1st Quarter Restorative Art Supernotes
Lecture 1
 RESTORATIVE ART: the care of the deceased to recreate natural form and color,
techniques used to repair the objectable features caused by death, disease, etc.; to allow the
deceased to return to a natural-looking appearance of peaceful rest
 Form: anatomy
 Physiognomy: study of the face and features
 Joel E. Crandall: father of modern restorative art, wrote a trade article on restorative art in
1912 in the Sunnyside
 History: a lot of experiments following WWII, needed an adequate substitute for human
skin: experimented with plaster of paris, clay, putty, skin transplants, paraffin, and soap;
now we use wax called restorative waxes
 Name was debated for a while, now it is called restorative art
 Mutilation: any damage done to a dead human body, we need to get permission to do
anything that is considered “mutilation”
 4 Restorations that DO NOT need permission
 Reducing swelling and edema, dealing with leakage, bleaching a discolored area,
tissue building
 Minor Restoration: usually under 15 minutes, doesn’t require technical skills over embalming
skills, little effort
 Major Restoration: takes much longer than 15 minutes, extensive, involves many steps,
covers a wide area of the body, requires technical skill over and above embalming skills
 Distinguishing Features that are left alone: moles, warts, scars, birthmarks, tattoos, body
piercings, eyeglasses
 Anatomical terms:
 Norm: most common characteristics of a feature
 Anomaly: exception to a norm, anatomical oddity
 Anatomical position: facing the observe, legs spread, arms raised, fingers spread, palms
toward observer
 Anterior: toward the front
 Posterior: toward the back
 Superior: toward the head
 Inferior: toward the feet
 Medial: toward the middle
 Lateral: toward the sides
 Bilateral: both sides of the body, left and right
 Frontal: view of the body facing the observer
 Profile: view of the body from the side
 Vertical (perpendicular): up and down
 Horizontal (transverse): side to side
 Oblique: slanted, at an angle other than 90 degrees to the vertical
Lecture 2
 More directional terminology:
 Median plane: 2-dimensional vertical surface that divides the face into halves frontally
 Horizontal plane: 2-dimensional surface that intersects the median plane at a 90 degree
angle
 Surface plane: 2-dimensional surface exhibiting minimum curvature but differing in
direction from adjacent surfaces
 Projection: the jutting out of a part or structure in comparison with a background plane or
a background part/structure
 Prominence: the part or structure that projects
 Recession: the moving back of a part or structure
 Depression: a hollow or shallow concave area in a surface
 Convex: curving or bulging outward or forward from a plane
 Concave: curing or sinking inward or backward from a plane
 Inclination: oblique plane or slope
 Crest of a curvature: the top or bottom of a curved surface whether the direction changes
 Asymmetry: out of balance
 In restorative art, the purpose of bone is to provide support for the muscle, subcutaneous
tissues, and skin. You can’t restore without the bones. The basic appearance of a human
being relies on the shape of the skull.
 CLASSIFICATION OF BONES
 Long bones: bones having a long axis, longer than they are wide
 Diaphysis: shaft of the bone
 Epiphysis: end of the bone
 Consists of compact bone
 Short bones: bones that do not have a long axis, length and width are the same (carpals
and tarsals)
 Flat bones: thin bones (ribs, sternum, nasal bones)
 Consists of compact bone and an inner core of cancellous (spongy) bone tissue
 Irregular bones: bones of various shapes (pelvis, mandible)
 The typical shape of a skull is oval. Frontally, the width of the skull at its widest points is
2/3rds the length of the skull at its longest point.
 To fit through the birth canal, the fetal skull must be very small
 At age 7, the eyes are as big as they’ll ever be. Growth slows down until puberty. Bones not
only get bigger but change shape until age 18-20.
 An infant’s cranial bones aren’t as close together, infants have cranial fontanelles (softer)
 Cranial sutures: lines of fusion
 Ossification: when bones get harder and fuse, complete ossification stops at about age 21
 Differences between male and female skulls
 Bones of the skull in females are lighter, smaller, rounder, ridges are less prominent,
cranial vertex (top ridge of the skull) is flatter, facial bones are smaller, surface of body is
rounder and softer and adipose tissue is closer to skin
 The older we get, jaw bones get shorter in males and females
Lecture 3
 SURFACE BONES OF THE CRANIUM
 Occipital bone (1)
 Location: most posterior and inferior
 Supports the cerebellum, separated from the parietals and temporals by the
lambdoidal suture
 Landmarks:
 Foramen magnum: located medially of the inferior aspect, spinal cord runs
through it
 External occipital protuberance: posterior to foramen magnum
 Superior nuchal ridge: line the extends bilaterally from the external occipital
protuberance
 Occipito-frontalis: scalp muscle and neck muscle
 Occipital condyles (2): on either side of the foramen magnum, articulate with the
Atlas
 Parietal bones (2)
 Location: superior to temporal and occipital bones, posterior to frontal bone, covers
the parietal lobes of the brain
 4 sutures border it
 Midsagittal suture: separate parietals from each other
 Lambdoidal suture: separate the parietals from the occipital bone
 Squamosal suture: separate the parietals from the temporal bones
 Coronal suture: separate the parietals from the frontal bone
 Has a vertical and horizontal surface
 Landmarks:
 Parietal eminence (2): widest part of the skull measured between these points
 Temporal bones (2):
 Location: inferior to parietals, anterior to occipital
 Separated from occipital bone by lambdoidal suture, separated from frontal and
parietals by the squamosal
 Landmarks:
 Squama: anterior and superior area
 Temporal cavity



External auditory meatus (2): ear canal, primary landmark for locating the ear
Mandibular fossa (2): where the mandible sockets in
Mastoid process: masticatory muscle attachment, widest part of the neck
measured between these points
 Zygomatic arch: long, thin, narrow arch-like ribbon of bone, measurement of the
widest part of the face between these points, ear is half above & half below them
 Frontal bone (1)
 Location: most anterior and superior bone of the cranium
 Forms the forehead, part of the top of the head, and part of the temple
 Coronal suture separate the frontal bone from the parietals and the squamosal suture
separate the frontal from the temporals
 Has a vertical and horizontal surface
 Landmarks:
 Frontal eminences (2): marks the change of direction of the forehead, at about the
hairline
 Superciliary arches (2): comma-shaped eminences, just above medial ends of the
eyebrows
 Supraorbital margins (2): ridges just above eye sockets
 Glabella: small elevation between the eyebrows
 Lines of the temple (2): vertical ridge on either side of the forehead, 110 degrees
on the inside of the skull
 3 surface planes of the forehead: medial plane and 2 lateral planes
 SURFACE BONES OF THE FACE
 Nasal bones (2):
 Location: below and slightly anterior to the glabella
 2 frontal planes and 2 lateral planes
 Top of the frontal planes form the root of the nose, curved
Lecture 4
 Zygomatic Bones (2):
 Location: inferior and lateral to orbital cavity
 Landmarks:
 Prominence of the cheek (2): slightly inferior and lateral to outer corner of eye,
where the bone changes direction, anterior and lateral surface are convex,
measurement between the prominences is the widest part of the anterior plane of
the face, skin over the prominence is called a warm area (natural reddening)
 Maxillary Bones (2):
 Location: inferior and lateral to nasal cavity, lateral to nasal bone, forms the upper
jaw and sides of the nose
 Maxillary sinus: hollow cavity inside the bone, warms air and is a vocal resonator


Depression at the edges of nostrils so nose can wing back and take in more air
Landmarks:
 Nasal spine (1): small, sharp spur of bone, forms part of the septum, bottom of the
nose at the midline
 Frontal process (2): 2 fingers of bone that project up to the frontal bone, convex,
widens the nose and forms the sides of the nose
 Alveolar processes (16): teeth sockets, note: alveolar is a less dense type of bone,
parabolic curvature, 32 maximum teeth (8 incisors, 4 canines, 8 premolars, and 12
molars)
 Palatine process: inferior and posterior part of the maxilla, forms the roof of the
mouth and the floor of the nasal cavity
 Mandible (1):
 Location: most anterior and inferior bone of the skull
 2 parts:
 Body: curved horizontal and anterior part of the bone, same curve as the maxillary
bone, landmarks include:
 Alveolar processes (16): teeth sockets, curvature is slightly narrower
 Mental eminence (1): small eminence on midline just above base of the chin
 Incisive fossa (1): a recession of the bone between the mental eminence and
the incisors
 Ramus (2): the straight vertical and posterior portions of the bone, landmarks
include:
 Angle of the mandible (2): the angle that is formed by the posterior border of
the ramus and the inferior border of the body, determines basic front shape of
the face, distance between the angles and relative lengths of the body and
ramus (shorter ramuses will have a longer body and vice versa), usually 110120 degrees but in old age can be almost 140 degrees
 Mandibular condyle (2): the posterior and superior process of the ramus, just
anterior to ear passage
 Parotid gland: in subcutaneous tissue behind ramus
 Anterior line: same angle as ramus, right in front of ear
 Prognathism: projection of some part of the face beyond the upper part of the face
 Maxillary Prognathism: maxillary bone projects
 Mandibular: body of mandible is too long
 Alveolar: alveolar margin projects
 Dental: teeth grow out at the wrong angle, “buck teeth”
 Infranasal: area just under nasal spine projects
 MUSCLES OF FORM AND EXPRESSION
 All muscles present when born, muscles are at peak size and performance age 30-40
 Relationship between muscles and overlying skin, as muscles contract causes lines on the
skin, some disappear some stay (creases, wrinkles, etc.), occur at right angles to striations
of muscles
 Effect of aging on muscle: gradual loss of muscle tone (the ability of a muscle to hold its
shape and position:, gravity effects muscles more = sagging
 Origin: a stationary point of muscle attachment, usually bone or cartilage
 Insertion: a point of muscle attachment where the pull of the muscle is applied
 Action: the movement of the muscle
 Striation: the direction in which the muscle fibers align
 Belly of the muscle: thickest part of the muscle, some have 2 and are called doublebellied, they have more than 1 origin
 Tendon: attaches muscle to bone, tough and fibrous
 Quadrilateral muscle: 4 sides, usually flatter, equal in thickness throughout
Lecture 5
 MUSCLES CONTINUED
 Muscular terms
 Sphincter muscles: encircle a natural body opening to close the opening
 Radiating: thin, origins on an arch, pull toward one point
 Antagonistic: reverses the action of another muscle, pairs
 Tendons: can also cover muscle
 Aponeurosis: broad, flat, thin sheet of tendon covering a muscle
 MUSCLES OF THE CRANIUM
 Occipital frontalis (1): double-bellied, aka the epicranius
 A large, wide, thin, and flat muscle, occipitalis: the posterior part, it attaches on the
occipital bone; anterior: frontalis, covers the forehead, original is the anterior aspect
of the galea aponeurotica and inserts into the skin behind the eyebrows
 Action: raises the eyebrows
 Aka “muscle of surprise”
 Transverse frontal sulci: lines on skin across forehead
 Galea aponeurotica: a tendon sheet on top of the skull, between the occipital and
frontalis, attaches skin to the top of the skull
 Temporalis (2): ½ on cranium ½ on face, radiating, semicircular origin on temporal bone,
fibers converge as they descend anteriorly, pass behind Zygomatic arch and inserts onto
the ramus
 Action: raises the upper jaw
 Strongest chewing muscle, fills the contour space in the temple
 Muscles of the Eye
 Orbicularis oculi (2): thin, wide, forms eyelids, origins all the way around the eye
 Action: closes the eyes
 Has lots of blood vessels
 Optic facial sulci: “crow’s feet”
 Corrigator (2): long, thin, narrow, origin on front bone lateral to glabella, inserts behind
medial part of eyebrow
 Action: draws eyebrows together and down
 Aka “frowning muscle”
 Vertical interciliary sulcus: worry/frowning line between eyebrows
 Levator palpebrae superioris (2): very thin, long, flat, triangular, origin on small wing of
sphenoid inside skull, apron shaped, inserts into tarsis (small elevation at anterior edge of
eyelid)
 Action: opens eyes
 Muscles of the Nose
 Procerus (2): long, very thin, origin is lower edge of nasal bones, inserts behind medial
ends of eyebrows
 Action: draws medial ends of eyebrows down
 Another frowning muscles
 Depressor nasalis (1): aka nasalis, thin, from one wing of the nose to the other
 Action: widens the nostrils
 Muscles of the Mouth
 Orbicularis oris (1): thicker, wide, sphincter, forms the lips
 Action: closes and protrudes the lips
 Contains a depression called the philtrum
 Labial sulci: creases, not the same as vertical lines
 Vertical lines: everybody has these vertical lines, “lip prints”
 Quadratus Labii Superiorus: trio of muscles that all attach to the orbicularis oris, includes
the levator labii superioris alaeque nasi, levator labii superioris, and zygomaticus minor
 Levator labii superioris alaeque nasi (2):
 Nickname: “common elevator” and the “medial head”
 Runs alongside the nose and attaches at the wing of nose and upper lip
 Action: raises the lip
 Levator labii superioris (2):
 Action: prime elevator of the lip
 Aka the “intermediate head”
 Zygomaticus minor (2): attaches to the Zygomatic bone, shorter
 Aka the “smiling muscle” and the “lateral head”
 Action: lifts corners of the mouth
 Levator anguli oris (2): deep to quadratus
 Aka snarling muscle
 Action: lifts corners of the mouth
 Zygomaticus major (2): aka the “laughing muscle”
 Another trio of muscles includes the buccinators, the masseter, and the risorius
 Buccinator (2): quadrilateral shape, origin on the upper jaw and lower jaw, deepest layer
of the cheek
 Aka the “bugler’s muscle”, helps to forcibly exhale
 Bucco-facial sulci: line down the middle of the cheek
 Masseter (2): quadrilateral shape, origin on anterior 2/3rds of the Zygomatic arch, insert
into the angle of the mandible, medial layer of the cheek
 Aka the chewing muscle
 Action: raises and lowers the mandible
 Risorius (2): most superficial layer of the cheek, origin on the fascia of the masseter,
inserts into orbicularis oris at the corner of the mouth, antagonistic to the buccinator
 Action: pulls corners of the mouth apart
 Depressor anguli oris (2): origin on body of mandible, inserts just above line of lip
closure
 Aka “triangularis”
 Action: lowers the angle of the mouth
 Depressor labii inferiorus (2): deep to depressor anguli oris, forms part of the lower lip
 Action: pulls lower lip down
 Mentalis (1): triangular shape, covers the mental eminence, origin is incisive fossa,
inserts on skin at bottom of chin, makes the chin more prominent,
 Cleft chin is a depression in this muscle
 Action: raises and protrudes the lower lip
 Can be utilized to close the mouth during embalming
 Muscles of the Neck
 Platysma (2): wide, very flat, very thin, most superficial muscle of the neck, multiple
origins on clavicle and sternum, inserts on lower edge of the body of the mandible
 Aka the “shock/horror” muscle
 Forms lines across the neck called platysmal sulci
 Action: pulls the mandible down
 Sternocleidomastoid (2):runs down the sides of
 Digastricus (2): double-bellied, inserts in submandibular area, under body of mandible
 “cords of the neck” created by the effect of gravity on the muscles
 Action: lowers and moves the mandible side to side
 Omo-hyoidius (2): keeps the hyoid bone in place, shaped like a Ʊ
 Subcutaneous Tissues
 Most affected by emaciation and edema
 Between the skin and muscle
 Types
 Deep fascia: connective layer, connects muscles together
 Superficial fascia: connects skin and muscle together
 Adipose: fat, unevenly distributed
 Glandular tissue: in superficial fascia and skin
 Parts of the body and the types subcutaneous tissue present in each
 Scalp: thickest skin, attached very closely to the bone
 Forehead: skin is thin, past the line of the temple, adipose fills in the temple
 Cheekbone: skin is thin, no fat
 Eyes: thinnest skin and muscle***, shows edema if present, very sensitive to
dehydration, adipose tissue around and behind eye
 Nose: bone and cartilage, no fat, usually needs no tissue building
 Ears: no fat, very little superficial fascia, however has lots of lividity after death, has
Ceruminous glands
 Mouth: lots of fat, superficial fascia is more fibrous, highly vasculated, frenulum:
web of tissue connecting lips to gums
 Cheek: furthest distance between skin and bone, lots of muscle/fascia/fat, may need to
tissue build, several warm areas
 Chin: moderate amount of fat, skin thick, submandibular area: lots of fat but variable,
may need to neck tuck; in strangulations and hanging the hyoid bone breaks
 Skin-Integument: skin of the face is highly vasculated, varied thickness, lots of sudoriferous
glands and sebacious glands
 Dermis: deep layer, specialized dense connective tissue, contains many blood vessels,
lymph vessels, sweat and oil glands, nerve endings, and hair follicles, pores are the
largest by the nose
 Epidermis: superficial, thin, only 4 cells thick, waterproof, skin pigments, found in 1
layer, deepest layer is rete mucosum which connects the epidermis to the dermis =
breakdown is the cause of skin slip
Lecture 7
 Factors Affecting the Skin
 Aging: skin loses moisture which causes it to lose elasticity and causes wrinkling (partly
from dehydration and partly from loss of collagen)
 Exposure to sunlight: increases moisture loss
 Weather/climate: differences in sunlight, exposure to dry/cold/windy climes increases
dehydration, extreme cold can cause necrosis (frostbite)
 Pigments of the Skin
 Melanin: light tan to black, most variable pigments, not evenly distributed, found in
granular deposits called melanocytes, found in the deep layer of the epidermis, greatest
amount of melanin is in the hair (blond and redheads don’t have them in their hair)
 Melanosis: tanning, temporary darkening of skin
 Chloasma (liver spot): local and permanent darkening, aka age spots
 Leukoderma (vitiligo): localized absence or destruction of melanocytes
 Albinism: congenital and complete absence of melanocytes
 Nevus (mole): a localized increase in skin cells and melanocytes
 Lentigo: local and temporary increase in melanocytes
 Carotene: orange/yellow pigment, found in epidermis, greatest amount found in adipose,
if the yellowish tint is elevated it creates a “sallow” appearance, found in blond and red
hair, can increase with age
 Hematin: found in capillaries (blood), causes blushing, causes redness in 1st degree burns,
“warm areas” = under normal conditions they appear pinkish, after death there is a
general loss of warm areas and it is called death pallor
 Angioma (port wine stain or strawberry stain): reddish purple irregular permanent
stain, congenital
 Canon of Beauty: written down my Vitruvius
 Rules of ideal human proportions
 Length: any vertical measurement
 Width: any horizontal measurement
 Height: vertical measurement of a feature or a part of a feature
 Head: from the apex of the skull to the base of the chin, oval shaped, cranium is slightly
wider than the face
 A person’s height is 7.5-8X the head length
 Face is that part of the head from the base of the chin to the lowest point of the
hairline (frontal eminences)
 3 natural divisions of the face:
 From hairline to eyebrows
 From eyebrows to base of nose
 From base of nose to base of chin
 Distance between the ear passage and outer corner of the eye is 1/3 facelength
 Anterior line of the ear is always behind the border of the ramus, angle of inclination
is the same as the angle of the forehead and the angle of the ramus
 Bottom 1/3rd is also divided into thirds
 Base of nose to line of lip closure
 Line of lip closure to top of chin
 Top of chin to bottom of chin
 Line of closure is at the halfway point from the base of the nose to the top of the
chin
 line of eye closure: is halfway between the apex of the cranium and base of chin, on a
downward arch
 Width: based on eyewidth, from outer corner to outer corner of closed eye, widest part of
the face is measured between the Zygomatic arches = 5 eye widths
 Nose from wing to wing = 1 eyewidth
Lecture 8
 Supplemental Equalities: width = 2/3rds length, all equal to 2/3rds
 Hairline to the base of the nose
 Eyebrow to bottom of chin
 Tip of nose to ear passage
 Zygomatic arch to Zygomatic arch
 Ear passage to ear passage straight through
 Facial Profiles
 Basic types (3)
 Convex – most common, forehead and chin recede
 Vertical – forehead, upper lip, and chin all project on the same line
 Concave – least common, forehead and chin protrudes
 Variations (6)
 Convex-Concave – forehead recedes, chin protrudes
 Concave-Convex – forehead protrudes, chin recedes
 Vertical-Convex – forehead vertical, chin recedes
 Vertical-Concave – forehead vertical, chin protrudes
 Convex-Vertical – forehead recedes, chin vertical
 Concave-Vertical – forehead protrudes, chin vertical
 Facial Shape: distance between the angles of the mandible and the width of the forehead
determines the shape
 Oval – most common, width of the face is 2/3rds the length, gently curved
 Round – infantile, width about the same as length, curvature is fuller
 Square – “strong” type, width between angles of the mandible, between Zygomatic
arches, and angles of temple are the same, no curvature, flat
 Oblong – face is long and narrow, lower jaw is thin and long
 Triangular – least common, greatest measures of width at angle of the mandible, shortest
width is between the lines of the temple
 Inverted Triangle – widest part between lines of the forehead, shortest width between the
angles of the mandible
 Diamond – widest part between cheekbones, narrow forehead and jaw, tends to be
present in shorter people
 Professional Portraits: drawbacks are that they are airbrushed and not recent, also the light is
manipulated
 Photos: more recent healthy appearance, more angles to choose from, less likely to be
retouched, drawbacks: small, often group shots, bad lighting
 Want to get ¾ view, if possible not smiling so much
 Highlights: surface of area that lies at a right angle to the light sources, brightest areas
 Shadow: any area not at a right angle to the light source or is obscured by something else,
can help determine curvature of parts of the face




Preferred: normal or natural lighting, above the head and directly in front
Directed: angled lighting
Flat lighting: close and intense burst of light, no shadows, red eye
Bilateral view: a comparison of the two sides of the face/features to observe and note the
similarities and differences, viewing from top down of bottom up (supine)
 Bilateral forms of the face in general: curvature of the cheek repeated in forehead, chin, and
upper lip
 Oval – most common, gentle curvature from arch to arch, more shallow than round,
cheekbones closer to midline than Zygomatic arches, projection of cheeks not very
prominent, upper part of the face slightly wider than lower
 Angular: prominences are closer together, anterior plane is narrow, lateral sides are large
and flatter
 Round: Zygomatic arches farther away from each other, anterior plane is wider, full
semicircle curvature, length of the face is closer to the width
 Square: prominences further apart, almost looks as if lateral and anterior planes are
equally in area and almost 90 degrees, very noticeable, cheeks flat
Lecture 9
 Forehead: that part of the face from the eyebrows to the hairline/frontal eminences, and from
one line of the temple to the other
 In profile, 3 types of forehead:
 Convex: receding
 Vertical: flat, straight line
 Concave: protrusion
 In bilateral, 3 planes
 Central plane (1): just above nose to hairline, between medial ends of eyebrows
 Lateral planes (2): from medial ends of eyebrows to line of temple, gentle curvature
(convex)
 Angle = 110 degrees on inside of the skull (from angle at lateral plane and temple)
 Temple: collects adipose, either convex, concave, or flat
 Jawline: inferior border of body and posterior border of ramus, where they meet is 110-120
degrees, in old age may be almost 140 degrees
 In profile there are 4
 Narrow: almost no angle, continuous line
 Curving: more curve, angle still hard to see
 Square: angle is prominent, ramus and body are almost equal
 Angular: angle is prominent but shorter ramus
 In frontal view
 Narrow: v-shaped
 Curving: elongated oval, U shaped
 Square: looks like a box, flat
 Angular: v-shaped, angle is lower on the face
 Prominences of the cheek: slightly inferior and lateral to outer corner of the eye
 Chin:
 Profile
 Convex
 Vertical
 Concave
 Frontal
 Square: flat, boxy
 Spherical: semicircular
 Oval: flatter curve
 Sharp: v-shaped