Social Cognitive Theory Bandura, 1986 1 4 Parts: 1. Self-Regulation & Risk Reduction 2. Of course, must have Information (give facts) 3. Must and Practice to build skills 4. Must create Environment of Support 2 Theory of Planned Behavior Azjen, 1988 3 Comes out of theory of reasoned action (intention best predictor of behavior). But people change their minds, so Behavioral expectations from intention predict better. 4 Theory of Reasoned Action Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975 5 A cognitive model. Intention to perform behavior is a function of personal attitude vs. social norms. Attitude predicted by outcome beliefs 6 Information-Motivation-Behavioral Skills Model. (“IMB”) Fisher and Fisher, 1992 7 HIV Prevention requires all 3 elements: 1. Prevention Info (how to…) 2. Prevention Motivation (why to…) 3. Prevention Behavioral Skills (practice skills…) 8 ARRM: AIDS Risk Reduction Model Cattania et al., 1990 9 3 Stages: 1. Labeling (understand what and why) a. Influences: knowledge, belief in susceptibility, belief that having AIDS is bad, social norms. 2. Commitment a. Influences: effect on pleasure, perceived efficacy, social factors, self efficacy. 3. Enactment a. Includes: Info seeking, Obtaining remedies, enacting solutions. b. Influences: social networks, problem solving skills, partner issues 10 Health Belief Model 1950’s, Hochbaum et alia 11 Perceptions are key: 1. Percieved susceptibility 2. Percieved severity 3. Perceived benefits 4. Perceived Barriers Modified by 1. Demographic/sociopsychological variables 2. Perceived Threat 3. Cues to action 12 DOUG KIRBY 13 Characteristics of effective Teen Preg Prev: 1. Reducing sexual behaviors that lead to Preg/STI 2. Based in theory 3. Consistent and clear messages (abs and cond.) 4. Basic, accurate info 5. Addresses social pressures 6. Practicing refusal skills 7. Involve students and personalize activities 8. Age, experience, and culturally appropriate 9. Sufficient time for learning 10.Teachers/Leaders who believe in program 14 ANKE EHRHARDT 15 Wide range of studies: 1. Determinants of sexual risk behaviors 2. Comprehensive approaches to STI prevention 3. Sexual and Gender Development Worked with J. Money. 16 CAROLE VANCE 17 18 PEGGY BRICK 19 PP of N. NJ Author/Educator Also, I think, at SIECUS. Lots of books Unequal Partners, Positive Images, Teaching Safer Sex, etc. “New Expectations: Later Life” 20 MARY CALDERONE 21 PPFA Medical Director (allowed clinical testing of BC techniques) Encouraged study of family planning in Med schools Co-Founded SIECUS Books on education of FP and BC “Sex is what you do, Sexuality is who you are” Parents as primary sex educators of kids Dissemination of BC info should be common in med practice 22 SOL GORDON 23 Author “how can you tell if you’re really in love” Author “Raising a child responsibly in a sexually permissive world” Former director of Inst for Family Research and Education at Syracuse Died 2008 24 LEONORE TIEFER 25 Against the concept of “FSD” because o It emphasizes physiology and performsnce o Ignores/minimizes psychosocial aspects o Reinforces narrow definitions of sexuality and ignores women’s complex sexualities o Discourages/discredits styles of sexuality that don’t focus on genital arousal and orgasm o Causes insurance companies to ignore counseling o Causes media and medicine to ignore social factors 26 GREGORY HEREK 27 Author on homophobia, anti-gay violence, AIDS stigma. Worked with APA on amicus briefs (Lawerence, Bowers, Boyscouts v. Dale, Watkins v. US) Made Internalized Homophobia Scale Gay/Bi person self-esteem scale Studies and differentiates between Gay/Lesbian, but doesn’t do that enough with Bi. 28 JOHN “YOU’RE SO AND YOU DON’T EVEN KNOW IT” MONEY. 29 Coined “Gender Role”, “Gender Identity”, “paraphilia” Distinguished between sex and gender. Helped develop SSSS Theory of sexual development emphasizing interaction of bio-psych-soc. Started strong on Nurture, then change to interdependent. Est. Johns Hopkins gender ID clinic, which started doing SRS in 1966. 30 MARGARET SANGER 31 Nurse Convicted under Comstock Act in New Haven Founded BC fed of America—later became PPFA Coined term BC. Helped find $ for research into hormonal BC, leading to BC pill. Eugenicist. 32 ALFRED KINSEY 33 SB in Human Male (1948) with Pomeroy and Martin SB in Human Female (1958) Started study of sex behavior at UI in 1938 Founds Inst for Sex Research at UI in 1947 Research based on >12,000 non-random personal interviews. Revealed incidence of premarital sex, extra-marital sex Sexual capacities of fem., and homosexual behavior research led to condemnation and loss of funding 34 PHYLLIS SCHLAFLY 35 Conservative leader. “Pro family movement” Helped defeat ERA Attorney, Author (20+ books), Radio commentator 36 LAURA SCHLESSINGER 37 PhD. In Physiology from Columbia. LMF and Child counselor formerly in private practice. Radio personality Author of advice columns. Morals and Ethics (legalistic) basis. Key player in Rind et al. disaster. 38 HAVELOCK ELLIS 39 Early guy. Studies in Psychology of Sex (1900) o Multiple volumes o Banned in England 1927 co-pres with Hirschfeld of World League for Sexual Reform 40 SANDRA BEM 41 Wants so many categories that they lose meaning. Gender Schema Theory o cognitive-developmental elements o social-learning elements o Sex typing comes from childs cognitive processing, but derived from cultural gender typing. o Sex typing is therefore learned, and therefore not inevitable or unchangeable. o However, schema are anticipatory—i.e. they look for new info to support themselves. o Perceptions are based on incoming info PLUS anticipation based on existing schema. o Wanted to turn the volume up on gender categorization 42 WILLIAM MASTERS and VIRGINIA JOHNSON 43 Sexual response cycle o Arousal/Excitement o Plateau o Orgasm o Resolution Male-based model, did not include cyclic, multi-orgasmic, or non-goal oriented models of sexual response. 1960’s First to scientifically study sexual response First scientific lab studies of sexuality. 44 HELEN SINGER KAPLAN 45 Feminist answer to Masters and Johnson Sexual response/arousal CYCLE Introduced DESIRE into M&J model M&J assume desire. Kaplan says desire can come after excitement. Wrote about desire dysfunction. 46 SIMON LEVAY 47 Based in biology/neurology/endocrinology Famous Twins Study Parts of brains that are generally smaller in women are also often smaller in gay men. Parts of brain that are generally larger in women are often larger in gay men. Lesbians not tested. Confounds: o All gay men died from AIDS o Small N o All others “assumed” to be hetero. 48 SAMPLING ERROR and THREATS (aka STANDARD ERROR) 49 The degree to which the MEAN and VARIANCE of the SAMPLE do NOT reflect those of the POPULATION. This is all about statistical problems with the sample that come from it BEING a sample. Sample Size usually = Sampling Error SD in POPULATION= Sampling Error 50 SCALES OF MEASUREMENT 51 Nominal Ordinal (Likert is really this) Interval (Likert is generally used like this) Ratio/Scale (has absolute Zero) 52 TESTS OF STATISTICAL SIGNIFICANCE 53 T-Test Chi-Square Does 1 Nominal Variable correlate with 2 (Nominal or higher) groups? ANOVA Of Variance F-Score: 3+ groups, with one independent. ANCOVA Of Covariance Determines effect of independent variable, rather than just correlation. MANOVA Multivariate ANOVA Multiple groups, multiple independents MANCOVA (MULTIPLE ANCOVA) 54 SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIONISM 55 Reality is socially constructed Based in common experience, habituated, shared, institutionalized Codified through common language Constructed at the societal level, and/or in subgroups. Attraction: societal standards of beauty, age, virginity, affection, compassion, etc. Philosophically Flexible—accepts diversity, cross-cultural variation, etc. 56 ESSENTIALISM 57 Classical – Plato (philosophical) Modern – (applied as) biological determinism Cultural – “Men and women are fundamentally different from each other” Some Feminisms are essentialist. Celebrating the feminine assumes that there is such a thing. Claims like evolution and natural selection are based in Modern Essentialism. 58 MICHAEL BAILEY 59 With Pillard, roughly half of monozygotics had gay sib. That’s roughly double the rate of dizygotics. 60 ESSENTIALISM AND ORIENTATION 61 Xg28 is a chromosome found in some gay ♂. Het♂ brains generally bigger, G♂ brain smaller, like women. Part of brain larger in ♀ is also larger in some G♂ Daughters of ♀ who took DES, many ID as Lesbian 1/3 of ♀ with CAH as child ID as lesbian as adults. Roughly half of monozygotics had gay sib. That’s roughly double the rate of dizygotics. 62 SYSTEMIC RANDOM SAMPLING 63 Select N-th person until desired sample size is reached. 64 STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLING 65 Divide population based on a characteristic (e.g. ♂♀) Random sample N people in each group. 66 PROBABILITY SAMPLING 67 Umbrella term for all “unbiased” or “controlled bias” sampling techniques. Every case has an equal chance of being selected Includes: o Simple Random Sampling o Systemic Random (N-th number) o Stratified Random (random from each predefined group) 68 SNOWBALL SAMPLING 69 Not as dirty as it sounds. Unusual populations Each participant refers other participants from that unusual population. 70 THREATS TO INTERNAL VALIDITY (i.e. threats from procedures or participant experiences) 71 History Regression Maturation Test Sensitivity (pre/post) Instrumentation Mortality 72 HISTORY THREAT to validity 73 Outside events, like Tax Day, a War, or Changing jobs that affect outcomes May be limited by making the experiment shorter, or having less time to return a survey. 74 REGRESSION THREAT to validity 75 Between pre and post, outliers tend to drift toward mean. Solved by tossing outliers, or better yet, having a control group. (It will happen with them, too) 76 MATURATION THREAT to validity 77 When participants actually “mature” (i.e. change or develop) in ways that are unrelated to the experiment, but affect the results. Controlled by having shorter time experiments or having populations in control and experimental groups that mature at the same rate. 78 NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING 79 Umbrella term for non-random sampling o Quota Sampling o Purposive Sampling o Convenience Sampling o Snowball Sampling 80 INTERNAL VALIDITY (Confidence) 81 The degree to which we can be confident that the observed results are the result of the independent variable, rather than to other stuff. 82 EXTERNAL VALIDITY (Generalizability) 83 The degree to which we can be confident that the observed results are generalizable OUTSIDE of the research setting. 84 THREATS TO EXTERNAL VALIDITY 85 Research Setting (it’s not the real world) Non-random sample Research procedures (artificial, not like the real world. Some people test well, but don’t perform well.) Interaction Threat (‘demographics’ of sample) 86 SETTING THREAT to EXTERNAL VALIDITY 87 Stuff that tests one way in Texas might not test that way in Massachussetts. Private school v. public school. Jail v. not Jail. Lab v. Real World. 88 INTERACTION (of selection and treatment) THREAT TO EXTERNAL VALIDITY 89 Just because straight white Christian men responded positively to an intervention doesn’t mean that gay black atheist women will too. 90 SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING 91 Truest random sampling. Often uses a random numbers table. 92 CONTENT VALIDITY CONSTRUCT VALIDITY 93 Does the instrument measure only what it claims to measure? (Are they the right questions?) Does it FULLY measure it? (Are there questions that should have been there that were not?) 94 CONVERGENT VALIDITY 95 Predictable relationship between variables and scale. Often tested by comparing results to similar scales. Sometimes tested by comparing “known” traits to measured traits. (e.g. if I’m gay, the instrument should tell me that I’m gay.) 96 CONCLUSION VALIDITY 97 The degree to which conclusions are related to data, and not other assumptions or inferences. 98 DISCRIMINANT VALIDITY 99 Predictable lack of relationship between variables. If I’m NOT gay, the gay-predicting instrument should say that definitively. 100 FACE VALIDITY 101 mmmmmm….yeah, that looks about right… 102 TEST BIAS 103 Age-inappropriate language Pencil & Paper with low literacy Pop Culturally skewed language or concepts. i.e. “Fats Waller” reference vs. “Winston Churchill” reference. 104 RELIABILITY 105 Test-Retest (over time) Inter-rater (different ways of evaluating) Test Stability (did the ink-blots smear?!) 106 INTERNAL RELIABILITY 107 Chronbach’s Alpha: Measures inter-item reliability Using 2 tests that are designed to measure the same thing can show internal reliability. 108 SELECTION THREAT to INTERNAL VALIDITY 109 Non-random assignment to experimental and control groups. Use of pre-existing groups is an easy way to make this mistake. E.g. Don’s class vs. Brent’s class. 110 T-TEST 111 Used when comparing two groups (means) on one criterion. 2 x 1 test E.g. Average age of men in sample v. Average age of women in sample? How similar are they? Does this grouping make a difference? When I compare the mean of the criterion variable in group one to the same thing in group two, are they significantly different? “T=#” 112 ANOVA 113 3 x 1 or more 3 or more groups, one criterion Does the mean of the criterion vary depending on which group we’re looking at? “F=#” 114 MANOVA 115 Same deal. 2+ variables x 2+ variables Do the mean of each variable in each group vary depending on the group? Or is this variable stable across groups? 116 ANCOVA 117 ANOVA, but controls for covariance 118 MANCOVA 119 ANCOVA with multiple dependents. 120 SIGNIFICANCE 121 “Alpha Level” is the level at which we decide a result is to be called “significant”. Maybe < 0.10, usually <0.05, often <0.01 This is the likelihood that these results happened by chance. Includes o T-Test o ANOVA, MANOVA o ANCOVA, MANCOVA 122 Z – SCORE (Standard Score) 123 This is a standardized score, in terms of standard error. Scores are intentionally skewed and scaled so that the Mean = 0 and the SD = 1 That way, different scales can be compared. It’s like using %, but for concepts like Mean and SD. 124 PARAMETRIC INFERENCE TESTS 125 How far was the result from your expectation? Requires: o Interval+ o Normal Dist in all groups o Equal Variances in all groups Includes o T-Test o ANOVA, MANOVA o ANCOVA, MANCOVA 126 NON-PARAMETRIC INFERENCE TESTING 127 If any conditions of parametric tests are not used, must use non-parametric test: Chi-Square. That’s pretty much it. 128 INFERENCE TESTING 129 Taking what you’ve learned, and applying it to a new population (making inferences) 130 TYPE I ERROR 131 Rejecting the null hypothesis when you haven’t adequately disproven it. Often related to significance? (Probability = Alpha)?? 132 TYPE II ERROR 133 Accepting the Null Hypothesis when it’s actually wrong. (“Probability = Beta”)?? 134 INTERNAL CONSISTENCY RELIABILITY 135 Same question asked multiple ways Should come out with same results, if it’s really asking the same question. 136 PURPOSIVE SAMPLING 137 Non-Random sampling that focuses sample on an intentional segment of a population. 138 QUOTA SAMPLING 139 Flexibility of who to survey within population Non-random (Convenience within a population) Used for market research and pollsters Cheaper than real random sampling. 140 POSITIVISM/ESSENTIALISM CONSTRUCTIVISM CRITICAL…um…ISM 141 Positivism: Essentialism, discrete forms, universal meaning. Constructivism: Common meaning, due to common experience and common language, but may vary across cultures, or across subcultures. Reality is created by our communal interpretation of experience Critical…ism: Lens of power and dominance—political is really better then “critical” 142 SEXUAL RESPONSE CYCLE 143 M&J: Arousal, Plateau, Climax, Denoument Kaplan: Adds Desire before Arousal Reed:Seduction, Sensation, Surrender, Reflection (all on M&J curve) Bosson: totally different model. Cyclic. o Stimuli o Arousal o Desire and Arousal o Satisfaction o Intimacy o Then add spontaneous something? 144 CIRCLES OF SEXUALITY 145 1. SENSUALITY: Body, touch, feel (fantasy for some) 2. SEXUAL IDENTITY: Sex, gender ID, gender role, OBI, (fantasy in my world) 3. INTIMACY: connection, love, sharing, vulnerability, acceptance. 4. ANATOMY AND REPRODUCTION: physiology, prevention, dysfunction symptoms. 5. SEXUALIZATION: using sex—seduction, harassment, violence, flirting. (Bad concept) 146 THINK PAIR SHARE 147 1. 2. 3. 4. Triggering activity Individual thought Small Group (pair) discussion Large Group processing 148 CONCEPT ATTAINMENT MODEL 149 Students must have some knowledge to start with. Instructor provides examples and nonexamples. Students give cases, instructor confirms or denies membership in concept. Students must guess concept. 150 BLOOM’S TAXONOMY 151 Student Goals, from simplest to complexest. 1. Knowledge : recall, recognition 2. Comprehension: interpretation/translation 3. Application: use comprehension to complete problem. 4. Analysis: distinguish and categorize related ideas 5. Synthesis: Original material, combine ideas into new product. 6. Evaluation – appraise and assess based on above. 152 DUCK’S ANALYTICAL TOOL 153 Lesson should be based on: 1. What is the nature of the learner (Platonic v. Lockean) 2. What is the nature of the subject? (amorphous v. discrete) 3. How can subject matter guide meaningful learning (cognitive v. affective) 4. What behavioral traitd should be used to carry ou philosophical position (convergent/authoritarian v. divergent) 154 EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING CYCLE 155 ActivityWhat?So What?Now What? 1. Activity 2. What did you notice, how did it feel? Start affective, move toward cognitive. 3. Interpret and analyze. Relationships. Generalizability. Conclusions. Broad statements. 4. Look for ways to use/apply learning to life/practice. 156 DEREK CALDERWOOD 4-I MODEL 157 InitiationGetting Students Thinking about topic Internalization topic, in terms of values and beliefs InteractionWorking w/others around topic InvestigationLooking deeper into topic 158 LOCKEAN v. PLATONIC 159 LockeanStudents are passive and absorb info PlatonicStudents are active, engaging their own experiences, values, affect. Affective education increases retention—it’s more personal and more meaningful. 160 STAGES OF CHANGE Prochaska and DeClemente 161 Behavioral change is cyclical and gradual Requires different interventions at different stages, to properly target motivational level. Precontemplation: Denial, no serious concern Contemplation: Weighing costs and benefits Preparation: experimenting with small changes Action Maintenance: over time Relapse: common, often temporary, but can be demoralizing. 162 HARM REDUCTION MODEL 163 Used in D/A, Safer Sex, Welfare programs Used in Netherlands and UK for public health issues U.S. generally criminalizes to produce abstinence This Model: 1. Accepts existence of harmful behaviors with goal of reducing negative effects (harm) 2. Incremental --- accepts some harm while reducing other harmful elements 3. e.g. needle exchanges, legalized prostitution, condom distribution, etc. 164 SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY 165 Learning is a social process influenced by interactions with others. We are shaped by social environments that either reinforce or break down beliefs, in turn affecting behavior. 166 RISK REDUCTION MODEL 167 We must identify and label risky behavior We must make commitments to reduce risks taken Despite fears, anxieties, and social norms. 168 ADULT LEARNING THEORY 169 Assumes that adults are o Autonomous o Goal directed o Relevancy oriented o Practical o Need to be shown respect Andragogy is more process oriented than knowledge oriented. Treats learning like problem solving. 170 DIFFUSION OF INNOVATION 171 The theory that if a model works in one setting, it will work in another. Um…seriously? 172 MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES 173 People have diverse learning styles. Use as many as possible to reach the most learners. 1. Verbal-Linguistic 2. Math-Logical 3. Musical 4. Visual-Spatial 5. Bodily-Kinesthetic (movement) 6. Interpersonal 7. Intrapersonal 8. Later added Naturalist and Existentialist?!? 174 SCRIPT THEORY Schank, 1980’s 175 1. We learn norms through observation, attention, retention, rehearsal, and maturation 2. We think and act using unconscious scripts, made from: a. Learned and practiced behaviors b. Schemas c. Stereotypes d. Protocol e. Representations f. Inferences 176 DAVID BUSS 177 1953 Evolutionary Psychologist Focused on mate selection and retention strategies o Including violence and jealousy o Even these are forms of Adaptation (think evolution) Sees behavior as somewhat dependent on hardwiring from evolutionary adaptation for survival and breeding Sexual competition includes intrasexual competition for mates, AND adaptation to be more attractive. Tactics appeal to ♀ seeking security and ♂ seeking fertility/monogamy. 178 MICHEL FOUCAULT (1926-1984) Philosopher, Sociologist, Historian 179 Studied social institutions, power, and discourse Wrote 3 of intended 6 vols on Hx of Sexuality Wrote USE OF PLEASURE and CARE OF THE SELF – both on greek and roman antiquity. Critics said Lax Research, and Factual Inaccuracy Helped pioneer QUEER THEORY. His discourse helped create the idea of sexual minorities Sex Positive. 180 FRANK BEACH 1911-1988 181 Psychologist, Behavioral Endocrinologist Developed ideas of Receptivity and Proceptivity in mate selection Named the discipline of Behavioral Endocrinology Studied species differences in reproductive activities Focused on instinctive patterns in mate selection and parenting Student was Leonore Tiefer, who differed with him on what was important to study (she: subjectives, female sexuality). He was outraged at “non-scientificness”) 182 WILLIAM SIMON and JOHN GAGNON 183 Developed idea of “Sexual Scripts” o Including gender roles o Based on socialization o These pressure men to initiate, focus on goals, etc. Studied marital sex, paradox of sex while female sexual potential (30’s etc.) Sex is more than just biological o Sex acts must be understood in context- whom, where, when, why, meaning. o Wrote prior to homosexuality being a major consideration. 184 ROBERT TRIVERS 185 Evolutionary/Sociobiologist Concept of Parental Investment: higher riskchoosier about mates 5 kinds of relationships o ♂♀, Parent-child, Siblings, Acquaintances, Person with self. Had a biologically based theory of ethics, “indirect reciprocity” Travers-Willard Hypothesis: high status parents prefer sons. Lower status parents prefer daughters. Best investment and return in each case. 186 IRA REISS 1925- 187 Identified 4 standards of premarital sex: o Abstinence (seen as not realistic for everyone) o Permissiveness with affection o Permissiveness without affection o Double standard (did not see this as OK) Studied different criteria for love and commitment required for sex Predicted sexual revolution Developed tests to measure permissiveness Against sex-negative textbooks in 1950’s 188 MARGARET MEAD 1901-1978 189 Cultural anthropologist Reported healthy sexual attitudes in South Pacific Studied adolescent females and premarital sex in Samoa Controversial sex-positive findings that informed the sexual revolution Found cultures where gender roles reversed, egalitarian, and pacifist. Argued reproduction issues should not affect professional life. Argued cultural influences, not just biology, in genderbound abilities. 190 BRONISLAW MALINOWSKI 191 “Father of social anthropology” Ethnography Challenged universality of Oedipal Complex, instead proposed “nuclear complex” where boys lust for sisters 192 SIGMUND FREUD 1856-1939 193 Neuropsychologist, trained as MD Life=Libido, Death = Thanatos All neurosis were based in secret (repressed) sexual desires. Oral, Anal, Genital Oedipus and Electra Penis Envy and Castration Anxiety Fixation = inability to develop further Clitoral orgasm was “immature” 194 HAVELOCK ELLIS 1859-1939 195 Nonjudgmental, scientific approach to study of sex Developed “Sexual Inversion” (homosexuality) as an orientation that was neither disease nor crime. Biological approach to orientation Developed concepts of narcissism and autoeroticism Supporter of eugenics and social hygiene Champ of women’s rights and sex ed Normalized atypical behavior, paved for Kinsey et al. Open marriage to open lesbian Edith Lees. Impotent until 60 years until discovery of arousal to urologia. 196 SIMON LEVAY 1943- 197 Discovered differences between straight and gay men in 3rd interstitial nuclei of anterior hypothalamus (INAH3). Criticized for using only AIDS dead, small n, and not getting sexual histories of subjects (were they all gay? Was it an AIDS thing?) Never claimed to find anything definitive, just a significant difference. Wrote about homophilly—the need to find a similar, but not same, partner. Same sex couples use age, culture, etc. to emphasize differences. 198 HELEN FISHER 1945- 199 Anthropologist, Evolutionary Psychologist Expert on romantic love and attraction Postulates 3 phases: Lust (longing), Attraction (taking action), and Attachment (bonding) fMRI on “in love” finds: o dopamine and norepinephrine o serotonin (causing obsessive thoughts) o Activity in ventral tagmental area and caudate nucleus. o Women’s brainsmemory centers o Men’s brains visual areas 200 SHERE HITE 1942- 201 Criticized M&J for male-based models o They agreed with Freud about “normalcy” of PVI female orgasms. “Hite Report” found 70% of women anorgasmic in PVI, but most AOK with clitoral stimulation. Studied broader range of male sexual desires Meaning of Love Meaning of family Men, sex, and violence Female Loyalties and Rivalries Identified need to form alliances to change institutions 202 JOHN MONEY (1921-2006) CONTINUED 203 o o o o o John/Joan was David Reimer. Money’s institute specialized in intersex infants. -made them girls. Argued gender is fluid up until a certain age. Invented Lovemaps- attractions to people and things based on “shaping” from positive and negative experiences. o Claimed we “project” ideals onto loved ones based on our unspoken wishes. 204 MAGNUS HIRSCHFELD 1868-1935 205 o Called “Einstein of Sex” – studied all sexuality o Defended gay rights – called to repeal ¶175 which made gays analogous to cripples. o Posited that gays are intermediate 3rd sex. o Coined “transvestism. o Built inst for sexual research, incl libs, museum, etc o Urged gays to come out. Considered outing prominent gays. o Was attacked, skull cracked, library burnt down by Nazis. 206 CONFIDENCE INTERVAL 207 “CI” It’s sort-of like a margin of error. If CI=3%, and your stats say 50% of people like cheese, then you are confident that between 47% and 53% of people like cheese. 208 CONFIDENCE LEVEL 209 Sort of the inverse of Confidence interval Narrow (small) Confidence interval is high confidence level Expressed as %. 210 ITEM TOTAL ANALYSIS 211 Tests for one item’s consistency with other items for the same construct. Drops items with< 0.3 correlation. 212 CHRONBACH’S ALPHA 213 0.0 to 1.0 Summary measure of internal consistency between all items for one construct. 214 CHI SQUARE 215 Few restrictions/assumptions Weak analysis. Goodness of fit Is there a significant difference from expected values? E.g. do “women” average the same as “people” average? 216 REGRESSION 217 Shows stepwise influence of variables. Example o How much does A affect Y? o When A’s effects are removed, how much does B affect Y? o ….how much does C affect Y? Y=(constant)+coefA(A)+coefB(B)+…+Error 218 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH 219 Richly descriptive Naturalistic – happens in natural setting About process as much as effects—“how”, not just “what” Inductive – data driven, not theory driven, not “testing a hypothesis” Involves meaning—“why” is philosophical, not just the mechanical “how” 220 QUALITATIVE SAMPLING METHODS 221 (Looking for detail, not generalizability) Availability: A convenience sample Quota: a certain number of a certain type Maximum Variability: Seeking out Variance Minimum Variability: duh Deviant/Extreme: duh Expert/Judgment: Experts say they’re in the Pop Chain/Network/Snowball: One refers others Typical Case: Stat. avg of characteristic 222 VALIDITY IN QUALITATIVE 223 Have subjects read transcripts Detailed notes, recordings, artifacts Be aware of and document bias, record reflections Standard Interview Protocol Standard coding procedures Inter-rater checks Thorough lit review Triangulation with quantitative methods Multiple researchers Remove self from situation to write reflections 224 TRADITIONS IN QUALITATIVE 225 Biography – one person, whole life Ethnography – immersion in culture Case Study- one person, not whole life Grounded Theory – Theory develops from current data, not from previous research, etc. Phenomenology – how people give meaning to experiences/events 226 “OTHER” RESEARCH DESIGNS 227 Historical – can’t be tested, but can still note patterns. Developmental/Longitudinal Single Subject ABAB: BF Skinner. Baseline, intervention, withdraw interv., intro it again… Multiple Baselines – Varying schedule of interventions to see effects of timing Qualitative… 228 PRE-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN 229 One-Shot Case Study (no intervention) One group, Pre/Post test (no control group) Static Group Comparisons (2 groups, No pre-test) 230 QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN 231 Pre/Post test, non-equivalent groups (convenience samples. E.g. Don’s class v. Brent’s class) Time Series Design (pre-test, and several post tests at intervals. No control group) Non-equivalent Before and after. Like pre/post above, but comparing 2 groups that are LIKELY to be different prior to study. 232 TRUE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN 233 Always Control group Always Random assignment to groups Pre/Post Post Only The 4-way thing: o Experimental Group – Post Only o Control Group – Post Only o Experimental Goup – Pre/Post o Control group – pre/post Double Blind means that neither the experimenter nor the subject knows which group the subject is in. 234