The Literature
Analyzing and Critiquing the
Literature
A review of literature should be integrated and critical.
 Each study should be reviewed individually, summarized
and then juxtaposed with other studies in the area
showing how this research leads to the question in your
specific research.
 The variables under study in your research should
emerge from the literature.
 The design of the study should emerge from the review
of literature.
 This chapter should lead the reader to an understanding
of how your study will contribute to the literature.

What is meta-analysis?
Meta-analysis is a statistical approach to
understanding the literature.
 Meta-analysis uses effect size statistics to
evaluate the literature.

Criticisms of Meta-analysis
Coding of the data
 Reporting of significant effects only or
lack of reporting of effects that are not
statistically significant

Descriptive Research Methods
Scientific Method
Decide on a problem
 Gather facts to refine the problem
(narrow definition is best)
 Develop hypotheses (through induction)
 Test hypotheses

Definition of Descriptive Research

Descriptive research describes the
present status of people, attitudes, and
progress.
Forms of Descriptive Research
Ex post facto (after the fact)
 Case studies
 Correlation studies
 Developmental studies
 Survey studies

Sampling Techniques

Good sampling techniques are required of
all researchers.
Population

A population is defined as all members
that are described by the characteristics
selected by the experimenter.
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All students at SJSU.
All women students at SJSU.
All Kinesiology majors.
All MA sport management students.
All students in KIN 250.
Sample

A sample is a portion of the defined
population.
Different types of Samples
Simple random sample
 Systematic sample
 Stratified sample
 Cluster sample
 Proportional sample

Simple Random Sample
Table of Random Numbers
 Choosing numbers out of a hat

Systematic Sample

Systematically selects every nth person
Stratified Sample

A stratified sample assures a random
sample, however the sample has equal
numbers within a particular characteristic.
Cluster Sample
A sample is chosen because it is difficult
to sample the entire population, e.g.,
choosing all members of a particular class
rather than individuals.
 A cluster sample is often easier and less
costly, but generalizability is limited
because of an N of 1.

Proportional Sample
Proportion out groups that you might
want in your sample.
 The proportions should be logically based
in the literature.

Ex Post Facto Research
Ex post facto research is sometimes
called causal comparative research.
 Ex post facto research is research that
takes place after the fact.
 Often ex post facto research is used to
explain something in the present from
data collected sometime in the past.

Problems with Ex Post Facto Designs
Is the cause that you hypothesize correct?
 Many causes may be interrelated or the
result of more than one variable
interacting.
 Extraneous variables may not be
accounted for.
 Participants are self-selected. What puts
them into these categories?

Case Studies
Case studies are usually an examination
into one element of a population, e.g., one
school district, one school, one research
class, one person.
 Case studies are often conducted in social
work and counseling for diagnosis and
recommendation purposes.

Case Studies
Observe – take notes on events and their
relationships by their location in time and
space.
 Subjects’ recall – personal documents,
diaries, and letters
 Measures may be physical, sociological, or
psychological

Case Studies
Must be careful about generalization
 Data are limited to one unit
 Case studies can be qualitative or
quantitative

Writing Hypotheses

Directional (H1)
◦ Physical activity program will affect body
composition such that physical activity
individuals will lose more fat than sedentary
individuals.

Null (HO)
◦ Physical activity will not affect body
composition.

Alternative
◦ Physical activity will affect body composition.

The researcher wants to accept the
directional hypothesis. The hypothesis is
accepted if the probability of finding a
statistically significant effect by chance
alone is less than 5 times in100 (p<.05).

The researcher wants to reject the null
hypothesis. The hypothesis is rejected if
the probability of finding a statistically
significant effect by chance alone is less
than 5 times in 100 (p<.05).
Hypothesis Testing
HO True
HO False
Accept
Correct decision
Type II error
Reject
Type1 error
()
Correct decision
()
•Alpha () means the probability level acceptable for
statistical significance in a study. Type I error also means
the probability of rejecting a true null hypothesis.
•Beta ()) measures the Type II error. Type II error means
the probability of accepting a false null hypothesis.
Hypothesis Testing
Directional
Null
H1 True
H1 False
HO True
HO False
Accept
Correct
decision
Type1 error
()
Correct
decision
Type II error
()
Reject
Type II error
()
Correct
decision
Type1 error
()
Correct
decision
•Alpha () means the probability level acceptable for
statistical significance in a study. Type I error also means
the probability of rejecting a true null hypothesis.
•Beta ()) measures the Type II error. Type II error means
the probability of accepting a false null hypothesis.
Correlational Studies
Correlational studies examine the
relationship between two or more
variables.
 Correlations examine how variables
covary together.

Positive Correlation
From: Rothstein, A. L. (1985). Research Design & Statistics for Physical
Education. Prentice-Hall, Inc.: Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
Types of Correlations
Pearson correlation
 Spearman correlation
 Partial correlation
 Multiple correlation
 Multiple regression

Developmental Studies

Developmental studies are concerned
with changes that take place as a function
of time.
Kinesiology

Growth and Development
◦ Physical milestones

Motor Development
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Studies of the patterns of movement
Motor learning across the lifespan
Exercise physiology across the lifespan
Biomechanics across the lifespan
Sociocultural effects across the lifespan
Types of Developmental Studies

Longitudinal studies
◦ Long term, collect data from the same subject
over a number of years

Cross sectional studies
◦ Short term, usually 6 months or less and all
data are collected
Survey Design

Surveys are used to gather extensive
amounts of information for large groups
of individuals in short time spans.
Survey Designs
Public opinion
 Attitudes
 Achievement

Educational
 Governmental
 Industrial
 Political

Survey Design

A good survey
◦ Wide scope
◦ Accuracy
◦ Ease of data collection

A bad survey
◦ Superficial
◦ Poor return rate
◦ Poor survey instruments
Things to Keep in Mind When
Creating Surveys
Define terms
 Avoid statements with double
implications
 Avoid leading questions
 Beware of double negatives

Things to Keep in Mind When
Creating Surveys
Clearly identify the survey purpose
 Outline the field of study
 Avoid overlapping questions
 Order questions in a logical format

◦ Simple to complex

Make sure questions are clear
◦ Eliminate ambiguities
◦ Eliminate all grammatical errors

Pre-code data for computation
Profile of Mood States
Bem Sex Role Inventory and the
Personality Attributes
Questionnaire


Bem (1974) constructed the Bem Sex Role
Inventory (BSRI) – It presented from 20 adjectives
viewed as desirable for men, 20 adjectives viewed as
desirable for women, and 20 gender-neutral adjectives.
Spence and Helmreich constructed the Personal
Attributes Questionnaire (PAQ).
Examples of Popular and Widely
Used Instruments
Beck Depression Inventory
 Myers Briggs Indicator
 Keirsey Temperment Sorter
 Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory
 Leadership Opinion Questionnaire
 Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale IV (WAIS IV)
 Kolb's Learning Styles Inventory
 Measures of Self-Esteem; Self Efficacy
 Dishman’s Exercise Adherence Measure

LeUnes, A.D. (2002). Bibliography on
psychological tests used in research and
practice in sport and exercise psychology.
Lewiston, N.Y. : E. Mellen Press.
 See: HaPI - Health and Psychosocial
Instruments
