Violence Prevention and Responder Safety
in Groups, Crowds, and Mobs
October 31, 2012
Steve Crimando, MA, BCETS, CTS, CHS-V
Principal, Behavioral Science Applications
Office for Victims of Crime
This project is supported by Grant No. 2010-RF-GX-K001
awarded to Fox Valley Technical College by the Office for Victims
of Crime.
The Office for Victims of Crime (OVC), along with Fox Valley
Technical College (FVTC) through a cooperative agreement with
the U.S. Department of Justice (DOJ) and the Office of Justice
Programs (OJP), will be providing a series of 12 weekly webinar
events on topics which are categorized in 3 Tracks: Planning,
Response and Post-Event.
National Criminal Justice Training Center
This webinar is being brought to you by the Fox Valley Technical
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For more information please visit www.ncjtc.org.
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do not necessarily represent the official position or policies of the U.S.
Department of Justice or Fox Valley Technical College. As well, they
may not be appropriate in all jurisdictions. Before implementing,
please check with competent legal representation.
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Violence Prevention and Responder
Safety in Groups, Crowds, and Mobs
Presented by the
Tactical Psychology Group
A Division of Behavioral Science Applications
Copyright © 2011. Behavioral Science Applications. All Rights Reserved.
8
About the Instructor
Steve Crimando, MA,
BCETS, CTS, CHS-V
Chief Instructor –Tactical Psychology Group
 Consultant/Trainer: U.S. Dept. of Homeland Security; U.S. Department
of Justice: FBI and OVC; United Nations; U.S. Military, etc.
 Board of Directors: International College of the Behavioral Sciences.
 Diplomate: National Center for Crisis Management.
 Diplomate: American Academy of Experts in Traumatic Stress.
 Board Certified Expert in Traumatic Stress (BCETS).
 Certified Trauma Specialist (CTS).
 On-scene Responder/Supervisor: ‘93 and ‘01 World Trade Center attacks;
NJ Anthrax Screening Center; TWA Flight 800; Unabomber case; Int’l
kidnappings, hostage negotiation team member; etc.
 Qualified Expert: to the courts and media on violence prevention
and response issues.
 Author: Many published articles and book chapters addressing behavioral
sciences in crisis, disaster and terrorism response.
Copyright © 2011. Behavioral Science Applications. All Rights Reserved.
9
Collective Violence:
A Growing Trend
 2011 began waves of crowd unrest on a
worldwide scale unseen for nearly three
decades.
 A new generation of activists, dissidents
and in some instances, criminals, have
rediscovered the power of collective
action.
 The advent of social media has fueled and
empowered this behavior.
Copyright © 2011. Behavioral Science Applications. All Rights Reserved.
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0
About the Program







Introduction
Potential Group, Crowd and Mob Scenarios
Understanding Groups, Crowds and Mobs
The Psychology of Crowds
The Physics of Crowds
Effective Crowd Management
Safety and Survival in Crowds and Mobs
Copyright © 2011. Behavioral Science Applications. All Rights Reserved.
1
1
Clarification
 This presentation is not intended to question
the rights of individuals and groups for
peaceful assembly.
 It is not intended to question the legitimacy of
various protest groups and their positions or
views.
 It is specifically an exploration of the behavior
of groups and crowds as they relate to
operations and safety on the job.
Copyright © 2011. Behavioral Science Applications. All Rights Reserved.
1
2
Intended Audience
Tactical Operators
 First Responders
 First Receivers
 Emergency Management
 Planners
 Decision-makers
Paramedics remove a man from
Zuccotti Park during Occupy protests.
 All disciplines involved in the tactical response
to disasters, terrorism and emergencies.
Copyright © 2011. Behavioral Science Applications. All Rights Reserved.
13
Assumptions
Across all emergency-related
disciplines, it is likely that
responders may encounter
group, crowd and mob
situations.
It is unlikely that most, if any responders have had
formal instruction related to group, crowd or mob
behavior.
Copyright © 2011. Behavioral Science Applications. All Rights Reserved.
14
Goals and Objectives
Goal:
 Improve participants’
ability to effectively
anticipate and
respond to complex
behavioral
challenges in group,
crowd and mob
situations.
Objectives:
 Form accurate
behavioral
assumptions to guide
planning, exercising
and response.
 Apply a behaviorallyinformed approach to
tactical response in
mass gathering
scenarios.
Copyright © 2011. Behavioral Science Applications. All Rights Reserved.
15
Concept of Operations
Tactical Psychology (A.K.A.: Operational
Psychology) defined:
The concepts and doctrines of clinical,
cognitive and social psychology used
for their tactical/operational value.
“In order to react successfully to a disaster, you must
understand human behavior better than anyone else
in your community.”
(McEntire, 2006 from Wiley Pathways -Introduction to Homeland Security:
Understanding Terrorism With an Emergency Management Perspective)
Copyright © 2011. Behavioral Science Applications. All Rights Reserved.
16
Why Does it Matter?
 Policies, plans and exercises must be based on
what people are most likely to do.
 An incomplete or inaccurate understanding of
human behavior in disasters or emergencies
can lead to responses that are:
 Ineffective
 Inappropriate
 Dangerous
Copyright © 2011. Behavioral Science Applications. All Rights Reserved.
17
Understanding Behavior:
Lewin’s Equation
Behavior is a Function
of Person and Environment
B=F(P,E)
Copyright © 2011. Behavioral Science Applications. All Rights Reserved.
18
Potential Group, Crowd
and Mob Scenarios
• Disasters: Katrina, Tunisia,
Algeria
• Terrorism: Tokyo sarin gas
attack
• Civil Unrest: Arab Spring,
Occupy protests, etc.)
Superdome, New Orleans, LA.
From late August 2005 following
Hurricane Katrina.
• Mass Crime: London Riots,
Flash Mobs/Flash Robs, etc.
Copyright © 2011. Behavioral Science Applications. All Rights Reserved.
19
Recent Examples:
Oakland, CA
Oakland, CA, Jan. 28, 2012:
Riot police fought running
skirmishes with anti-Wall Street
protesters on Saturday, firing tear
gas and bean bag projectiles,
arresting more than 200 people.
Three officers and at least one
demonstrator were injured.
Occupy Oakland protesters
on January 28, 2012.
Copyright © 2011. Behavioral Science Applications. All Rights Reserved.
20
Recent Events:
Cairo, Egypt
Wed. Jan. 31, 2012: Cairo, Egypt:
79 dead in violent soccer riot.
Rival fans attacked one another
with rocks and chairs. Many of
those who died fell from bleachers
inside the stadium.
Copyright © 2011. Behavioral Science Applications. All Rights Reserved.
21
Recent Events:
Athens, Greece
Athens, Greece, Feb. 12, 2012:
Dozens were arrested as
demonstrators burned and looted
buildings and stores. The protests
came as the Greek parliament
approved additional austerity
measures to get more bailout funds.
A riot police officer tries to extinguish flames from a
firebomb thrown by a protester outside the Greek
parliament in Athens.
Copyright © 2011. Behavioral Science Applications. All Rights Reserved.
22
Recent Events:
Anaheim, CA
Four nights of rioting in
Anaheim following two backto-back Officer-involved
Shooting incidents damaged
and closed local business and
brought protestors to the
gates of Disneyland.
Copyright © 2011. Behavioral Science Applications. All Rights Reserved.
23
Middle East & North Africa
September 2012
Anti-American riots in the Middle
East and North Africa erupted
over a micro-budget, anti-Islamic
film created by amateur
moviemakers resulted in death
and destruction.
Copyright © 2011. Behavioral Science Applications. All Rights Reserved.
24
Three Key Concepts
1. Disasters can create
dangerous crowds.
2. Crowds can
create disasters.
can
3. Not all crowds are violent,
but all crowds are dangerous.
:London. July 2011.
Copyright © 2011. Behavioral Science Applications. All Rights Reserved.
25
Sources of Danger
Psychological
Forces
Physiological
Forces
There are well documented psychological and
physiological forces at work in large crowds that raise risks
of harm.
Some crowds or mobs set out specifically to cause harm.
Copyright © 2011. Behavioral Science Applications. All Rights Reserved.
26
General Behavioral
Response Types
 Type I: Neighbor-helps-neighbor.
 Type II: Neighbor-fears-neighbor.
 Type III: Neighbor-competes-withneighbor.
 Emergency planners typically count on a
Type I behavioral response.
 Consider Katrina and anticipated pandemic
responses…
Copyright © 2011. Behavioral Science Applications. All Rights Reserved.
27
Panic in Emergencies
Panic is related to the perception that
there is a limited opportunity for
escape, a high-risk of being injured or
killed, or that help or supplies will only
be available to the very first people
who seek it.
Panic is unlikely
in most disaster scenarios.
Copyright © 2011. Behavioral Science Applications. All Rights Reserved.
28
Perception of Limited
Opportunity for Escape
August 31, 2005. Baghdad:
At least 965 Iraqis were crushed to
death or drowned in a stampede
on a Baghdad bridge as vast
crowds of Shiite pilgrims were sent
into panic by rumors of suicide
bombers in their midst.
Copyright © 2011. Behavioral Science Applications. All Rights Reserved.
29
The Foundations of
Group, Crowd & Mob Behavior
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30
Examples of Collective Behavior
Labor Actions/Protests
Entertainment/Sporting Events
Shopping
Religious Events/Festivals
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31
The Love Parade:
21 Killed
July 24, 2010 - Duisburg, Germany:
1.4 million people tried to attend
the ”Love Parade” techno-music
festival. When the crowd surged
into a narrow tunnel leading into
the show grounds, panic ensued
and fans were crushed to death
as they approached a security
checkpoint to the event that had
been closed.
21 killed, 342 injured as crowd
panics at German music
festival.
Copyright © 2011. Behavioral Science Applications. All Rights Reserved.
32
Today@6pm in Hollywood @Mann's
Chinese Theatre. ME+BIG
SPEAKERS+MUSIC=BLOCK PARTY!!! RT!
Tweet from DJ Kaskade
Los Angeles:
July 2011
The unruly “flash mob” that
brought police in riot gear
to Hollywood’s Grauman’s
Chinese Theater spotlights
growing concerns being
raised about the
phenomenon of
spontaneous, socialmedia-driven gatherings
that turn from celebratory
to destructive.
Copyright © 2011. Behavioral Science Applications. All Rights Reserved.
 In the past several years, the
term "flash mob" has morphed
into something altogether
different from its original
meaning.
 The first ever flash mobs took the
form of "National Pillow Fight
Day", and a "silent disco."
 Today, "flash mob" is a term for
groups of youth who organize
via social media and set out to
terrorize and traumatize their
home city.
Copyright © 2011. Behavioral Science Applications. All Rights Reserved.
New York, March 2008
Flash Mob:
An Evolving Term
London, Aug. 2011
33
34
Philadelphia:
March 2011
At least two people were
seriously assaulted as hundreds
of people gathered on South
Street during coordinated flash
mob.
“Flash mobs“ involve packs of
dozens or even hundreds of
youths who appear seemingly
out of nowhere causing
violence.
Copyright © 2011. Behavioral Science Applications. All Rights Reserved.
35
Chicago:
June 2011
 Chicago police warned residents and
passersby to be aware of traveling mobs of
teenagers who use the CTA and cell
phones to meet up in the Near North Side
area to commit crimes and attack
pedestrians.
 Other flash mob incidents in Chicago
include youths storming a McDonald's,
forcing it to close for three hours.
Copyright © 2011. Behavioral Science Applications. All Rights Reserved.
Young man
randomly beaten
by a flash mob in
Chicago.
36
Flash Rob:
Multiple Offender Crimes
 Multiple offender crime groups
engage in “grab-and-run” scenarios
where offenders quickly enter stores
and target specific merchandise –
such as high-end handbags, jewelry
and designer clothing.
 (79%) of retailers report being a victim
of a multiple offender crime, with
some of these incidents (10%)
involving flash mob tactics.
(NRF, 2011)
Copyright © 2011. Behavioral Science Applications. All Rights Reserved.
37
London:
August 2011
The riots, which were sparked
by the shooting of a suspect
by police in North London,
turned into an opportunity for
violence, looting and arson.
Five people lost their lives
and hundreds were injured.
The damage has been
estimated at £200m.
Copyright © 2011. Behavioral Science Applications. All Rights Reserved.
38
Flash Mobs Go Violent:
Criminals Used Social Media to Organize
Fights, Robberies and Chaos
One looter's text message before the violence spread
read:
"If you're down for making money, we're about
to go hard in east London."
Copyright © 2011. Behavioral Science Applications. All Rights Reserved.
39
Flash Mobs Go Violent:
London Riots, Aug. 2011
• 37% of UK youth between 16-24 y.o., use
Blackberries.
• Via the secure, private Blackberry Messenger
network, messages can be “broadcast” to an
entire address book with a single command.
• Messages shared photos of the riots and
coordinated locations to stay ahead of police.
“Everyone in edmonton enfield everywhere in north, link
up at enfield town station at 4 o clock sharp!!! [Bring
cars, vans and also hammers]. Link up and cause havic,
just rob everything. Police can’t stop it.”
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40
London Riot:
Commuters
 Of 165 people arrested in
Enfield Town, only 60% where
from the immediate area.
 40% commuted in, often from
an hour or more away, to
participate in the riots.
The streets did not spontaneously
erupt in violence. Rioting and looting
were highly coordinated.
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41
Defining Groups, Crowds & Mobs
Part of the crowd at the G20
“Meltdown” protest in London in April 2009.
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42
Defining Groups
A group is a small number of persons
temporarily congregated. Groups
may be families, friends, neighbors,
but usually have pre-existing bonds
and a standing loyalty, commitment
and reason to protect each other.
Key Features:
Pre-existing bond; Loyalty
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43
Defining Crowds
A crowd is a large number of
persons temporarily
congregated. Generally, the
members of a crowd think
and act as individuals and
are without organization.
Key Features:
Maintain individuality; No leadership.
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44
Types of Crowds:
Casual & Cohesive
 Casual crowds: No purpose or
unity, no leader (i.e., shoppers,
onlookers, etc.)
 Cohesive Crowds: Usually
assemble for a common
purpose, without leadership (i.e.,
sporting events, parades, etc.)
Key Features:
Lack leadership; May be emotional.
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45
Types of Crowds:
Expressive
Expressive Crowds: Assemble
for some clear purpose.
Have leadership. Expressing
anger or attitude against a
person or idea (Political
rallies, picket lines, etc.)
Key Features:
Have leadership; Emotional and/or angry.
Copyright © 2011. Behavioral Science Applications. All Rights Reserved.
46
Types of Crowds:
Aggressive
Aggressive Crowds: Usually assembled for
a purpose. Have leadership, determined
to achieve a specific end, move toward
their objective, high emotional tension,
can easily become a mob.
Wisconsin Public
Worker s
demonstrate,
February 2011.
Key Features:
Have a specific objective;
High emotional tension.
Copyright © 2011. Behavioral Science Applications. All Rights Reserved.
47
Flashpoints:
How Crowds Become Mobs
Flashpoint Factors
Source: Waddington et al
1. Denial of access.
2. Perceived breech of rules.
3. Perceived abridgement of
rights.
4. Lack of organization.
5. Excessive or inappropriate use
of force.
6. Unwillingness to obey rules.
Copyright © 2011. Behavioral Science Applications. All Rights Reserved.
48
Defining Mobs
A crowd develops into a mob
when all or most of its members
have been instilled with a
purpose and intent to carry out
that purpose regardless of the
consequences.
Key Features:
A strong sense of purpose; Willing to risk arrest,
injury, death and destruction.
Copyright © 2011. Behavioral Science Applications. All Rights Reserved.
49
Types of Mobs
Mobs may be classified as:
 Aggressive Mobs: An aggressive
mob riots and terrorizes, as in the
case of race riots, lynching,
political riots, or prison riots.
 Escape Mob: A mob in a state of
panic. In their attempt to secure
safety by flight, members may
lose their power of reasoning.
 Acquisitive Mob: A mob
motivated by a desire to acquire
something (i.e., food, water,
concert seats, new product
releases, etc.)
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Case Study
Occupy Wall Street
Copyright © 2011. Behavioral Science Applications. All Rights Reserved.
51
OWS 101
 Initially conceived in July 2011,
launched in September 2011.
 Focused on economic
inequality and injustice,
capitalism and corruption.
 Early success in New York City
was the impetus for the
movement throughout the U.S.
and beyond.
 Fueled by social media and
web-based “affinity groups.”
Copyright © 2011. Behavioral Science Applications. All Rights Reserved.
52
OWS 101
(Cont.)
 Began as a peaceful, nonviolent campaign.
 September 17, 2011, 1,000
people marched in Manhattan.
 First occupied Zuccotti Park in
NYC’s financial district.
 Park attendance averaged
about 500 during the day, 250
staying overnight.
Copyright © 2011. Behavioral Science Applications. All Rights Reserved.
53
“Occupy” Tactics
In addition to camping out,
protestors used a variety of tactics
including:
• Dramatic forced arrests
• Chants, instruments
• Signs and banners
• Web-based attacks
– Denial of Service attacks
– Defacing public-facing websites
Forced arrests and baiting police
create useful “photo ops” for the
movement, as pictures and videos
captured on the streets were quickly
posted to the web and went viral.
Copyright © 2011. Behavioral Science Applications. All Rights Reserved.
Crowd Violence
Potential
The two key factors that fuel the potential for
violence in crowds:
Legitimacy-the extent to which the crowd feels that
the police and the whole social order still deserves to
be obeyed, or that violence is justified.
Power- the perception within the crowd that it has
the ability to do what it wants, to take to the streets
without fear of punishment, to create social change.
54
James Hoggett, Clifford Stott, (2010) "Crowd psychology, public order police training and the policing
of football crowds", Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, Vol. 33 Iss:
2, pp.218 - 235
Copyright © 2011. Behavioral Science Applications. All Rights Reserved.
55
Projection of Power
Take credit for all positive actions:




Mortgage industry overhaul.
Refuse to leave parks/camps.
Reversal of $5 ATM fees.
Relocation of the G8.
 Time’s “Person of the
Year.”
Copyright © 2011. Behavioral Science Applications. All Rights Reserved.
56
Non-Violent &
“Not Nonviolent” Tactics
 Known as the “St. Paul
Principles,” the solidarity of the
movement is based on
respect for a diversity of
tactics and the plans of all
groups participating.
 This allows for both the use of
non-violent and “not-nonviolent actions.”
Copyright © 2011. Behavioral Science Applications. All Rights Reserved.
57
Understanding Black Bloc
Copyright © 2011. Behavioral Science Applications. All Rights Reserved.
58
Understanding Blac Bloc:
A Tactic, not a Group
Tools
Uniform
 Black hooded
sweatshirt
 Black Military
Style cargo
pants
 Ski mask
 Bandana
 Gas mask
 Helmet
Slingshot
Smoke bombs
Spray cans
Rope and
marbles
 Clubs and
projectiles




Copyright © 2011. Behavioral Science Applications. All Rights Reserved.
59
Black Bloc Tactics:
Unarresting
“Unarresting” is the known Black
Bloc tactic of pulling a fellow
protestor back from police control
and sweeping them back into the
crowd where they can not be
identified or rearrested.
Occupy protestors pulling a
fellow protestor back from police.
Copyright © 2011. Behavioral Science Applications. All Rights Reserved.
60
The Philosophy of Anarchism
Radical offshoot of socialism
that attempted to use
“propaganda of the deed” to
spread anti-capitalist and antimonarchist ideology.
In several different anarchist philosophies
there is the idea that no social change is
possible without violence.
Copyright © 2011. Behavioral Science Applications. All Rights Reserved.
61
Anarchism:
Key Concepts
The logo
says it all.
Opposed to any structure that is
hierarchical, coercive or
authoritarian:
 Most governments
 Organized religion
 The military
 Courts & prisons
 Both capitalism and Soviet-style
communism
Copyright © 2011. Behavioral Science Applications. All Rights Reserved.
62
The Psychology of Crowds
Copyright © 2011. Behavioral Science Applications. All Rights Reserved.
63
Behavioral Factors in Crowds
Understanding the psychosocial factors in a crowd is
essential to crowd
management, safety and
security.
Anonymity: Feeling lost in the
crowd, cannot be identified,
therefore, lose responsibility for
their actions.
New York: On September 20,
2011, five protestors were
arrested and charged under
an obscure, 150-year-old
statute that bans masked
gatherings.
Copyright © 2011. Behavioral Science Applications. All Rights Reserved.
64
Behavioral Factors in Crowds
(cont.)
 Universality: Everyone is doing it, members feel
attitudes and emotions shared by the group.
 Inability to withdraw: Being afraid to express a
view contrary to those in the majority.
 Convergence: Group driven by shared needed
and view of resolution.
Copyright © 2011. Behavioral Science Applications. All Rights Reserved.
65
Other Behavioral Factors
 Social Suggestion: Urge to do what
others are doing, usually when
there is a common denominator
(same boat).
 Contagion: Collective behavior
and thought where excitement is
transmitted from on person to
another. Provides the crowd with
psychological unity, can become
a mob.
Copyright © 2011. Behavioral Science Applications. All Rights Reserved.
66
The Physics of Crowds
The Hajj. Mecca, Saudi Arabia.
2010 Attendance: Approx. 3.4 million pilgrims
Copyright © 2011. Behavioral Science Applications. All Rights Reserved.
The Physics of Crowds
 It is difficult to describe the psychological and
physiological pressures within crowds at
maximum density.
 When crowd density equals the plan area of the
human body, individual control is lost, as one
becomes an involuntary part of a dynamic mass.
 At a density of about 7 people per square yard
the crowd becomes almost a fluid mass.
Fruin, 1993 & 2002.
Copyright © 2011. Behavioral Science Applications. All Rights Reserved.
68
Crowd Dynamics
Crowding, stampeding,
trampling, and suffocating with
no avenue of escape is the
number one cause of multiple
injuries and death by human
hands in group settings.
Forces sufficient to cause compressional asphyxiation
become more dynamic as people push off against
each other and hard surfaces to obtain breathing
room.
Copyright © 2011. Behavioral Science Applications. All Rights Reserved.
Crowd Crush
69
 People need at least 1 square yard
of space each to control their
movements.
 Most people who die in crowds die
from asphyxiation while standing
upright, not from trampling.
 The compounded force of 5 people
crushing in can kill a person.
November 2010. A crowd of
Cambodians is pushed onto a bridge
on the last day of water festival
celebrations.
349 people were killed and 429
injured as a panic-stricken crowd
tried to flee over a narrow bridge.
 Humans can lose consciousness
after being compressed for just 30
seconds, can be brain dead within
6 minutes.
 Most die without ever falling down.
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70
The F.I.S.T. Model
A model for understanding the
causes of crowd disasters, means
of prevention, and possible
mitigation of an ongoing crowd
incident.
The elements of the model form the acronym "FIST",
which is a useful reminder that any crowd situation can
quickly become threatening and potentially lethal.
(Originally presented at the First International Conference on Engineering for Crowd Safety,
London, England, March 1993. Revised exclusively for crowdsafe.com, January 2002.)
Copyright © 2011. Behavioral Science Applications. All Rights Reserved.
71
The F.I.S.T. Model
F.I.S.T.
(Cont.)
 Force (F): Crowd forces can reach levels that almost
impossible to resist or control.
 Information (I): Information has many forms, including the
sights and sounds affecting group perceptions, public
address announcements, training and actions of
personnel and signage. Also rumors and information
communicated via social media.
 Space (S): The configuration, capacity, and traffic
capabilities, including standing and seating areas,
projected occupancies, working capacities of corridors,
ramps, stairs, doors, escalators, and elevators.
 Time (T): Duration of the event, peak times, entry and exit
times, etc.
Copyright © 2011. Behavioral Science Applications. All Rights Reserved.
72
The Physics of Crowds:
Force
One study showed that under
a simulated "panic", 5 persons
were capable of developing a
vertical pressure of 766 lbs.
(3430 N).
In one soccer stadium incident, people ended up
piled on top of each other 10 feet deep, creating a
horizontal pressure of 800-900 lbs. (3600-4000 N).
Horizontal Loading on Handrails. NBTC Tech. Rec 514, Nat.Tech. Centre, New South Wales.
Copyright © 2011. Behavioral Science Applications. All Rights Reserved.
The Physics of Crowds:
Force
73
(Cont.)
 Shock waves can move through a crowd with
sufficient power to lift people off of their feet.
 People can be lifted out of their shoes, and have
clothing torn off.
 Intense crowd pressures, exacerbated by anxiety,
make it difficult to breathe.
 The heat and thermal insulation of surrounding
bodies cause some to be weakened and faint.
 Access to those who fall is impossible.
Fruin, 1993 & 2002.
Copyright © 2011. Behavioral Science Applications. All Rights Reserved.
74
Case Study:
The Hajj
 The Hajj (Arabic: ‫ حج‬Ḥaǧǧ) is a pilgrimage to
Mecca. It is the largest annual pilgrimage
in the world.
 It is an obligation that must be carried out
at least once in their lifetime by every ablebodied Muslim who can afford to do so.
The Hajj is a demonstration of the solidarity of the Muslim
people, and their submission to Allah.
In the past two decades more than 2, 500 people have
been killed in stampedes at the Hajj. 1,426 in one stampede
alone.
Copyright © 2011. Behavioral Science Applications. All Rights Reserved.
75
What are the Odds
of a Crowd Crush?
(Where (xi,yi) is the position of the ith person in the crowd, Θi is the
angle of their heading, p(x) is the probability of x, and p(x,y) is the
probability of both x and y.)
or, as Mark Twain said, “It is better to be
careful 100 times than to get killed once.”
Copyright © 2011. Behavioral Science Applications. All Rights Reserved.
76
Safety & Survival in Crowds
What Every Responder Should Know
Copyright © 2011. Behavioral Science Applications. All Rights Reserved.
77
Training
Those expected to work
in potential group or
crowd environments
require pre-deployment
training and situational
updates:
 Crowd safety concepts and
survival techniques.
 Site maps/routes of escape.
 Escalation ladder and POC
for problem resolution.
 Communications tools and
protocols.
 ICS/Supervisory structure for
support.
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Other Considerations
• Maintain viable routes of ingress and egress.
• Utilize separate entrances and exits for
operators/responders.
• Identify methods of communication
between team members/leadership, etc.
• Discuss thresholds for law enforcement
engagement.
• Establish plans for staff reunification.
• Consider preservation of evidence.
Copyright © 2011. Behavioral Science Applications. All Rights Reserved.
79
Critical Points for Leaders
1. Have a practiced plan.
2. Possess shared skills.
3. Don’t intervene until you are
ready.
4. Don’t act out of emotion.
5. Coordinate actions.
6. Act decisively, but with
restraint.
Adapted from, SWAT Officer Dan
Marcou, Police One.com News.
12/08/11
Copyright © 2011. Behavioral Science Applications. All Rights Reserved.
80
Responder Conduct:
Courtesy
Regardless of the individual or group
tone, stay calm, courteous and
professional at all time.
If you are losing the ability to do so,
back out, consult your supervisor.
Avoid escalating the crowd.
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81
Responder Conduct:
Stay Neutral
 Don’t get hooked by
provocations.
 Never use profanity.
 Don’t express your personal
opinions.
 Don’t take it personally.
Don’t let anyone pull you out of your professional role.
Remember, protesters may be baiting you for that
“photo op.”
Copyright © 2011. Behavioral Science Applications. All Rights Reserved.
Responder Conduct:
Proper Body Language
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Congruence: Verbal and
non-verbal messages must
match and reinforce each
other.
 Present as calm, cool,
professional and in control.
 Project an air of confidence.
 Look people in the eye and
speak in a clear voice.
 Walk with purposeful stride.
 Project that you are part of a
team, not a solo operator.
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83
What Every Responder
Should Know
 Carry a cell phone, ID and small
flashlight.
 Wear comfortable shoes with little
or no heel; double tie laces to
avoid tripping.
 Avoid wearing clothing and
accessories that may prove
dangerous, such as long jewelry or
neck ties that can become
tangled or pulled.
 Try to stay outside of the crowd;
walk around crowds, not through
them.
Copyright © 2011. Behavioral Science Applications. All Rights Reserved.
84
What Every Responder
Should Know
(Cont.)
• If the crowd taunts or insults you, don’t respond,
just move on; Don’t engage or take the bait.
• Don’t stop or stand near temporary structures
which could collapse under the weight of a
crowd.
• Don’t stand near or against immovable objects,
such as walls, doors or barricades, which would
limit your options for escape or increase the risk
of being crushed.
Copyright © 2011. Behavioral Science Applications. All Rights Reserved.
85
What Every Responder
Should Know
 If you are caught up in the middle of a
crowd, DON’T STAND STILL OR SIT
DOWN! Keep moving in the direction
of the crowd and slowly work your way
diagonally across the crowd to the
outside where the flow is weaker.
 If you have dropped an item, unless it
is critical, don’t try to pick it up.
Bending or getting your fingers
stepped on or trapped will increase
your risk of being pushed to the
ground.
Just like breaking free from a
rip tide in the ocean, move
diagonally across the crowd,
not with it, not against it.
Copyright © 2011. Behavioral Science Applications. All Rights Reserved.
86
What Every Responder
Should Know
• If you fall or are pushed down, try to get back to your
feet as quickly as possible; If someone is willing and able,
extend an arm and ask for help getting back to your
feet.
• If you can’t get up, keep moving! Crawl in the direction
of the crowd until you can get back up.
• If you cannot get up at all, curl up in a ball to create an
air pocket and cover your head. Keep your back facing
up, protecting your head and face with your hands and
arms.
• Crowds tend to surge and pulse. Wait for a lull in the
pressure or flow to try to get back to your feet.
Copyright © 2011. Behavioral Science Applications. All Rights Reserved.
87
Closing Comments
 Most mass gatherings are
peaceful.
 What you learned today is that
even peaceful gatherings can
represent threats to operator
safety and operational security.
 Like all job-related risks, it is
important that both individual
operators and their leadership
have a clear understanding of the
risks associated with large crowds
and the proper awareness and
skills to operate safely and
effectively in these environments.
Copyright © 2011. Behavioral Science Applications. All Rights Reserved.
88
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89
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