers
of media violence show a reduction in emotional
arousal and distress when they subsequently observe
violent acts-a condition known as psychic
numbing.
Psychology Review
THE MOST
MEMORABLE SLIDES
FROM THIS UNIT
Think About it
“The interpretation of dreams is the royal road to a knowledge of the
unconscious activities of the mind while the royal road to
understanding human behavior lies within the unconscious mind
itself.”
-- Sigmund Freud
 "Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified
world to bring them up in and I'll guarantee to take any one at random
and train him to become any type of specialist I might select--doctor,
lawyer, artist, merchant-chief, and, yes, even beggarman and thief,
regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and
race of his ancestors.
--John Watson
A New Way of Thinking
Psychology finally
discovers a way to
measure behavior
scientifically
"Psychology as the
Behaviorist Views It"
John B. Watson
1913
7 main assumptions of Behaviorism that set it apart from other psychologies
7 assumptions of Behaviorism
 1. Behavior should be studied as a science
 2. Psychology should concern itself with





understanding only observable actions
3. external stimuli should be studied in how it
affects human behavior
4. All behavior is a product of conditioning and
training.
5. We are born as blank slates
6. We Are not responsible for our actions
7. The goal of psychology should be to control the
external world in order to control behavior
Pavlov’s Experiment
Classical Conditioning
Ivan Pavlov
Pavlov’s Experiment
Reiser’s Example
I’ll Be (Song)
Neutral Stimulus
Step 2.
Step 3.
Unconditioned
Stimulus
(UCS)
UCS
“paired with”
Conditioned
Stimulus
(CS)
Amanda Cain
Unconditioned
Response (UCR)
Lovey Dovey
Feelings
+
I’ll Be (Song)
Conditioned
Response
(CR)
Lovey Dovey
Feelings
A “Classic” Example
Things to Keep In Mind
 Do we respond similarly to similar stimuli?
 YES!
 Generalization
 The tendency to respond to a stimulus that is
similar to the CS
Stimulus generalization
I don’t care
if she is a
tape
dispenser.
I love her!
Things to Keep in Mind
 What if we could not distinguish between stimuli that were
similar?


The bell ending class vs. fire alarm
The door bell vs. our cell phones
 Discrimination:

The ability to distinguish between two similar signals
stimulus.
Did you Know?
 Higher Order Conditioning
 A stimulus that was previously neutral is paired with
a conditioned stimulus to produce the same
conditioned response as the conditioned stimulus.
Food----- Drool
 Food + Bell-----Drool
 Bell----- Drool
 Bell + Blue Ball---- Drool
 Blue Ball----- Drool
 Etc…….

Extinction
What happens when the CS isn’t followed by the UCS?
 Extinction:

The diminishing (or lessening) of a learned response, when an
unconditioned stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus.

To acquire a CR, we repeatedly pair a neutral stimulus with the UCS. But, if we
want to reverse this learning, we must weaken the strength of the connection
between the two stimuli.

It is important to realize that extinction does not mean complete
elimination of a response.
Spontaneous Recovery
 Extinction merely suppresses the conditioned response,
and the CR can reappear during spontaneous recovery.
 Spontaneous Recovery:

The response after a rest period of an extinguished
conditioned response.

Spontaneous recovery is weaker than the original CR.
Operant Conditioning
 B.F. Skinner (1904-
1990)
 elaborated
Thorndike’s
Law of Effect
 developed behavioral
technology
The Foundation of Operant Conditioning
Operant Behavior Is Voluntary &
Directed
by Consequences
 Edward Thorndike ‘s Law of
Effect:
 The relationship between
behavior and its consequences

So named because behavior becomes
more or less likely based on the effect
it has in producing desirable or
undesirable consequences.
Who- E.L. Thorndike
What – Educational
Psychologist
When- 1912
What- What connection
can be made between
education and
behavior?
Classical V. Operant
 Classical




Involuntary reflexes
Reinforcement occurs
before a response
The role of the learner is
passive
A NS becomes a CS
through association with
US
 Operant




Spontaneous/voluntary
Reinforcement occurs
after the response
The role of the learner is
active
Probability of making a
response is altered by
consequences
 With classical conditioning you can teach a dog to salivate, but you cannot
teach it to sit up or roll over. Why?

Salivation is an involuntary reflex, while sitting up and rolling over are far more
complex responses that we think of as voluntary.
B.F. Skinner
 B.F. Skinner became famous for his ideas in behaviorism and his work
with rats.

Law of Effect: The idea that responses that produced desirable results would be learned, or “stamped” into the
organism.
Key Terms of Operant Conditioning
 Reinforcement
 Any procedure that increases the response
 Punishment
 Any procedure that decreases the response
 Types of reinforcers:
 Primary: e.g. food or water
 Secondary: money or power
Reinforcement/Punishment Matrix
The consequence
provides something
($, a spanking…)
The consequence
takes something away
(removes headache,
timeout)
Positive
Negative
Reinforcement Reinforcement
(+,+)
(-,+)
Positive
Punishment
(+,-)
Negative
Punishment
(-,-)
The consequence
makes the behavior
more likely to happen
in the future.
The consequence
makes the behavior
less likely to happen in
the future.
Applying Psychology to Your World
Intermittent Reinforcement: A type of reinforcement schedule
by which some, but not all, correct responses are reinforced.
Sometimes we get reinforced or
punished after a specific amount
of responses are given
Sometimes we get reinforced or
punished after a random amount
of responses are given
(ex: You have to attend four classes in
order to play in tonight’s basketball
game)
(ex: a golfer has to shoot a varied
amount of shots before he finishes a
hole)
Sometimes, we get reinforced or
punished after a specific amount of
TIME has passed
Sometimes , we get reinforced or
punished after a random amount of
TIME has passed
(ex: after spending 55 minutes in detention,
a student is allowed to go home)
(ex: a fisherman may wait several hours
before a fish takes the bait)
Schedules of Reinforcement
Number of
responses
Intermittent Reinforcement
Schedules-
Fixed Ratio
1000
Skinner’s laboratory pigeons
produced these responses
patterns to each of four
reinforcement schedules
Variable Ratio
Fixed Interval
750
For people, as for pigeons,
research linked to number of
responses (ratio) produces a
higher response rate than
reinforcement linked to time
elapsed (interval).
Rapid responding near
time for reinforcement
500
Variable Interval
250
Steady responding
0
10
20
30
40
50
Time (minutes)
60
70
80