HOTNIAR SIRINGORINGO
LEMBAGA PENELITIAN
GD 4 LT. 1 (418)
JALAN MARGONDA RAYA DEPOK
http://hotniar.gunadarma.ac.id
hotniars@staff.gunadarma.ac.id
siringoringoniar@gmail.com
hotniarsiringoringo@yahoo.com
David Nunan. Research Methods in Language Learning.
2. Patricia A. Duff. 2008. Case Study Research in Applied
Linguistics. Laurence Erlbaum Associates, London
3. Janice A. Radway. 1991. Reading Romance : Women,
Patriarchy and Popular Literature. University of
California Press.
4. Margaret Alston and Wendy Bowles 2003. Research for
Social Workers. Allen & Unwin
5. Elinor Scarbrough and Eric Tanenbaum. 2007.
Research Strategies in the Social Sciences. Oxford
University Press.
1.
Syllaby
1.
Kekhususan Penelitian Sastra:
 Penelitian dan Kritik Sastra
 Penelitian sastra sebagai ilmu
 Penelitian Sastra sebagai penelitian Kualitatif
2. Perencanaan dan Persiapan Penelitian 1:
 Langkah-langkah pokok Penelitian
 Pemilihan masalah dan obyek Penelitian
 Penyusunan Hipotesis
 Masalah Populasi dan Sampel
2. Perencanaan dan Persiapan Penelitian 2:
 Pengembangan dasar-dasar teori
3. Perencanaan dan Persiapan Penelitian 3
 Penulisan Judul
 Latar Belakang Masalah
 Pentingnya dan kegunaan Penelitian
 Tujuan Penelitian
 Tinjauan Pustaka
 Hipotesis
 Metodologi
 Daftar Pustaka
 Format Penulisan
5. Pendekatan dalam penelitian:
 Pendekatan struktural
 Pendekatan kesejarahan
 Pendekatan filosofis
 Pendekatan semiotik
 Pendekatan psikologis
 Pendekatan sosiologis
 Pendekatan eklektikal
 Pendekatan antropologi
 Penekatan feminisme
PENELITIAN & KRITIK SASTRA
 Penelitian sastra : memanfaatkan teori.
 Kelemahan : akibat penyederhanaan,
eklektisisme, dan penyimpulan yang salah
 Keuntungan : peneliti diberi kemudahan
 Sifat teori baik:
1. Mudah disesuaikan dengan ciri-ciri karya yang
akan dianalisis
2. Mudah disesuaikan dengan metode dan teori
yang menyertai
PENELITIAN & KRITIK SASTRA
 Sifat teori baik:
3. Dapat dimanfaatkan untuk menganalisis baik ilmu
yang sejenis maupun berbeda
4. Memiliki formula yang sederhana, tetapi
mengimplikasikan jaringan analisis yang kompleks
5.
Memiliki prediksi yang dapat menjangkau objek jauh
ke masa depan
Teori dan metode
 Teori dan metode adalah alat dan cara penelitian
 Teori dan metode adalah hasil penemuan
 Teori dan metode adalah ilmu pengetahuan
Indikator perkembangan sastra abad 20-21
Medium utama sastra adalah bahasa, sedangkan
dalam bahasa itu sendiri sudah terkandung
problematika yang sangat luas
2. Sastra memasukkan berbagai dimensi kebudayaan,
sedangkan dalam kebudayaan itu sendiri juga sudah
terkandung permasalahan yang sangat beragam
3. Teori utama dalam sastra sudah berkembang sejak
jaman Plato dan Aristoteles, yang dengan sendirinya
telah dimatangkan dalam berbagai disiplin,
khususnya filasafat
1.
Indikator perkembangan sastra abad 20-21
4. Kesulitan dalam memahami gejala sastra memicu
para ilmuwan untuk menemukan berbagai cara,
sebagai teori baru
5. Sragam sastra sangat banyak dan berkembang secara
dinamis, kondisi sastra yang juga memerlukan cara
pemahaman yang berbeda-beda
CIRI PENELITIAN SASTRA
Hipotesis dan asumsi tidak diperlukan sebab analisis
bersifat deskripsi, bukan generalisasi. Gejala sastra
tidak berulang, makna yang tidak tetap yang justru
merupakan hakikat
2. Populasi dan sampel tidak mutlak diperlukan,
kecuali dalam penelitian tertentu, misalnya
penelitian yang melibatkan sejumlah karya atau
konsumen
3. Kerangka penelitian tidak bersifat tertutup, korpus
data bersifat terbuka, deskripsi dan pemahaman
berkembang terus
1.
CIRI PENELITIAN SASTRA
4. Tidak diperlukan objektivitas dalam pengertian yang
umum sebab peneliti terlibat secara terus-menerus,
objektivitas terjadi saat penelitian dilakukan
5. Objek yang sesungguhnya bukanlah bahasa, tetapi
wacana, teks, sebab sebagai hakikat diskursi bahasa
sudah terikat dengan sistem model kedua dengan
berbagai sistem komunikasinya.
PARADIGMA PENELITIAN SASTRA
 Faktor yang mempengaruhi paradigma peneliti:
1. Unsur dalam diri sendiri
2. Unsur luar berupa lingkungan fisik
3. Unsur luar berupa penjelasan metodologi dan teori
 Paradigma ilmiah:
1. Paradigma fakta sosial (Durkheim)
2. Paradigma definisi sosial (Weber)
3. Paradigma perilaku sosial (Skinner)
Faktor yg mempengaruhi paradigma ilmuwan
Faktor ontologis, keberadaan objek
2. Faktor epistemologis : cara memperoleh ilmu
pengetahuan
3. Faktor aksiologis : penelitian adalah penilaian
4. Faktor metodologis : keseluruhan proses penelitian
(termasuk metode, teori, dan teknik)
1.
PENELITIAN KUALITATIF

Analisis isi

Data yang tersedia merupakan bahan
yang terdokumentasi (buku, surat
kabar, pita rekaman,
naskah/manuscript).

Ada keterangan pelengkap atau
kerangka teori tertentu yang
menerangkan tentang dan sebagai
metode pendekatan terhadap data
tersebut.
Kuantitatif vs kualitatif
Kuantitatif
Kualitatif
Uji hipotesis dimana
peneliti memulai
Konsep dalam bentuk
variabel berbeda
Pengukuran secara
sistematis dibuat
sebelum pengumpulan
data & distandardisasi
Menangkap dan menemukan arti ketika
peneliti menjadi terbenam dalam data
Konsep dalam bentuk tema, motif,
generalisasi, dan taksonomi
Pengukuran dibuat dalam cara ad hoc
dan seringkali khusus terhadap
pengaturan individu atau peneliti
Pembekalan MP 24 Juli 2008 AKMRTP
Globalmedia
Kuantitatif vs kualitatif
Kuantitatif
Kualitatif
Data dalam bentuk
angka dari pengukuran
yang tepat
Teorinya adalah sebabakibat dan deduktif
Prosedur adalah standar,
dan pengulangan
diperhatikan
Data dalam bentuk kata dan gambar
dari dokumen, pengamatan, dan
transkrip
Teori dapat berupa sebab-akibat atau
bukan dan sering berupa induktif
Prosedur penelitian adalah khusus, dan
pengulangan sangat jarang
Pembekalan MP 24 Juli 2008 AKMRTP
Globalmedia
Kuantitatif vs kualitatif
Kuantitatif
Kualitatif
Analisa dilakukan dengan
memakai statistik, tabel,
atau bagan serta
membahas bagaimana
memperlihatkan hubungan
dengan hipotesis
Analisa dilakukan dengan
mengekstraksi tema atau
generalisasi dari bukti dan
pengaturan data untuk
memaparkan gambar yang
koheren, konsisten
Pembekalan MP 24 Juli 2008 AKMRTP
Globalmedia
Langkah-langkah Pokok Penelitian:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Formulasi Masalah
Rancangan Penelitian
Pengumpulan Data
Analisis Data
Interpretasi Hasil
Penulisan Laporan Penelitian
Diseminasi Temuan
Formulasi Masalah Penelitian
 Memutuskan permasalahan yang akan diteliti
 Permasalahan penelitian:
 Ketertarikan pribadi
 Permasalahan sosial
 Pengujian teori
 Penelitian pendahuluan
 Evaluasi program
 Dll.
oleh Hotniar Siringoringo
Pembentukan Dan Pengkristalan Masalah
 Pengembangan konseptual: identifikasikan dan definisikan
dengan tepat konsep yang menjadi fokus penelitian
 Mereview penelitian sebelumnya yang berhubungan
dengan topik yang dipilih
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Pertanyaan Penelitian
 Karakteristik pertanyaan ilmiah:
 Pertanyaan harus dalam terminologi yang dapat diamati
 Pertanyaan harus diekspresikan sehingga definisi nominalnya
tersedia
 Cakupan kemungkinan jawaban seharusnya jangan dibatasi
 Pertanyaan harus dapat diuji
 Jawaban harus penting – paling tidak untuk pihak tertentu
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Petunjuk Praktis
 Pertanyaan penelitian harus sebisa mungkin
spesifik dan dinyatakan dengan ringkas
 Jika sejumlah pertanyaan penelitian direncanakan
akan diuji, lebih baik menyusunnya dalam bentuk
daftar atau penomoran
 Dalam laporan penelitian, pertanyaan penelitian
mengalir dalam narasi secara terstruktur (secara
logis terhubung dengan review literatur dan
tujuan penelitian)
oleh Hotniar Siringoringo
Tujuan Penelitian
 Eksploratori: pada umumnya sebagai dasar
untuk penelitian selanjutnya yang lebih
mendalam.
 Dimulai dengan keterbatasan
pengetahuan permasalahan dan
menghasilkan pengetahuan dalam level
keyakinan rendah
 Lebih berguna ketika area permasalahan
relatif baru
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Tujuan Penelitian
 Deskriptif: untuk menemukan fakta atau
menggambarkan realitas







Menjawab pertanyaan “apa” dan “mengapa”
Memberikan profil akurat tentang suatu grup
Menggambarkan proses, mekanisme atau hubungan
Memberikan gambaran verbal atau numerik (mis : persentase)
Menemukan informasi untuk menstimulasi penjelasan baru
Menciptakan sejumlah kategori atau tipe kalsifikasi
Mengklarifikasi urutan, tahapan atau langkah
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Tujuan Penelitian
 Prediktif: Fokus pada peramalan, atau membuat
proyek kejadian di masa mendatang.
 Eksplanatori: Menjawab pertanyaan “mengapa” atau
“bagaimana”
 Evaluasi: Menentukan efektifitas program
Kelayakan penelitian:
 Waktu
 Biaya/anggaran
 Kualifikasi peneliti
 Upto date
oleh Hotniar Siringoringo
UNIT ANALISIS
 Unit analisis : objek atau elemen spesifik yang
karakteristiknya digambarkan data yang dikumpulkan
 Individual
 Group
 Organisasi
 Program
oleh Hotniar Siringoringo
DATA
 Sumber :
 Primer
 Sekunder

Teknik pengumpulan data
memformulasikan permasalahan
Sumber :
 Ensiklopedia
 buku teks
 Handbooks
 artikel majalah dan surat kabar dan sejenisnya
 Laporan keuangan
 Dll.
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METODE PENGUMPULAN DATA
 Survei:
 Wawancara pribadi
 Wawancara telepon
 Kuesioner
 Pengamatan
 Langsung
 Tidak langsung
 Percobaan
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SKALA PENGUKURAN
Tipe Data:
 Klasifikasi, dimana data digunakan hanya untuk
mengelompokkan atau respon pendek. Tidak ada
tingkatan dalam klasifikasi.
 Urutan, dimana angka yang digunakan mempunyai
urutan yang berarti.
 Jarak, dimana jarak antara angka diurutkan.
 Titik asal, serial angka mempunyai titik awal unik yang
diindikasikan oleh angka 0.
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SKALA PENGUKURAN
 Nominal
 Ordinal
 Interval
 Rasio
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SUMBER KERAGAMAN PENGUKURAN
 Responden
 faktor situasional
 Pengukur
 Instrumen
oleh Hotniar Siringoringo
oleh Hotniar Siringoringo
Judul penelitian
 padat dan ringkas
 tidak melebihi 12 kata
 Menggambarkan permasalahan yang akan diteliti
 Memuat variabel penelitian
 Menunjukkan hipotesis penelitian
 Tidak perlu menggambarkan metode yang akan
digunakan
 Tidak perlu menggambarkan unit analisis
 Jangan gunakan singkatan
oleh Hotniar Siringoringo
Pendahuluan
 latar belakang masalah : ringkas dan padat menjelaskan
apa yang melatarbelakangi diperlukannya penelitian.
 Rumusan Masalah : merupakan ringkasan dari latar
belakang masalah, memuat pertanyaan penelitian
 Tujuan Penelitian : menjelaskan apa yang akan dilakukan
dan dihasilkan dari penelitian
oleh Hotniar Siringoringo
Latar belakang masalah
 jangan menggunakan kalimat umum.
 Langsung ke pokok permasalahan
 Gunakan kalimat efektif
 2-3 paragraf, atau 1 halaman sudah cukup
 Pengungkapan permasalahan bisa berdasarkan manfaat
yang diharapkan atau berdasarkan research gap yang ada.
oleh Hotniar Siringoringo
Rumusan masalah
 Harus bisa dibuat dalam bentuk kalimat tanya
 Jawabannya terukur
 Tersedia metode yang dapat digunakan untuk
menyelesaikannya
 Bukan pertanyaan umum yang sudah ada jawabannya
 Merupakan pertanyaan penting, paling tidak untuk pihak
tertentu
oleh Hotniar Siringoringo
Contoh :
 Berapa besar kepercayaan pemirsa terhadap iklan televisi?
 televisi sudah dapat ditemukan di mana-mana
 Setiap orang dapat menonton televisi, baik di perkotaan
maupun di pedesaan yang sangat tertinggal
 Apakah masyarakat pedesaan yang sangat tertinggal dapat
menonton televisi?
oleh Hotniar Siringoringo
Landasan Teori
 Teori terbaru dari sumber primer : jurnal
 Bukan definisi
 Teori yang akan digunakan dalam pembahasan, yang juga
menunjukkan adanya research gap
 Tidak memindahkan secara lengkap huruf dan tanda baca
dari sumbernya, tapi dituliskan menggunakan kalimat
sendiri dengan tidak mengubah artinya
oleh Hotniar Siringoringo
Landasan Teori
 Merujuk artikel yang dibaca dengan menuliskan nama dan
tahun
 Semakin banyak sumber yang dikutip untuk teori yg sama,
teori yg dikutip semakin kuat.
 Contoh :
oleh Hotniar Siringoringo
Metode Penelitian
 Harus lengkap, sistematis, dan terstruktur
 Menjelaskan bagaimana penelitian dilakukan
 Pembaca dapat mengulang penelitian persis sama
dengan yang dilakukan peneliti
 Menjelaskan data, variabel, hipotesis (bila ada), teknik
pengumpulan data (jika data primer), atau prosedur
percobaan lengkap, dan teknik analisis data.
 jenis penelitian:
 Kualitatif
 kuantitatif
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LAPORAN PENELITIAN
 Jenis-jenis laporan penelitian:
 Monograf
 Artikel ilmiah
 Laporan ringkas
 Laporan untuk administrator dan pembuat keputusan
oleh Hotniar Siringoringo
Few terms
 parole: any particular meaningful use of spoken or
written language (also called "performance")
 langue: the underlying system of sounds, forms, and
rules of combination of a language which make
meaningful communication possible (a speaker's
implicit knowledge of this system is called
"competence")
Few terms
 Principle of difference: in any language, difference
from other elements in the linguistic system, rather
than any positive property or correspondence to
something existing outside the linguistic system,
establishes identity and thus creates meaning.
 Sounds ("phonemes"): compare bag, beg, big, bog, bug
 Forms ("morphemes"): compare its and it's
 Words ("semanthemes"): compare beautiful and ugly
 Sentences ("syntax"): compare Mark loves Mary and
Mary loves Mark.
Few terms
 Sign : composed of the union of
 Signifier: sequence of sounds or marks on a page (e.g., c-h-a-ir)
 Signified: concept or meaning (idea of a chair)
This whole sign stands in an arbitrary relation to its Referent,
an externally existing object or action (the actual object on
which I am sitting); this relation exists only because it is
conventionally agreed upon within a particular language
community. Saussure felt that linguists must bracket off the
real object, direct their study away from the referent and
concentrate solely on the sign in order to fully understand the
workings of language
Structuralism Approach
 a method of enquiry, applying linguistic theory to a
wide array of objects and activities;
 heavily influenced by cultural anthropology, especially
that of Claude Lévi-Strauss, who studied myths,
kinship systems, rituals, etc.
 Interested in langue rather than parole, in particular
cultural phenomena primarily as these reveal the
structures and rules of the general system
Structuralism Approach
 Regards signifying systems as culturally variable but the
deep laws that govern these as universal, even as rooted in
unchanging structures of the human mind (e.g. the
creation of meaning through binary opposition--beautiful
vs. ugly--and the effort to find a reconciling middle term-the "ugly duckling")
 Structuralist literary critics attempt to identify the smallest
meaningful units in a work ("mythemes," "deep
structures") and study their modes of combination with a
view to understanding how meaning is created rather than
interpreting the actual meaning conveyed by the particular
text
Structuralism Approach
e.g. Vladimir Propp in Morphology of the Folk Tale identified 31
fairy tale elements (e.g., hero leaves home; hero receives warning
or prohibition; hero violates warning; villain discovers essential
information about hero; etc.) which may not all appear in every
tale but which always follow certain sequences
 A structuralist approach to The Awakening might deal with a
topic like "the nature/culture dichotomy," analyzing the
oppositions between sea/land, Grand Isle/New Orleans,
Kentucky farm childhood/Creole society adulthood,
infatuation/marriage with swimming providing a possible
middle term (social activity, bathing suits, controlled passage
from land to sea to land) which in the end fails to reconcile the
dichotomy (nakedness, land to sea to drowning)
Structuralism Approach
 Structuralists are not concerned with consumption of
literature, about what happens when people actually
read the works, about the role of literature in social
relations.
Historical Approach
 The relationship of the work to history.
 The impact of the work on history and the importance
of historical knowledge in understanding a work.
 How history and literature inform and affect each
other
Historical Approach
Charles Busha and Stephen Harter detail six steps for
conducting historical research :
1. the recognition of a historical problem or the
identification of a need for certain historical
knowledge.
2.the gathering of as much relevant information about
the problem or topic as possible.
3.if appropriate, the forming of hypothesis that
tentatively explain relationships between historical
factors.
Historical Approach
Charles Busha and Stephen Harter detail six steps for
conducting historical research :
4. The rigorous collection and organization of evidence,
and the verification of the authenticity and veracity of
information and its sources.
5.The selection, organization, and analysis of the most
pertinent collected evidence, and the drawing of
conclusions; and
6.the recording of conclusions in a meaningful narrative.
Historical Approach
Source of information :
1. Primary source (involve logic, intuition, persistence,
common sense):
 personal diaries
 eyewitness accounts of events
 oral histories
 Secondary sources
Historical Approach
Harter and Busha list three principles to consider when conducting historical
research:
a. Consider the slant or biases of the information you are working with and the
ones possessed by the historians themselves.
a. This is particularly true of qualitative research. Consider an example provided
by Gaye Tuchman:
Let us assume that women’s letters and diaries are pertinent to ones research
question and that one can locate pertinent examples. One cannot simply read
them….one must read enough examples to infer the norms of what could be
written and how it could be expressed. For instance, in the early nineteenth
century, some (primarily female) schoolteachers instructed girls in journal writing
and read their journals to do so. How would such instruction have influenced the
journals kept by these girls as adults?…it is useful to view the nineteenth-century
journal writer as an informant. Just as one tries to understand how a
contemporary informant speaks from specific social location, so too one would
want to establish the social location of the historical figure. One might ask of
these and other diaries: What is the characteristic of middle-class female diary
writers? What is the characteristic of this informant? How should one view what
this informant writes?
b. Quantitative facts may also be biased in the types of statistical data
collected or in how that information was interpreted by the researcher
Historical Approach
1. There are many factors that can contribute to
“historical episodes”.
2. Evidence should not be examined from a singular
point of view.
Historical Approach
The disadvantages of the historical method:
1. Researchers are likely to be biased in interpreting historical
sources.
2. Interpreting sources is very time consuming.
3. Computerized content analysis is costly to quantitatively analyze
-- programs of this type take large blocks of computer core time
and make analysis much more expensive than standard
statistical procedures used in evaluating survey data.
4. The sources of historical materials may well be problematic -- for
example women are more likely than men to keep diaries, not all
records are kept in consistent patterns, original authors bring
their own perspectives and biases to the interpretation of events.
5. Due to the lack of control over external variables, historical
research is very weak with regard to the demands of internal
validity.
Historical Approach
The advantages of historical analysis:
1. The historical method is unobtrusive -- the act of
research does not affect the results of the study.
2. The historical method is well suited for trend
analysis.
3. Compared to longitudinal designs, content analysis
is usually less expensive.
4. There is no possibility of researcher-subject
interaction.
Philosophical Approach
Disadvantages:
1. This approach is useful for such works as Alexander
Pope's "An Essay on Man," which does present an
obvious moral philosophy.
2.It is also useful when considering the themes of works
(for example, man's inhumanity to man in Mark
Twain's Huckleberry Finn).
3.Finally, it does not view literature merely as "art"
isolated from all moral implications; it recognizes that
literature can affect readers, whether subtly or directly,
and that the message of a work--and not just the
decorous vehicle for that message--is important.
Philosophical Approach
Advantages:
1. Detractors argue that such an approach can be too
"judgmental."
2.Some believe literature should be judged primarily (if
not solely) on its artistic merits, not its moral or
philosophical content.
Semiotics Approach
systematic study of signs and signifying systems (a field of
study which frequently uses the method of structuralism);
may treat as quasi-languages objects and activities not
immediately apparent as signs (often called "codes"; e.g.,
"gastronomic code":
 "phonemes": elements considered edible (calves' brains
but not eye of newt; snails but not insects)
 "morphemes": possible combinations of such elements
(hot fudge but not gravy on ice cream)
 "syntax": order and method of consuming these elements
(meat and potatoes before ice cream; use of fork and
spoon)
Semiotics Approach
1. Emphasis on langue rather than parole, on how meaning is
created in these signifying systems rather than on what the
particular meaning is; interested in relational aspects of
signifying systems
2. Literary semioticians are particularly interested in poetry,
which may be analyzed as foregrounding the signifier,
calling attention to its sound and appearance on the page,
etc.
3. A semiotic approach to The Awakening might deal with a
topic like "eating as sign," studying the relations of all
references to eating in the novel, analyzing these into
codes to determine their underlying system, possibly
relating them to other codes in the novel (e.g., dress).
Sociological Approach
 directed to understanding (or placing) literature in its
larger social context;
 it codifies the literary strategies that are employed to
represent social constructs through a sociological
methodology. Sociological criticism analyzes both how
the social functions in literature and how literature
works in society.
Psychological Approach
What the work tells us about the human mind.
Literature as a tool of psychoanalysis
Feminism Approach
 Feminist scholars differentiate sex from gender and
view the latter as a socially/culturally constructed
category.
 Gender is learned and performed;
 it involves the myriad and often normative meanings
given to sexual difference by various cultures.
 Feminists may differ in the importance they assign to
sex, which is a biologically based category, but the idea
that gender norms can be changed is central to feminist
theory
Feminism Approach
 Although sex/gender systems differ cross-culturally,
most known societies have used and still use
sex/gender as a key structural principle organizing
their actual and conceptual worlds, usually to the
disadvantage of women.
 Hence feminist scholars argue that gender is a crucial
category of analysis and that modes of knowledge
which do not take gender into account are partial and
incomplete.
Feminism Approach
 Feminist scholars also seek to question and transform
androcentric systems of thought which posit the male
as the norm.
 In practice this means not only revealing and
critiquing androcentric biases, but also attempting to
examine beliefs and practices from the viewpoint of
the “other,” treating women and other marginalized
groups as subjects, not merely objects.
Feminism Approach
 Feminists believe that existing inequalities between
dominant and marginalized groups can and should be
removed.
 Feminist scholarship has an acknowledged and accepted
political dimension, as opposed to the hidden political
dimension of scholarship that claims to be “neutral” and
“objective.”
 With regard to scholarship, the political goal of feminist work
is broader than simply a stronger emphasis on women,
though that is an important part of it;
 the goal is to revise our way of considering history, society,
literature, etc. so that neither male nor female is taken as
normative, but both are seen as equally conditioned by the
gender constructions of their culture (as indeed we, the
observers, are).