Social Cognitive Theory
Bandura, 1986
1
4 Parts:
1. Self-Regulation & Risk Reduction
2. Of course, must have Information (give facts)
3. Must and Practice to build skills
4. Must create Environment of Support
2
Theory of Planned Behavior
Azjen, 1988
3
Comes out of theory of reasoned action (intention best
predictor of behavior).
But people change their minds, so Behavioral
expectations from intention predict better.
4
Theory of Reasoned Action
Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975
5
 A cognitive model.
 Intention to perform behavior is a function of
personal attitude vs. social norms.
 Attitude predicted by outcome beliefs
6
Information-Motivation-Behavioral Skills Model.
(“IMB”)
Fisher and Fisher, 1992
7
HIV Prevention requires all 3 elements:
1. Prevention Info (how to…)
2. Prevention Motivation (why to…)
3. Prevention Behavioral Skills (practice skills…)
8
ARRM: AIDS Risk Reduction Model
Cattania et al., 1990
9
3 Stages:
1. Labeling (understand what and why)
a. Influences: knowledge, belief in susceptibility, belief that
having AIDS is bad, social norms.
2. Commitment
a. Influences: effect on pleasure, perceived efficacy, social
factors, self efficacy.
3. Enactment
a. Includes: Info seeking, Obtaining remedies, enacting solutions.
b. Influences: social networks, problem solving skills, partner
issues
10
Health Belief Model
1950’s, Hochbaum et alia
11
Perceptions are key:
1. Percieved susceptibility
2. Percieved severity
3. Perceived benefits
4. Perceived Barriers
Modified by
1. Demographic/sociopsychological variables
2. Perceived Threat
3. Cues to action
12
DOUG KIRBY
13
Characteristics of effective Teen Preg Prev:
1. Reducing sexual behaviors that lead to Preg/STI
2. Based in theory
3. Consistent and clear messages (abs and cond.)
4. Basic, accurate info
5. Addresses social pressures
6. Practicing refusal skills
7. Involve students and personalize activities
8. Age, experience, and culturally appropriate
9. Sufficient time for learning
10.Teachers/Leaders who believe in program
14
ANKE EHRHARDT
15
Wide range of studies:
1. Determinants of sexual risk behaviors
2. Comprehensive approaches to STI prevention
3. Sexual and Gender Development
Worked with J. Money.
16
CAROLE VANCE
17
18
PEGGY BRICK
19
PP of N. NJ
Author/Educator
Also, I think, at SIECUS.
Lots of books
Unequal Partners, Positive Images, Teaching
Safer Sex, etc. “New Expectations: Later Life”
20
MARY CALDERONE
21
 PPFA Medical Director
(allowed clinical testing of BC techniques)
 Encouraged study of family planning in Med schools
 Co-Founded SIECUS
 Books on education of FP and BC
 “Sex is what you do, Sexuality is who you are”
 Parents as primary sex educators of kids
 Dissemination of BC info should be common in med
practice
22
SOL GORDON
23
 Author “how can you tell if you’re really in
love”
 Author “Raising a child responsibly in a
sexually permissive world”
 Former director of Inst for Family Research
and Education at Syracuse
 Died 2008
24
LEONORE TIEFER
25
 Against the concept of “FSD” because
o It emphasizes physiology and performsnce
o Ignores/minimizes psychosocial aspects
o Reinforces narrow definitions of sexuality and ignores
women’s complex sexualities
o Discourages/discredits styles of sexuality that don’t
focus on genital arousal and orgasm
o Causes insurance companies to ignore counseling
o Causes media and medicine to ignore social factors
26
GREGORY HEREK
27
 Author on homophobia, anti-gay violence, AIDS
stigma.
 Worked with APA on amicus briefs (Lawerence,
Bowers, Boyscouts v. Dale, Watkins v. US)
 Made Internalized Homophobia Scale
 Gay/Bi person self-esteem scale
 Studies and differentiates between Gay/Lesbian, but
doesn’t do that enough with Bi.
28
JOHN “YOU’RE SO AND YOU DON’T EVEN KNOW IT” MONEY.
29
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Coined “Gender Role”, “Gender Identity”, “paraphilia”
Distinguished between sex and gender.
Helped develop SSSS
Theory of sexual development emphasizing interaction of
bio-psych-soc.
 Started strong on Nurture, then change to interdependent.
 Est. Johns Hopkins gender ID clinic, which started doing
SRS in 1966.
30
MARGARET SANGER
31
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Nurse
Convicted under Comstock Act in New Haven
Founded BC fed of America—later became PPFA
Coined term BC.
Helped find $ for research into hormonal BC,
leading to BC pill.
 Eugenicist.
32
ALFRED KINSEY
33
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SB in Human Male (1948) with Pomeroy and Martin
SB in Human Female (1958)
Started study of sex behavior at UI in 1938
Founds Inst for Sex Research at UI in 1947
Research based on >12,000 non-random personal
interviews.
 Revealed incidence of premarital sex, extra-marital sex
 Sexual capacities of fem., and homosexual behavior research
led to condemnation and loss of funding
34
PHYLLIS SCHLAFLY
35
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Conservative leader.
“Pro family movement”
Helped defeat ERA
Attorney, Author (20+ books), Radio commentator
36
LAURA SCHLESSINGER
37
 PhD. In Physiology from Columbia.
 LMF and Child counselor formerly in private
practice.
 Radio personality
 Author of advice columns.
 Morals and Ethics (legalistic) basis.
 Key player in Rind et al. disaster.
38
HAVELOCK ELLIS
39
 Early guy.
 Studies in Psychology of Sex (1900)
o Multiple volumes
o Banned in England
 1927 co-pres with Hirschfeld of World League for
Sexual Reform
40
SANDRA BEM
41
Wants so many categories that they lose meaning.
 Gender Schema Theory
o cognitive-developmental elements
o social-learning elements
o Sex typing comes from childs cognitive processing, but derived
from cultural gender typing.
o Sex typing is therefore learned, and therefore not inevitable or
unchangeable.
o However, schema are anticipatory—i.e. they look for new info
to support themselves.
o Perceptions are based on incoming info PLUS anticipation
based on existing schema.
o Wanted to turn the volume up on gender categorization
42
WILLIAM MASTERS and VIRGINIA JOHNSON
43
 Sexual response cycle
o Arousal/Excitement
o Plateau
o Orgasm
o Resolution
 Male-based model, did not include cyclic, multi-orgasmic,
or non-goal oriented models of sexual response.
 1960’s
 First to scientifically study sexual response
 First scientific lab studies of sexuality.
44
HELEN SINGER KAPLAN
45
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Feminist answer to Masters and Johnson
Sexual response/arousal CYCLE
Introduced DESIRE into M&J model
M&J assume desire. Kaplan says desire can come
after excitement.
 Wrote about desire dysfunction.
46
SIMON LEVAY
47
 Based in biology/neurology/endocrinology
 Famous Twins Study
 Parts of brains that are generally smaller in women are also
often smaller in gay men.
 Parts of brain that are generally larger in women are often
larger in gay men. Lesbians not tested.
 Confounds:
o All gay men died from AIDS
o Small N
o All others “assumed” to be hetero.
48
SAMPLING ERROR and THREATS
(aka STANDARD ERROR)
49
 The degree to which the MEAN and VARIANCE
of the SAMPLE do NOT reflect those of the
POPULATION.
 This is all about statistical problems with the
sample that come from it BEING a sample.
  Sample Size usually =  Sampling Error
 SD in POPULATION=  Sampling Error
50
SCALES OF MEASUREMENT
51
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Nominal
Ordinal (Likert is really this)
Interval (Likert is generally used like this)
Ratio/Scale (has absolute Zero)
52
TESTS OF STATISTICAL SIGNIFICANCE
53
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T-Test
Chi-Square
 Does 1 Nominal Variable correlate with 2 (Nominal or higher) groups?
ANOVA
 Of Variance
 F-Score: 3+ groups, with one independent.
ANCOVA
 Of Covariance
 Determines effect of independent variable, rather than just correlation.
MANOVA
 Multivariate ANOVA
 Multiple groups, multiple independents
MANCOVA (MULTIPLE ANCOVA)
54
SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIONISM
55

Reality is socially constructed
 Based in common experience, habituated, shared,
institutionalized
 Codified through common language
 Constructed at the societal level, and/or in
subgroups.
 Attraction: societal standards of beauty, age,
virginity, affection, compassion, etc.
 Philosophically Flexible—accepts diversity,
cross-cultural variation, etc.
56
ESSENTIALISM
57
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Classical – Plato (philosophical)
Modern – (applied as) biological determinism
Cultural – “Men and women are fundamentally
different from each other”
Some Feminisms are essentialist. Celebrating the
feminine assumes that there is such a thing.
Claims like evolution and natural selection are based
in Modern Essentialism.
58
MICHAEL BAILEY
59
 With Pillard, roughly half of monozygotics had
gay sib. That’s roughly double the rate of
dizygotics.
60
ESSENTIALISM AND ORIENTATION
61
 Xg28 is a chromosome found in some gay ♂.
 Het♂ brains generally bigger, G♂ brain smaller, like
women.
 Part of brain larger in ♀ is also larger in some G♂
 Daughters of ♀ who took DES, many ID as Lesbian
 1/3 of ♀ with CAH as child ID as lesbian as adults.
 Roughly half of monozygotics had gay sib. That’s
roughly double the rate of dizygotics.
62
SYSTEMIC RANDOM SAMPLING
63
 Select N-th person until desired sample size is
reached.
64
STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLING
65
 Divide population based on a characteristic (e.g.
♂♀)
 Random sample N people in each group.
66
PROBABILITY SAMPLING
67
 Umbrella term for all “unbiased” or “controlled
bias” sampling techniques.
 Every case has an equal chance of being selected
 Includes:
o Simple Random Sampling
o Systemic Random (N-th number)
o Stratified Random (random from each predefined group)
68
SNOWBALL SAMPLING
69
 Not as dirty as it sounds.
 Unusual populations
 Each participant refers other participants from that
unusual population.
70
THREATS TO INTERNAL VALIDITY
(i.e. threats from procedures or participant experiences)
71
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History
Regression
Maturation
Test Sensitivity (pre/post)
Instrumentation
Mortality
72
HISTORY THREAT to validity
73
 Outside events, like Tax Day, a War, or Changing
jobs that affect outcomes
 May be limited by making the experiment shorter, or
having less time to return a survey.
74
REGRESSION THREAT to validity
75
 Between pre and post, outliers tend to drift toward
mean.
 Solved by tossing outliers, or better yet, having a
control group. (It will happen with them, too)
76
MATURATION THREAT to validity
77
 When participants actually “mature” (i.e. change
or develop) in ways that are unrelated to the
experiment, but affect the results.
 Controlled by having shorter time experiments or
having populations in control and experimental
groups that mature at the same rate.
78
NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
79
 Umbrella term for non-random sampling
o Quota Sampling
o Purposive Sampling
o Convenience Sampling
o Snowball Sampling
80
INTERNAL VALIDITY
(Confidence)
81
The degree to which we can be confident that the
observed results are the result of the independent
variable, rather than to other stuff.
82
EXTERNAL VALIDITY
(Generalizability)
83
The degree to which we can be confident that the
observed results are generalizable OUTSIDE of the
research setting.
84
THREATS TO EXTERNAL VALIDITY
85
 Research Setting (it’s not the real world)
 Non-random sample
 Research procedures (artificial, not like the real
world. Some people test well, but don’t perform
well.)
 Interaction Threat (‘demographics’ of sample)
86
SETTING THREAT to EXTERNAL VALIDITY
87
Stuff that tests one way in Texas might not test that
way in Massachussetts. Private school v. public
school. Jail v. not Jail. Lab v. Real World.
88
INTERACTION (of selection and treatment)
THREAT TO EXTERNAL VALIDITY
89
Just because straight white Christian men responded
positively to an intervention doesn’t mean that gay
black atheist women will too.
90
SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING
91
Truest random sampling.
Often uses a random numbers table.
92
CONTENT VALIDITY
CONSTRUCT VALIDITY
93
 Does the instrument measure only what it claims
to measure? (Are they the right questions?)
 Does it FULLY measure it? (Are there questions
that should have been there that were not?)
94
CONVERGENT VALIDITY
95
 Predictable relationship between variables and
scale.
 Often tested by comparing results to similar
scales.
 Sometimes tested by comparing “known” traits
to measured traits. (e.g. if I’m gay, the
instrument should tell me that I’m gay.)
96
CONCLUSION VALIDITY
97
The degree to which conclusions are related to
data, and not other assumptions or inferences.
98
DISCRIMINANT VALIDITY
99
 Predictable lack of relationship between
variables.
 If I’m NOT gay, the gay-predicting
instrument should say that definitively.
100
FACE VALIDITY
101
mmmmmm….yeah, that looks about right…
102
TEST BIAS
103
 Age-inappropriate language
 Pencil & Paper with low literacy Pop
 Culturally skewed language or concepts. i.e. “Fats
Waller” reference vs. “Winston Churchill” reference.
104
RELIABILITY
105
 Test-Retest (over time)
 Inter-rater (different ways of evaluating)
 Test Stability (did the ink-blots smear?!)
106
INTERNAL RELIABILITY
107
 Chronbach’s Alpha: Measures inter-item reliability
 Using 2 tests that are designed to measure the same
thing can show internal reliability.
108
SELECTION THREAT to INTERNAL VALIDITY
109
 Non-random assignment to experimental and
control groups.
 Use of pre-existing groups is an easy way to make
this mistake. E.g. Don’s class vs. Brent’s class.
110
T-TEST
111
 Used when comparing two groups (means) on one
criterion.
 2 x 1 test
 E.g. Average age of men in sample v. Average age of
women in sample?
 How similar are they?
 Does this grouping make a difference?
 When I compare the mean of the criterion variable in
group one to the same thing in group two, are they
significantly different?
 “T=#”
112
ANOVA
113
 3 x 1 or more
 3 or more groups, one criterion
 Does the mean of the criterion vary depending on
which group we’re looking at?
 “F=#”
114
MANOVA
115
Same deal.
 2+ variables x 2+ variables
 Do the mean of each variable in each group vary
depending on the group? Or is this variable stable
across groups?
116
ANCOVA
117
ANOVA, but controls for covariance
118
MANCOVA
119
ANCOVA with multiple dependents.
120
SIGNIFICANCE
121
 “Alpha Level” is the level at which we decide a
result is to be called “significant”.
 Maybe < 0.10, usually <0.05, often <0.01
 This is the likelihood that these results
happened by chance.
 Includes
o T-Test
o ANOVA, MANOVA
o ANCOVA, MANCOVA
122
Z – SCORE
(Standard Score)
123
 This is a standardized score, in terms of
standard error.
 Scores are intentionally skewed and scaled
so that the Mean = 0 and the SD = 1
 That way, different scales can be compared.
It’s like using %, but for concepts like Mean
and SD.
124
PARAMETRIC INFERENCE TESTS
125
 How far was the result from your expectation?
 Requires:
o Interval+
o Normal Dist in all groups
o Equal Variances in all groups
 Includes
o T-Test
o ANOVA, MANOVA
o ANCOVA, MANCOVA
126
NON-PARAMETRIC INFERENCE TESTING
127
 If any conditions of parametric tests are not used,
must use non-parametric test:
 Chi-Square. That’s pretty much it.
128
INFERENCE TESTING
129
Taking what you’ve learned, and applying it to a
new population (making inferences)
130
TYPE I ERROR
131
Rejecting the null hypothesis when you haven’t
adequately disproven it.
Often related to significance?
(Probability = Alpha)??
132
TYPE II ERROR
133
Accepting the Null Hypothesis when it’s actually
wrong.
(“Probability = Beta”)??
134
INTERNAL CONSISTENCY RELIABILITY
135
 Same question asked multiple ways
 Should come out with same results, if it’s really
asking the same question.
136
PURPOSIVE SAMPLING
137
Non-Random sampling that focuses sample on an
intentional segment of a population.
138
QUOTA SAMPLING
139
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Flexibility of who to survey within population
Non-random
(Convenience within a population)
Used for market research and pollsters
Cheaper than real random sampling.
140
POSITIVISM/ESSENTIALISM
CONSTRUCTIVISM
CRITICAL…um…ISM
141
 Positivism: Essentialism, discrete forms,
universal meaning.
 Constructivism: Common meaning, due to
common experience and common language,
but may vary across cultures, or across subcultures. Reality is created by our communal
interpretation of experience
 Critical…ism: Lens of power and
dominance—political is really better then
“critical”
142
SEXUAL RESPONSE CYCLE
143
 M&J: Arousal, Plateau, Climax, Denoument
 Kaplan: Adds Desire before Arousal
 Reed:Seduction, Sensation, Surrender, Reflection (all on
M&J curve)
 Bosson: totally different model. Cyclic.
o Stimuli
o Arousal
o Desire and Arousal
o Satisfaction
o Intimacy
o Then add spontaneous something?
144
CIRCLES OF SEXUALITY
145
1. SENSUALITY: Body, touch, feel (fantasy for some)
2. SEXUAL IDENTITY: Sex, gender ID, gender
role, OBI, (fantasy in my world)
3. INTIMACY: connection, love, sharing,
vulnerability, acceptance.
4. ANATOMY AND REPRODUCTION: physiology,
prevention, dysfunction symptoms.
5. SEXUALIZATION: using sex—seduction,
harassment, violence, flirting. (Bad concept)
146
THINK PAIR SHARE
147
1.
2.
3.
4.
Triggering activity
Individual thought
Small Group (pair) discussion
Large Group processing
148
CONCEPT ATTAINMENT MODEL
149
 Students must have some knowledge to start
with.
 Instructor provides examples and nonexamples.
 Students give cases, instructor confirms or
denies membership in concept.
 Students must guess concept.
150
BLOOM’S TAXONOMY
151
Student Goals, from simplest to complexest.
1. Knowledge : recall, recognition
2. Comprehension: interpretation/translation
3. Application: use comprehension to complete
problem.
4. Analysis: distinguish and categorize related ideas
5. Synthesis: Original material, combine ideas into
new product.
6. Evaluation – appraise and assess based on above.
152
DUCK’S ANALYTICAL TOOL
153
Lesson should be based on:
1. What is the nature of the learner (Platonic v.
Lockean)
2. What is the nature of the subject? (amorphous v.
discrete)
3. How can subject matter guide meaningful
learning (cognitive v. affective)
4. What behavioral traitd should be used to carry ou
philosophical position (convergent/authoritarian
v. divergent)
154
EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING CYCLE
155
ActivityWhat?So What?Now What?
1. Activity
2. What did you notice, how did it feel? Start
affective, move toward cognitive.
3. Interpret and analyze. Relationships.
Generalizability. Conclusions. Broad
statements.
4. Look for ways to use/apply learning to
life/practice.
156
DEREK CALDERWOOD
4-I MODEL
157
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


InitiationGetting Students Thinking about topic
Internalization topic, in terms of values and beliefs
InteractionWorking w/others around topic
InvestigationLooking deeper into topic
158
LOCKEAN v. PLATONIC
159
LockeanStudents are passive and absorb info
PlatonicStudents are active, engaging their own
experiences, values, affect. Affective education
increases retention—it’s more personal and more
meaningful.
160
STAGES OF CHANGE
Prochaska and DeClemente
161
 Behavioral change is cyclical and gradual
 Requires different interventions at different stages, to
properly target motivational level.
 Precontemplation: Denial, no serious concern
 Contemplation: Weighing costs and benefits
 Preparation: experimenting with small changes
 Action
 Maintenance: over time
 Relapse: common, often temporary, but can be
demoralizing.
162
HARM REDUCTION MODEL
163




Used in D/A, Safer Sex, Welfare programs
Used in Netherlands and UK for public health issues
U.S. generally criminalizes to produce abstinence
This Model:
1. Accepts existence of harmful behaviors with goal of
reducing negative effects (harm)
2. Incremental --- accepts some harm while reducing
other harmful elements
3. e.g. needle exchanges, legalized prostitution, condom
distribution, etc.
164
SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY
165
Learning is a social process influenced by
interactions with others. We are shaped by social
environments that either reinforce or break down
beliefs, in turn affecting behavior.
166
RISK REDUCTION MODEL
167
 We must identify and label risky behavior
 We must make commitments to reduce risks taken
 Despite fears, anxieties, and social norms.
168
ADULT LEARNING THEORY
169
 Assumes that adults are
o Autonomous
o Goal directed
o Relevancy oriented
o Practical
o Need to be shown respect
 Andragogy is more process oriented than
knowledge oriented. Treats learning like problem
solving.
170
DIFFUSION OF INNOVATION
171
The theory that if a model works in one setting, it
will work in another. Um…seriously?
172
MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES
173
People have diverse learning styles. Use as many as
possible to reach the most learners.
1. Verbal-Linguistic
2. Math-Logical
3. Musical
4. Visual-Spatial
5. Bodily-Kinesthetic (movement)
6. Interpersonal
7. Intrapersonal
8. Later added Naturalist and Existentialist?!?
174
SCRIPT THEORY
Schank, 1980’s
175
1. We learn norms through observation, attention,
retention, rehearsal, and maturation
2. We think and act using unconscious scripts,
made from:
a. Learned and practiced behaviors
b. Schemas
c. Stereotypes
d. Protocol
e. Representations
f. Inferences
176
DAVID BUSS
177
1953 Evolutionary Psychologist
 Focused on mate selection and retention strategies
o Including violence and jealousy
o Even these are forms of Adaptation (think evolution)
 Sees behavior as somewhat dependent on hardwiring from
evolutionary adaptation for survival and breeding
 Sexual competition includes intrasexual competition for
mates, AND adaptation to be more attractive.
 Tactics appeal to ♀ seeking security and ♂ seeking
fertility/monogamy.
178
MICHEL FOUCAULT (1926-1984)
Philosopher, Sociologist, Historian
179
 Studied social institutions, power, and discourse
 Wrote 3 of intended 6 vols on Hx of Sexuality
 Wrote USE OF PLEASURE and CARE OF THE
SELF – both on greek and roman antiquity.
 Critics said Lax Research, and Factual Inaccuracy
 Helped pioneer QUEER THEORY.
 His discourse helped create the idea of sexual
minorities
 Sex Positive.
180
FRANK BEACH
1911-1988

181
 Psychologist, Behavioral Endocrinologist
 Developed ideas of Receptivity and Proceptivity in mate
selection
 Named the discipline of Behavioral Endocrinology
 Studied species differences in reproductive activities
 Focused on instinctive patterns in mate selection and
parenting
 Student was Leonore Tiefer, who differed with him on what
was important to study (she: subjectives, female sexuality).
He was outraged at “non-scientificness”)
182
WILLIAM SIMON and JOHN GAGNON
183
 Developed idea of “Sexual Scripts”
o Including gender roles
o Based on socialization
o These pressure men to initiate, focus on goals, etc.
 Studied marital sex, paradox of  sex while female sexual
potential  (30’s etc.)
 Sex is more than just biological
o Sex acts must be understood in context- whom,
where, when, why, meaning.
o Wrote prior to homosexuality being a major
consideration.
184
ROBERT TRIVERS
185
 Evolutionary/Sociobiologist
 Concept of Parental Investment: higher riskchoosier about
mates
 5 kinds of relationships
o ♂♀, Parent-child, Siblings, Acquaintances, Person
with self.
 Had a biologically based theory of ethics, “indirect
reciprocity”
 Travers-Willard Hypothesis: high status parents prefer sons.
Lower status parents prefer daughters. Best investment and
return in each case.
186
IRA REISS
1925-
187
 Identified 4 standards of premarital sex:
o Abstinence (seen as not realistic for everyone)
o Permissiveness with affection
o Permissiveness without affection
o Double standard (did not see this as OK)
 Studied different criteria for love and commitment
required for sex
 Predicted sexual revolution
 Developed tests to measure permissiveness
 Against sex-negative textbooks in 1950’s
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MARGARET MEAD
1901-1978
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Cultural anthropologist
Reported healthy sexual attitudes in South Pacific
Studied adolescent females and premarital sex in Samoa
Controversial sex-positive findings that informed the sexual
revolution
 Found cultures where gender roles reversed, egalitarian, and
pacifist.
 Argued reproduction issues should not affect professional
life.
 Argued cultural influences, not just biology, in genderbound abilities.
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BRONISLAW MALINOWSKI
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“Father of social anthropology”
Ethnography
Challenged universality of Oedipal Complex, instead
proposed “nuclear complex” where boys lust for sisters
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SIGMUND FREUD
1856-1939
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 Neuropsychologist, trained as MD
 Life=Libido, Death = Thanatos
 All neurosis were based in secret (repressed) sexual
desires.
 Oral, Anal, Genital
 Oedipus and Electra
 Penis Envy and Castration Anxiety
 Fixation = inability to develop further
 Clitoral orgasm was “immature”
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HAVELOCK ELLIS
1859-1939
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 Nonjudgmental, scientific approach to study of sex
 Developed “Sexual Inversion” (homosexuality) as an
orientation that was neither disease nor crime.
 Biological approach to orientation
 Developed concepts of narcissism and autoeroticism
 Supporter of eugenics and social hygiene
 Champ of women’s rights and sex ed
 Normalized atypical behavior, paved for Kinsey et al.
 Open marriage to open lesbian Edith Lees. Impotent until
60 years until discovery of arousal to urologia.
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SIMON LEVAY
 1943-
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 Discovered differences between straight and gay men in
3rd interstitial nuclei of anterior hypothalamus (INAH3).
 Criticized for using only AIDS dead, small n, and not
getting sexual histories of subjects (were they all gay?
Was it an AIDS thing?)
 Never claimed to find anything definitive, just a
significant difference.
 Wrote about homophilly—the need to find a similar, but
not same, partner. Same sex couples use age, culture,
etc. to emphasize differences.
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HELEN FISHER
1945-
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 Anthropologist, Evolutionary Psychologist
 Expert on romantic love and attraction
 Postulates 3 phases: Lust (longing), Attraction (taking
action), and Attachment (bonding)
 fMRI on “in love” finds:
o dopamine and norepinephrine
o serotonin (causing obsessive thoughts)
o Activity in ventral tagmental area and caudate
nucleus.
o Women’s brainsmemory centers
o Men’s brains visual areas
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SHERE HITE
1942-
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 Criticized M&J for male-based models
o They agreed with Freud about “normalcy” of PVI
female orgasms.
 “Hite Report” found 70% of women anorgasmic in PVI, but
most AOK with clitoral stimulation.
 Studied broader range of male sexual desires
 Meaning of Love
 Meaning of family
 Men, sex, and violence
 Female Loyalties and Rivalries
 Identified need to form alliances to change institutions
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JOHN MONEY (1921-2006)
CONTINUED
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o
o
o
o
o
John/Joan was David Reimer.
Money’s institute specialized in intersex infants.
-made them girls.
Argued gender is fluid up until a certain age.
Invented Lovemaps- attractions to people and things
based on “shaping” from positive and negative
experiences.
o Claimed we “project” ideals onto loved ones based
on our unspoken wishes.
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MAGNUS HIRSCHFELD
1868-1935
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o Called “Einstein of Sex” – studied all sexuality
o Defended gay rights – called to repeal ¶175 which
made gays analogous to cripples.
o Posited that gays are intermediate 3rd sex.
o Coined “transvestism.
o Built inst for sexual research, incl libs, museum, etc
o Urged gays to come out. Considered outing
prominent gays.
o Was attacked, skull cracked, library burnt down by
Nazis.
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CONFIDENCE INTERVAL
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 “CI”
 It’s sort-of like a margin of error.
 If CI=3%, and your stats say 50% of people
like cheese, then you are confident that
between 47% and 53% of people like cheese.
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CONFIDENCE LEVEL
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 Sort of the inverse of Confidence interval
 Narrow (small) Confidence interval is high
confidence level
 Expressed as %.
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ITEM TOTAL ANALYSIS
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 Tests for one item’s consistency with other items
for the same construct. Drops items with< 0.3
correlation.
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CHRONBACH’S ALPHA
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 0.0 to 1.0
 Summary measure of internal consistency
between all items for one construct.
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CHI SQUARE
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Few restrictions/assumptions
Weak analysis.
Goodness of fit
Is there a significant difference from expected
values?
 E.g. do “women” average the same as “people”
average?
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REGRESSION
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 Shows stepwise influence of variables.
 Example
o How much does A affect Y?
o When A’s effects are removed, how much does
B affect Y?
o ….how much does C affect Y?
 Y=(constant)+coefA(A)+coefB(B)+…+Error
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QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
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 Richly descriptive
 Naturalistic – happens in natural setting
 About process as much as effects—“how”, not
just “what”
 Inductive – data driven, not theory driven, not
“testing a hypothesis”
 Involves meaning—“why” is philosophical, not
just the mechanical “how”
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QUALITATIVE SAMPLING METHODS
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(Looking for detail, not generalizability)
Availability: A convenience sample
Quota: a certain number of a certain type
Maximum Variability: Seeking out Variance
Minimum Variability: duh
Deviant/Extreme: duh
Expert/Judgment: Experts say they’re in the Pop
Chain/Network/Snowball: One refers others
Typical Case: Stat. avg of characteristic
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VALIDITY IN QUALITATIVE
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Have subjects read transcripts
Detailed notes, recordings, artifacts
Be aware of and document bias, record reflections
Standard Interview Protocol
Standard coding procedures
Inter-rater checks
Thorough lit review
Triangulation with quantitative methods
Multiple researchers
Remove self from situation to write reflections
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TRADITIONS IN QUALITATIVE
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Biography – one person, whole life
Ethnography – immersion in culture
Case Study- one person, not whole life
Grounded Theory – Theory develops from current
data, not from previous research, etc.
 Phenomenology – how people give meaning to
experiences/events
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“OTHER” RESEARCH DESIGNS
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 Historical – can’t be tested, but can still note
patterns.
 Developmental/Longitudinal
 Single Subject ABAB: BF Skinner. Baseline,
intervention, withdraw interv., intro it again…
 Multiple Baselines – Varying schedule of
interventions to see effects of timing
 Qualitative…
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PRE-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
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 One-Shot Case Study (no intervention)
 One group, Pre/Post test (no control group)
 Static Group Comparisons (2 groups, No
pre-test)
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QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
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 Pre/Post test, non-equivalent groups (convenience
samples. E.g. Don’s class v. Brent’s class)
 Time Series Design (pre-test, and several post tests
at intervals. No control group)
 Non-equivalent Before and after. Like pre/post
above, but comparing 2 groups that are LIKELY to
be different prior to study.
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TRUE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
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Always Control group
Always Random assignment to groups
Pre/Post
Post Only
The 4-way thing:
o Experimental Group – Post Only
o Control Group – Post Only
o Experimental Goup – Pre/Post
o Control group – pre/post
 Double Blind means that neither the experimenter nor the
subject knows which group the subject is in.
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