Race and Social Justice in U.S. History Terms Definitions
1. Great Awakening – religious movement that questioned the authority of Old Light
preachers. Helped lay the foundation for the American Revolution by undermining
traditional beliefs concerning authority.
2. Mercantilism – Economic theory that argues that a country should try to increase its
wealth by exporting more goods than imported. To achieve this a country should obtain
colonies.
3. Declaration of Independence – this document achieved two goals: one, it outlined the
American understanding of natural rights. Two, it summarized the reasons the American
colonies should proclaim freedom from Great Britain.
4. Constitution – followed the failures of the Articles of Confederation. Outlined a
system of government that balanced power between state and national powers.
5. Checks & Balances – means by which the different powers of government could use
power, but also exercise oversight over other branches of government.
6. Federal Naturalization Law of 1790 – early law that outlined the process of becoming
a citizen in the U.S. Set the standard that citizenship would be reserved for “white”
people.
7. Bill of Rights – part of the Constitution which outlines basic natural rights shared by
all citizens.
8. Amendments – outlined in Article V of the Constitution. This allows the Constitution
to be changed and stay current.
9. Judicial Review – process by which the Supreme Court can uphold or overturn state or
national laws. Established by Marbury v. Madison.
10. Missouri Compromise – early compromise over the balance of free and slave states.
Also set the 36º 30’ line above which slavery couldn’t exist.
11. Trail of Tears – Showed that no matter how much Native Americans assimilated, the
United States government would still remove them from their ancestral lands to less
desirable areas.
12. Abolitionism – argued for an immediate end to slavery on moral grounds; it was
wrong to keep another person in bondage.
13. Fugitive Slave Law – one result of the Compromise of 1850. Made it much easier
for Southerners to return runaway slaves (or any blacks for that matter) to slavery.
14. Dred Scott Decision – referred to slaves as property that had no rights the white man
was bound to respect. Opened the possibility for Southerners to take slaves anywhere in
the U.S.
15. Gettysburg Address – reminded Americans that the United States was “conceived in
liberty and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal.” This helped lead
later to the 13th amendment.
16. Emancipation Proclamation – originally this was part of Lincoln’s Civil War
strategy. This freed slaves in Confederate held territory but left slavery intact in border
states, or areas supportive of the North.
17. Sea Island Experiments – set forth by Field Order #15. Declared that land seized on
the coast of Georgia and South Carolina would be set aside for freed blacks. Later, this
order was rescinded.
18. Freedman’s Bureau – given the task of feeding, clothing, finding jobs, and providing
justice for freed blacks after the Civil War.
19. Ku Klux Klan – attacked African Americans and white Republicans in the South.
Their aim was to keep these groups from the voting booths and thereby regain power for
white Democrats.
20. Fourteenth Amendment – attempt to provide equal civil rights for African Americans
after the Civil War. It’s early interpretation focused on business rights.
21. U.S. v. Reese - upheld the use of literacy tests, grandfather clauses and poll taxes
because they didn’t restrict voting based on race, color or previous condition of servitude.
22. Sharecropping – system of farming where the farmer gives a portion of the crop to
the landowner in exchange for use of land.
23. Compromise of 1877 – agreement between the North and South that allowed
Rutherford Hayes to ascend to the Presidency. The most important part of the agreement
was the decision to remove military troops from the South.
24. Jim Crow – system by which segregation legally existed in the South in nearly all
facilities.
25. “Birth of a Nation” – D.W. Griffith’s epic film that highlighted the stereotypes of
African Americans as stupid, lazy, and lustful.
26. Atlanta Compromise – speech given by Booker T. Washington in which he called for
a patient approach by blacks to civil rights. Instead they should focus on proving
economic worth.
27. N.A.A.C.P. – created in 1909; its purpose was to fight for civil rights for African
Americans by challenging segregation and other civil rights abuses in the courts.
28. Social Darwinism – survival of the fittest for human beings.
29. Lewis Hine – took thousands of photographs documenting child labor. His efforts
later led to the Keating-Owen Act.
30. American Federation of Labor (AFL) – one of the United States’ early unions. It
focused on basic issues facing workers – higher wages, safer working conditions, and
shorter work days.
31. Pullman Strike – conflict between workers and employers – the U.S. government
sent in troops to restore order. Showed that the government would side with businesses.
32. Exodusters – term given to African Americans who fled the South and settled in the
West – specifically Kansas.
33. Reservations - land which the federal government set aside for Native Americans.
One of the ways the government sought to “solve” the Indian problem.
34. Dawes Act - 1887 law that divided Native American land into private family plots.
Government’s attempt to assimilate Native Americans into American life.
35. Massacre at Wounded Knee - 1890 shooting by army troops of a group of unarmed
Sioux. Marked the end of any widespread resistance of Native Americans to the U.S.
government.
36. Bonanza Farms - Farms controlled by a large business and managed by
professionals. These large farms grew at the expense of the small farmer.
37. Buffalo Bill - Created Wild West shows that contributed to frontier myths.
38. Ethnic Communities - many immigrants were attracted to these areas because they
could live among their own people, speak similar languages, and have an easier time
getting used to life in the United States.
39. Gentlemen’s Agreement - Similar to the Chinese Exclusion Act, this called for the
end to Japanese immigration to the U.S. In return the United States agreed to end the
segregation of Japanese students.
40. Angel Island – point of entry for immigrants coming to the U.S. from Asian
countries. Many immigrants were detained here until it was determined they were either
legal immigrants or deported.
41. Settlement House - Community center organized to provide various services to
immigrants.
42. Yellow Journalism - Type of newspaper coverage that emphasized sensational stories
of crime and scandal. Used these hyped stories to increase newspaper circulation.
43. Plessey vs. Ferguson - Court case which legalized segregation and by doing so
established that the rule of “separate but equal” was constitutional.
44. Filipino War - 1899-1903 conflict in which the U.S. fought to keep these islands
from becoming independent.
45. Roosevelt Corollary - 1904 extension of the Monroe Doctrine in which the President
asserted the right of the United States to intervene in Latin American nations to ensure
stability in the Western hemisphere.
46. Panama Canal - This allowed the United States to have better access to colonies in
both the Pacific and Atlantic oceans. In addition, it allowed for easier trade around the
world and helped make the U.S. a dominant world economic power.
47. Anti-Imperialist League - Group of well-to-do professionals who disagreed with the
U.S. expansionism in the late 19th century. They specifically disagreed with America’s
involvement in the Philippines.
48. Eugenics – movement in the United States to control the hereditary makeup of
people in the country. Led to calls for immigration reform, and in extreme cases
sterilization.
49. Coal Strike of 1902 - United Mine Workers called a strike to protest low wages.
Teddy Roosevelt acted as a neutral third party between the union and the owners. 1st
example of federal government supporting labor.
50. John Muir – early preservationist who called for American land to be preserved as
national parks.
51. Alice Paul – revitalized the women’s suffrage movement by focusing more on direct
action. Organized parades and hunger strikes designed to demand the right to vote.
52. Buchanan v. Warley – outlawed segregation in residential areas. One of the early
successes of the NAACP.
53. Committee on Public Information – organized propaganda during WWI. Meant to
persuade Americans to support war bond, food controls, and hatred against Germany.
54. League of Nations - International organization, formed after World War I, which
aimed to promote security and peace for all members.
55. Daylight Savings Time - Created during WWI to save electricity.
56. Palmer Raids - during this, the Attorney General rounded up several hundred suspected
communists. Done to ease the fears of Americans during the "red scare" of the 1920s.
57. National Origins Act - Created to limit immigration from Southern and Eastern Europe.
Created, in part, due to the “science” of eugenics.
58. American Civil Liberties Union – Created in the 1920s. Uses the courts to protect
many of the freedoms listed in the Bill of Rights.
59. Flapper - Term coined during the 1920s to describe a young woman with a fondness
for dancing and brash actions.
60. Rosewood – This entire town was destroyed after a woman accused a black man of
raping her.
61. Lost Generation - Group of writers of the 1920s who shared the belief that they were
adrift in a greedy, materialistic world that lacked moral values
62. Harlem Renaissance - African American cultural awakening of the 1920s – blacks
made contributions in art, literature and music.
63. Scopes Monkey Trial - 1925 court case in Tennessee that focused on the issue of
teaching evolution in public schools
64. Marcus Garvey - African American leader from 1919 to 1926 who urged African
Americans to return to their “motherland” of Africa; provided early inspiration for “black
pride” movements.
65. Buck v. Bell – stated that sterilization of the mentally disabled was constitutional
because states had an interest in providing "for the protection and health of the state."
66. Hoovervilles - Makeshift shelters of the homeless during the early years of the Great
Depression.
67. Bonus Army - Group of World War I veterans and their families who in 1932
protested in Washington, D.C., to receive their pensions early
68. Eleanor Roosevelt - Major activist, especially during the Depression, who advocated
for equal treatment for African Americans, women, and the poor.
69. Repatriation - Forced deportation during the great depression of hundreds of
thousands Mexicans, many of whom were American citizens.
70. Wagner Act - Gave workers the right to collective bargaining and the right to create
unions without the interference of employers.
71. Southern Tenant Farmers Union - Organization made up of white and black
sharecroppers who fought for fair treatment after the Agricultural Adjustment
Administration paid owners of land to cut production.
72. WPA - Gave the unemployed work in building construction and arts programs
73. Demagogue - A leader who manipulates people through such means as half-truths
and scare tactics.
74. Executive Order 8802 - Declared there would be no discrimination in government
employment due to race, color, creed or national origin. one of the first civil rights
agencies was created to enforce this.
75. Manhattan Project - The American program to build an atomic bomb, created in
response to the fear that the Nazis were creating one.
76. “Rosie the Riveter” - A symbol used during World War II to encourage and celebrate
women in the work force.
77. Tuskegee Airmen - The first all black air force division created during World War II.
Originally kept out of the war, they eventually fought with distinction over the skies of
Europe.
78. Henry Kaiser – Industrialist who revolutioned shipping production techniques during
WWII. Also created a health insurance group for his workers.
79. Zoot Suit Riots - uprisings that erupted in Los Angeles, California during World War
II, between sailors and soldiers stationed in the city and Hispanic youths.
80. West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette – stated that the First
Amendment protected a person’s right to not recite the Pledge of Allegiance or salute the
American flag.
81. Korematsu vs.U.S. - upheld the internment of Japanese-American during World War
II. Internment had been authorized by Executive Order 9066
82. Port Chicago An explosion occurred here and most of the dead and injured were
African American recruits. The continuing unsafe conditions even after the disaster
resulted in a number of African-American servicemen refusing to work.
83. HUAC - Congressional committee that investigated Communist influence in the
United States in the 1940’s and 1950’s. This fear of communism would reappear in the
early 50’s during the Age of McCarthyism.
84. Executive Order 9981 – Signed by President Truman, this established equality of
treatment and opportunity in the Armed Services for people of all races, religions, or
national origins.
85. Interstate Highway Act – supported by President Eisenhower as a key to the U.S.
military. This would allow the easy transportation of troops and weapons.
86. Brinkmanship - Policy of using the threat of nuclear war in order to protect national
interests
87. Sputnik - First artificial satellite to orbit Earth, launched by the Soviet Union in
1957. The U.S. responded by creating NASA and the National Defense Education Act.
88. “I Love Lucy” - Signaled the significance of television. Also showed women in new
roles – not just as mothers. Americans adjusted their schedules to make sure they
wouldn’t miss this.
89. GI Bill - Law passed in 1944 that helped returning WWII veterans buy homes and
pay for college.
90. Beat Generation - Group highlighted by writers and artists who stressed spontaneity
and spirituality instead of apathy and conformity.
91. Doll Test – The results of this were used during the arguments of Brown v. Board of
Education to prove the negative impacts of the policy of “separate but equal” on black
children.
92. Great Society - President Lyndon Johnson’s proposals to aid public education,
provide medical care for the elderly, and eliminate poverty.
93. Cuban Missile Crisis - Near-disaster in October 1962 that arose between the United
States and the Soviet Union over a Soviet attempt to deploy nuclear weapons 90 miles off
the coast of Florida.
94. Peace Corps - Federal program established to send volunteers to help developing
nations around the world
95. Alliance for Progress - President Kennedy’s proposal for financial aid to Latin
American nations to help meet the basic needs of their people. Intended to stop
communism from spreading to these areas.
96. SCLC - Civil rights organization formed in 1957 by Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., and
other leaders
97. SNCC - Student civil rights organization founded in 1960. Used sit-ins as a protest
method.
98. Civil Rights Act of 1964 - Prohibited discrimination in public facilities, in
government, and in employment, thereby invalidating the Jim Crow laws in the southern
US.
99. Freedom Summer - This occurred in 1964; leaders of the major civil rights groups
organized this - a voter registration drive in Mississippi.
100. Loving v. Virginia – declared that any race-based marriage restrictions were
unconstitutional.
101. Malcolm X - civil rights leader during 1950s and 1960s; Spoke for using all means
of resistance, including self-defense; assassinated in 1965
102. Black Power - Movement which sought to instill its community with the concepts
unity, self-reliance, and cultural awareness. Struck fear into some Americans who saw
this movement as one which advocated only violence.
103. Cesar Chavez - organized the United Farm Workers (UFW) to help migratory farm
workers gain better pay and working conditions
104. AIM - Organization formed in 1968 to help Native Americans – focused on
documenting police brutality, and improving conditions on reservations.
105. Ho Chi Minh - Leader of the Communist party in Indochina after World War II; led
Vietnamese against the French, then North Vietnamese against the United States in the
Vietnam War
106. Ngo Dinh Diem - one of the major reasons some South Vietnamese embraced
communism. Responsible for the strategic hamlet program, as well as an anti-Buddhist
policy.
107. Gulf of Tonkin Resolution - 1964 congressional decision authorizing President
Johnson to take any military action he felt necessary in Vietnam.
108. “Summer of Love” – 100,000 people converged on the Haight Ashbury District in
San Francisco. The purpose was to allow all people to experience the vision of love that
“counterculture” leaders felt would change the world.
109. Tet Offensive - attack by Viet Cong and North Vietnamese forces throughout South
Vietnam. The North lost all battles and had enormous casualties, but the effect was to
turn American public opinion against the war.
110. My Lai Massacre – Killing of several hundred Vietnamese villagers by American
soldiers in 1968. Demonstrated the brutalities and difficulties faced by American troops
in Vietnam
111. Pentagon Papers - Secret government study of United States involvement in the
Vietnam, made public in 1971 by Daniel Ellsburg.
112. The Weather Underground – Attempted to bring the Vietnam war home to the
United States through a series of bombings, riots and jailbreaks. Through these methods
they hoped America would see how disastrous war was, and stop the war in Vietnam.
113. Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education- stated that busing was a
constitutional method to create integrated schools. Busing was one way to meet the
standards created by the Brown v. Board decision of 1954.
114. EPA – created due to public demands for cleaner air, water, and land. This agency
is assigned the task of repairing damage to resources, but also planning for the future to
prevent damage from occurring.
115. Roe v. Wade - upheld the legality of abortion during the first 3 months of pregnancy.
Considered a monumental victory for the women’s rights movement.
116. University of California v. Baake - Ruled that affirmative action based solely on race
was unconstitutional. However, affirmative action policies and the use of race as a criterion
could be constitutional if done correctly.
117. Vietnamization - President Nixon’s policy of replacing American military forces
with those of South Vietnam in an attempt to lessen the American role in Vietnam.
118. War Powers Act -1973 law limiting the President’s power to send American troops
abroad. Passed in response to the seemingly limitless power the President had acquired
during the Vietnam conflict.
119. Civil Liberties Act of 1988 – authorized payment of $20,000 to any surviving
victims of Japanese internment during World War II.
120. Jerry Falwell – co-founder of the Moral Majority in 1979. First major attempt by
conservative Christian groups to influence politics.
121. Americans With Disabilities Act – one result of this law has been that all public
buildings and public transportation must be handicapped accessible. Extended all the
benefits of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 to the disabled.
122. Defense of Marriage Act – disallowed the federal government from recognizing the
legality of same-sex marriages and allowed states the right to not recognize same-sex
marriages from other states.