THE FAT WE EAT.
INTRODUCTION
Humans and the Biological Cell
A human being starts its life from the biological cell, the basic unit of life. His good health also depends on the
efficiency of the biological cell. The biological cell and its organelles are generally composed of nucleic acids,
proteins, bio-chemicals and a fluid membrane surrounded by a skin2, 82. The cell thrives on the molecule ATP, the
currency of energy. ATP is an electrical charge that is used to synthesize molecules, drive molecular vehicles and
to transmit signals2 page 345. These electrical charges have to flow through ‘conductors’ which should be securely
insulated to avoid dissipation of electrical charges and distortion or wrong termination of a signal.
ATP is produced from glucose and its precursors. The molecular vehicles are proteins and their derivatives. The
proteins and their derivatives travel in a fluid membrane, which has a viscosity of about 100 times that of water 2 pg.
336. This implies that there is an oily substance in the fluid membrane. The skin consists of a bilayer of fatty acids
which close on themselves without any edges and no exposed carboxyl heads or hydrocarbon chains. The bilayer
of fatty acids is a self-sealing compartment with no holes2 page 30.
Activities including transduction and transmission of signals linking biological cells are carried out through
channels, synapses and axons enclosed within bilayer of fatty acids. The conducting medium is provided by the
hydrophilic carboxyl heads of the bilayer of fatty acids embedded in the fluid membrane. The insulation around the
conducting medium is provided by the hydrophobic hydrocarbon chains of the bilayer of fatty acids, which defines
the inside and outside of the biological cell, channels, synapses and axons 2 page 30.
The lubricated fluid membrane enclosed within the bilayer of fatty acids ensures that:  Bio-chemical and bio-physical activities of the whole cell are effectively carried out;
 Nutrients, ATP and charged ions do not leak out of the cell and are efficiently utilized;
 Unwanted microorganisms or foreign matter do not enter the cell to cause mutations etc.;
 Signals are meaningfully transduced, properly transmitted and terminated correctly.
Contradictions in the Biology of Fats and Fatty Acids
An analysis of the biology of fats in the human body shows a number of conflicting and incongruous concepts.
The research studies on fat synthesis, consumption and absorption in the recent sixty years and the theories
seem to raise a number of questions. An examination of the role of fat in mammals living in their natural
environment tends to disconnect with a few basic concepts on fat metabolism in humans.
The literature claims that the most important feature of the cell is the hydrophilic carboxyl head and the
hydrophobic hydro carbon chain i.e. the bilayer of fatty acids. Yet a considerable number of writers tend to use the
term fluid membrane indiscriminately for the fluid hydrophilic inside and the rigid hydrophobic hydrocarbon chains.
This tendency has led to a number of conflicting roles and assignments for the fatty acids in the life of the cell and
the related organs. Recent scientific studies, since the late 1960s, have started addressing the contradictions.
Table 1 spells out a few of the contradictions.
1
No.
1.
TABLE 1: - CONTRADICTIONS IN THE BIOLOGY OF FATS AND FATTY ACIDS
TOPIC
CONFLICTING CONCEPTS AND PERCEPTIONS
COMMENT
Fatty Acids 2 On page 605 “The utilization of 2 page 617Acetyl CoA from
If acetyl CoA is produced
and The
fatty acids as fuel requires
acetic acid is the molecule through pyruvate and used to
Production three stages of processing . used to synthesize in vivo generate the energy molecule
Energy
. . fatty acids are broken
fatty acids in mammals.
ATP, and the same acetyl
4
page
553
Molecule
down . . . . . . . . into acetyl
The question of
CoA is also used for the
ATP
CoA which is then
pyruvic acid as a
synthesis of fatty acids, then
processed in the citric acid
precursor of acetaldehyde the efficiency of the biological
cycle.”
seems to be rather an
processes becomes
2 On page 601 “Fatty acids are
academic point.
compromised. Why should
2 page 617 Animals cannot
fuel molecules.”
the cell spend so much
2 On page 467, Acetyl CoA is the convert fatty acids into
energy, effort and time to
fuel for the citric acid cycle. glucose; the molecule use produce fatty acids and then
. . . . . In the mitochondria
to generate ATP.
break them down? Why
2
page
845
matrix, pyruvate is
Malonyl CoA, the should the cell oxidize very
oxidatively decaboxylated
precursor for fatty acid
long chain polyunsaturated
by the pyruvate complex to synthesis, inhibits fatty
fatty acids to prostaglandins
form acetyl CoA”
acid degradation
instead of making energy out
81 Fat - Wikipedia, the free
2 page 610 “The oxidation of
of such fatty acids? The
encyclopedia: unsaturated fatty acids
concept on the use of fatty
Fats also serve as energy
presents some difficulties, acids as a precursor for
stores for the body . . . . . . . yet many of such fatty
energy molecules does not
. . . . . They are broken
acids are available in the
tally with the reality of the
down in the body to release diet. In fact, only two
“obese”. The theory of fatty
glycerol and free fatty acids. additional enzymes are
acids being converted into
The glycerol can be
required – an isomerase
energy molecules, while the
converted to glucose by the and a reductase – are
same fatty acids are required
liver and thus used as a
required to degrade a
to keep the cell alive can only
source of energy.
wide range of unsaturated be an academic exercise.
fatty acids.”
Wikipedia’s statement on fat
2 page 607 Muscle relies on
2 page626 In starvation, the
implies that fatty acids are not
fatty acids as a long term
level of free fatty acids
used as a source of energy.
source of energy. Medium
rises. Insulin inhibits
Medium chain fatty acids
chain fatty acids, which do
hydrolysis of fatty acids,
cannot be converted into
not require carnitine to enter hence prevents the
glucose, since they are
the mitochondria, are
production of energy
produced as intermediaries
oxidized normally . . . . . . .
molecules from fatty acids. during the in vivo production
to produce ATP.
of saturated palmitic acid.
Similarly, any ingested
medium chain saturated fatty
acids would be used for
generating saturated palmitic
acid 4 page 556.
2
TABLE 1: - CONTRADICTIONS IN THE BIOLOGY OF FATS AND FATTY ACIDS
No.
TOPIC
CONFLICTING CONCEPTS AND PERCEPTIONS
COMMENT
4 Linolenic acid produced
2.
Essential fatty 2 Page.627Mammals cannot
Mammals initially accept fatty acids
acids and
synthesize polyunsaturated C22 hexaethenoid and
which it cannot itself synthesize, but
Prostaglandins fatty acids.
linoleic acid produced
over the years such fatty acids
2 On page 601 Fatty acid
tetraethenoid acid C20 i.e. gradually damage the health of
derivatives serve as
arachidonic acid.
those who ingest them.
2 Page.627Arachidonic acid
hormones and intracellular
Prostaglandin molecules, derivative
messengers.
can be oxidized to
of fatty acids have been referred to
4 Research studies on
prostaglandin, a 20by different names such as signal
animals (since 1930s by a
carbon fatty acid
molecules, hormones, proteins,
number of schools of
containing a 5-carbon ring. autoclines, paraclines, etc. making it
36 The concept that
Hilditch, Hammond, Burr,
confusing to understand and
Smedley-Maclean,
prostaglandins or other
appreciate the actual role(s) they
Rieckehoff, Widmer, Klenk, eicosanoids derived from
play in the body.
Thomasson, Reinus, etc.),
fatty acids may play a role 2 Page.628 Simply put, prostaglandin
using poly unsaturated fatty in the development of
molecules are linoleic acids
acids which cannot be
cancer is not a new one. . elongated into very long chain poly
produced in vivo, showed
. . . The study of
unsaturated arachidonic acids which
that (a) Only linoleic,
involvement of
are oxidized fatty acids with
linolenic and arachidonic
prostaglandins in the
hydrophilic head and hydrophobic
acids cured the symptoms
pathogenesis and
tail. Prostaglandins damage the
of fat deficiency. All other
progression of cancer is
activities of the cells in at least two
poly unsaturated fatty acids currently a lively field of
ways e.g. (a) they disturb the
did not cure such
research. The evidence
movement of other molecules within
symptoms. Hence, the three weighs heavily in favour of the fluid membrane2 Page.332; (b) they
poly unsaturated fatty acids such a role in many types break a hydrogen bond within the
were classified as
of cancer. 32
bilayer of fatty acids2 Page.333 thereby
42 Examination of over 700
“essential” fatty acids,
impairing the impedance of the
because they must be
red cell lipid analyses of
bilayer, causing signals to fail to
supplied in the diet. (b)
children with Autistic
terminate properly.
Ingested linoleic and
Spectrum Disorder have
Many research studies have
linolenic generated many
revealed characteristic
identified prostaglandins and
other very long chain poly
patterns as elevation of
VLCFAs produced from the
unsaturated fatty acid such VLCFAs (erucic,
“essential” fatty acids as the source
as ricinoleic, euricic,
lignoceric, lumequic,
of many different varieties of
chaulmoogric, lignoceric,
behenic, adrenic,
diseases, ailments and impaired
lumequic, behenic. (c) All
pentacosanoic).
organs 30, 31,32,33,34.37.
81
the poly unsaturated fatty
The FDA has listed
These comments indicate that
acids provided signs of
many known or suspected polyunsaturated fatty acids, which
“growth” but seemed not to risks of omega-3, a
are not produced in vivo, can harm
have taken part in fat
polyunsaturated fatty acid. the body. Synthesized and ingested
metabolism. They were
The FDA says omega-3
fatty acids serve at least two
mainly deposited in the
has no proven benefits
important roles i.e. (a) bilayer of
adipose tissues.
and has recommended
fatty acids and (b) lubricant inside
that total dietary intake of the fluid membrane.
omega-3 fatty acids
should be limited.
3
TABLE 1: CONTRADICTIONS IN THE BIOLOGY OF FATS AND FATTY ACIDS
No.
TOPIC
CONFLICTING CONCEPTS AND PERCEPTIONS
COMMENT
3.
Fatty Acids, 56Many lipid processes 2 page 30 The hydrophobic
A good barrier between two
Cholesterol depend on the fluidity
interior of the bilayer
and Bilayer of the membrane lipids. serves as barrier between aqueous solutions should be
rigid in order to prevent
of Lipids
The fluidity of a lipid
two aqueous solutions.
(fatty Acids) bilayer depends on
The presence of saturated spillage; flexibility of the barrier
both its composition
fatty acyl residues favours enables movement of the
aqueous solutions. Hence, the
and temperature.
the rigid state.
2 page 722Cholesterol
2 On page 601 Fatty acids are
bilayer of fatty acids should be
flexible and rigid. There seems
modulates the animal
building blocks.
to be a lack of clarity and
cell membrane.
2 page 728 High serum levels
consistency in the literature
81, 2 page 728. Low
about the separate roles of the
of cholesterol cause
fluid membrane and the bilayer
Density Lipoprotein
disease and death by
of fatty acids as the boundary
(LDL) cholesterol has a contributing to the
barrier of the cell and the cells
highly hydrophobic
formation of
core consisting of
atherosclerotic plaques in external environment.
polyunsaturated fatty
arteries throughout the
The high viscosity of the fluid
acid known as
body. The excess
membrane and the fact that an
linoleate.
cholesterol is present in
ester of palmitoleic and oleic
the form of LDL particle,
2 page 336 The magnitude
acids is stored inside the cell
so called “bad
indicates that there is a
of the observed
cholesterol”.
2
On
page
601
diffusion coefficient of
“Many proteins lubricant supporting the
transport of nucleic acids,
the viscosity of the
are modified by the
proteins and other bio(fluid) membrane is
covalent attachment of
chemicals inside the cell.
about 100 times more
fatty acids, which target
When fatty acids become
than that of water,
them to membrane
covalently attached to a protein
rather like that of olive locations.”
82
then the bilayer becomes
oil.
All cells have a 'skin',
2 page 729 The released
impaired.
called the plasma
Cholesterol is naturally
un-esterified
membrane, protecting it
produced by the cell. The
cholesterol can be refrom the outside
various comments on how
esterified with
environment. The cell
cholesterol is used show the
palmitoleic and oleic
membrane regulates the
important roles cholesterol
acids for storage inside movement of water,
undertakes in the activities of
the cell.
nutrients and wastes into
the cell. The comments also
and out of the cell.
show how the cell produces
more cholesterol to seal the
holes created by
polyunsaturated fatty acids,
which are used in the bilayer of
fatty acids.
4
FATTY ACIDS AND THE CELL
Fatty Acids 2, 3, 4,
Annex 1 illustrates the common fatty acids. A molecule of fat consists of three fatty acid molecules and an alcohol
molecule, normally glycerol. Each natural fat is unique. The uniqueness of each natural fat depends on the
composition of the fatty acids. The type and quantity of the constituent fatty acids determine the chemical makeup
of the natural fat. A fatty acid has a carboxylic acid [-COOH] head and a hydrocarbon tail known as a chain, which
is either saturated or unsaturated. The number of carbon atoms in the chain is used to classify fatty acids into
short chain for 2-6 carbon atoms, medium chain for 8-12 carbon atoms, long chain for 14-18 carbon atoms and
very long chain for 20-24 carbon atoms.
Fatty acids with only single-bond between the carbon molecules are called saturated, and referred to as pure,
because the carbon atoms are completely occupied with as many hydrogen atoms as they can carry. Fatty acids
which do not have the full complement of hydrogen atoms and have double bonds in the carbon chain are known
as unsaturated. Fatty acids with only one double-bond are called mono-unsaturated while those with more than
one double-bond are called poly-unsaturated.
In an unsaturated fatty acid, the two hydrogen atoms that are bound to the double bond can occur in a cis or
trans configuration. This describes the orientation of the hydrogen atoms with respect to the carbon double bond.
Cis means "on the same side" and trans means "across".
Saturated fatty acids are very stable and do not react with other molecules. Mono-unsaturated fatty acids are
reasonably stable and do not easily react with the very active oxygen atom. Poly-unsaturated fatty acids are
unstable; the level of stability decreases as the number of double bonds increase. Poly unsaturated fatty acids
easily react with other carbon ions and the very active oxygen atom.
In Vivo Production of Fatty Acids
In mammals including humans, each biological cell starts with acetic acid and finally produces saturated palmitic
acid. The production process is in a step by step manner. It uses acetic acid to produce butyric acid, which then
produces caproic acid, which also produces caprylic acid. The caprylic acid continues the process and produces
capric acid, which produces lauric acid, i.e the short chain saturated acetic acid produces sequentially the five
short and medium chain saturated fatty acids as intermediate products. The lauric acid continues the step by step
process and produces another intermediate product saturated myristic acid and then palmitic acid as a final
product The cell also produces mono unsaturated palmitoleic acid as an intermediate product and finally produces
stearic acids and the mono unsaturated oleic acids as final products. Three final fatty acids i.e. saturated palmitic
and stearic and mono unsaturated oleic acids are the main fatty acids found in mammals. The cell cannot produce
any poly unsaturated fatty acids; such poly unsaturated fatty acids get into the body only through the food we eat.
Table 2 gives an idea of the predominant fatty acids found in the cells of mammals. 2, 4 pages 552-563
Acetic acid, a saturated fatty acid, is the basic material used for the natural production of fatty acids and sterols in
all living organisms i.e. plants and animals including humans 82. It is produced by bacteria called acetobacter,
which is found naturally in soils, water and a number food items. Human societies, for centuries, have allowed
acetic acid to be produced naturally in food items through fermentation. Acetic acid is fundamental to all forms of
life. 4
The saturated palmitic and stearic acids and the mono-unsaturated oleic acid are the predominant fatty acids
found in mammals including humans. These three predominant long chain fatty acids make up at least 90% (often
99.5%) of the total fatty acids found in mammals4. Table 2
5
Mammals including humans, as part of the reproduction strategy, produce and store the three predominant fatty
acids and moderate quantities of the short and medium chain saturated fatty acids, mono unsaturated palmitoleic
acid and the saturated myristic acid in the milk of the lactating female mammal4. The lactating female’s milk
normally contains practically no poly-unsaturated fatty acids, unless the female mammal has been ingesting large
quantities of poly-unsaturated fatty acids. 4,53 Table 3
It is important to note that mammals including humans cannot produce any poly unsaturated fatty acids and
saturated fatty acids with 20 or more carbon atoms. Any poly unsaturated fatty acids found in the body must have
been ingested as part of the food. 3, 4
6
TABLE 2: - DEPOT FATS OF DIFFERENT CLASSES OF MAMMALS4
% weight
RODENTS
HERBIVORA
Rat
Horse
Pig
Deer
Sheep
Camel
K'aroo
Rabbit
SATURATED
Butyric
Caproic
Caprylic
Capric
Lauric
Myristic
7
6
5
1
4
3
6
5
Palmitic
24
31
26
28
25
25
29
26
Stearic
5
5
5
12
35
28
27
14
Arachidic
Behenic
Lignoceric
MONO UNSATURATED
Palmitoleic
6
6
7
3
3
1
3
3
Oleic
Sum : the
Fatty
Acids without
PUFA
49
30
34
48
25
37
26
46
91
78
77
95
92
94
91
94
16
5
6
5
5
2
3
POLY UNSATURATED
Linoleic etc.
5
Unsat. C20-22 1
1
2
2
1
3
3
SOURCE: - Page 131 of The Chemical Constitution of Natural Fats; by T. P. Hilditch. and P.N.
Williams
7
TABLE 2 (cont.): - DEPOT FATS OF DIFFERENT CLASSES OF MAMMALS
HERBIVORA
% weight
OMNIVORA
Giant
Hippo Panda E'phant
CANIVORA
Sacred
Bamboo Human
Cat
Lion
Tiger
SATURATED
Butyric
Caproic
Caprylic
Capric
Lauric
Myristic
2
5
6
3
6
4
5
1
Palmitic
27
26
44
19
25
29
29
22
Stearic
22
7
7
6
6
17
18
25
Arachidic
Behenic
Lignoceric
MONO UNSATURATED
Palmitoleic 2
4
5
4
7
4
2
7
Oleic
Sum Fatty
Acids
without
PUFA
45
45
27
54
45
41
40
39
98
87
89
86
89
95
94
94
POLY UNSATURATED
Linoleic
etc.
4
12
6
13
8
2
4
Unsat.
C20-22
1
3
1
2
3
SOURCE: - Page 131 of The Chemical Constitution of Natural Fats; by T. P. Hilditch. and
P.N. Williams
8
TABLE 3: -FATTY ACID LEVELS OF MILK OF MAMMALS
% Molar
Indian
Cow
Indian Indian Indian
Sheep Goat Camel
Indian
Buffalo
Turkish
Buffalo
Europe
Human
SATURATED
Acetic
Butyric
10.6
13.5
15.4
10.1
11.5
12.6
1.1
Caproic
3.7
0.4
1.1
0.7
-
3.3
0.1
Caprylic
1.6
0.5
1.4
2.2
0.1
0.8
0.7
Capric
2.8
1
1.5
1.8
0.5
1.7
3.4
Lauric
2.9
2.5
2
3.4
1.9
3.5
7.8
Myristic
14.3
13.3
9.8
7.8
5.3
12.5
9.6
Palmitic
28.4
31.5
31.9
22.5
25.1
26.3
23.4
Stearic
6.8
10.1
12.9
16.3
19
11.5
6.3
Arachidic
0.7
0.1
1
1.1
1.1
0.9
MONO UNSATURATED
Palmitoleic
1.5
2
3
6.5
2.9
3.5
3.3
Oleic
23.1
23
16.8
23.1
32
21
33.3
Total Fatty Acids
96.4
97.8
95.9
95.4
99.4
97.8
89.9
0.4
1.2
0.2
1
1.3
7.2
POLY UNSATURATED
Linoleic
3.1
Linolenic
0.4
Euricic
C20-22
0.5
0.8
3.3
0.6
0.9
2..2
SOURCE: - The Industrial Chemistry of the Fats and Waxes by T. P. Hilditch D.Sc (Lond.)
F.R.I.C, F.R.S.
9
Ingested fat. Since 1941, the basic unchallenged theory for the absorption and utilization of fat in mammals
implies that an ingested fat is partitioned into three groups of fatty acids and glycerol before they are metabolised
or used by the body. 4
One group, made up of ingested short and medium chain saturated fatty acids, would be absorbed and fully
metabolised by the cells. This is underscored by many experiments since 1938, which have shown that ingested
short and medium chain saturated fat acids disappear completely from the body after 36 hours and none is
excreted. 4 pg 568. The short and medium chain saturated fatty acids (SMCSFA) are not stored as depot fat. None is
deposited anywhere in the body. They cannot be converted into energy. As part the systematic processing of fatty
acids, ingested short and medium chain saturated fatty acids are finally converted into saturated palmitic,
saturated stearic and mono-unsaturated oleic acids in mammals.
The second group made up of ingested two long chain saturated and one cis-mono unsaturated fatty acids initially
get re-assembled with glycerol into fat and deposited at the adipose tissues, when acetyl CoA/malonyl CoA is
abundant. 2 page 854. Some of these long chain fatty acids are utilized by the cells for the bilayer of fatty acids and
lubrication of the fluid membrane when there is inadequate supply of SMCSFA 2.
The third group made up of ingested long or very longer chain poly unsaturated fatty acids go to and stay at the
adipose tissues as fat and are not normally used by the cells or metabolised 4. If there is inadequate supply of the
three predominant fatty acids some of the poly unsaturated fatty acids reinforced by cholesterol may be used in
the bilayer of fatty acids.2 Ingested trans-unsaturated fatty acids have been shown that they can also be utilized
by the cells. Ingested very long chain fatty acids are excreted.4
Lubrication of the Contents of the Cell 2, 52
The fluid membrane is known to have a viscosity of about 100 times that of water, like that of olive oil 2 pg. 336 i.e.
about 27.64 mPa·s at the body temperature of 34.7oC. The cell uses mono unsaturated palmitoleic and oleic acids
to form an ester with cholesterol, which is then stored inside the cell.2 (page 729). Let us call the ester, which is similar
to olive oil, oleic oil.
The molecules within the cell do a lot of movement. The oleic oil as a good lubricant will reduce the shear forces
of the layers of liquids/solids moving over one another. The oleic oil would neither react with nor absorb oxygen.
Poly unsaturated fatty acids react with or absorb oxygen and would not be suitable. Saturated fatty acids would
not be fluid enough at the body temperature. The cell ensures that lubrication of the fluid membrane is undertaken
by the right liquid fatty acids i.e. palmitoleic and oleic acids, which are produced in vivo or ingested.
ANALOGY Lubricants in the moving parts of machines behave silently and unobtrusively. Users of machines tend
to ignore and forget about the lubricants until problems arise. However, the manufacturers of moving parts of
machines place a lot of importance on the properties of the lubricants. Similarly, the oleic oil tends to be ignored
because it is silent and unobtrusive.
Bilayer of Fatty Acids 23, 60, 65,66,70,82
The hydrophobic hydrocarbon chains of fatty acids act as an insulator and protective skin surrounding the
hydrophilic carboxyl heads (-COOH) lying in a fluid membrane of the cell. The bilayer has been described as a
barrier between two aqueous compartments. The quality of the bilayer as an impermeable insulator and a selfsealing compartment with no holes depends on the type of hydrocarbon chains of the fatty acids.
There are four different types of hydrocarbon chains i.e. saturated (cylinder shaped), cis-mono unsaturated
(wedge shaped), poly unsaturated (twisted shape) and trans-unsaturated (cylinder and twisted shape). A few
published descriptions for establishing suitable characteristics of hydrocarbon chains for the bi-layer would be: 10






“The hydrocarbon chain is almost invariably UN-BRANCHED i.e. straight in animal fatty acids” 2 page 321
“Lipid bilayers are SELF-SEALING, because a hole in a bilayer is energetically unfavourable” 2 page 327
“Relatively PURE lipids are well suited for insulation” 2 page 329
“Fatty acid chains can exist in an ordered RIGID state or in a relatively disordered, fluid state. . . . . . . . . .
. . . The presence of saturated fatty acyl residues favours the rigid state because their straight
hydrocarbon chains interact favourably with each other. On the other hand, a cis double bond produces a
bend in the hydrocarbon chain. This bend interferes with a highly ordered packing of fatty acyl chains.”
“Membrane lipids form a permeability barrier (high impedance – good INSULATION)” 2 page 327
“The double bonds (of unsaturated fatty acids) make it more difficult to PACK THE CHAINS TOGETHER
and therefore make the lipid bilayer more difficult to freeze.” 81
The factors for assessing the suitable characteristics of fatty acids for the bilayer would include: 1. Purity2: - A good permeability barrier can best be achieved with pure fatty acids. Only saturated fatty
acids, with the full complement of hydrogen atoms in the hydrocarbon chain, can be identified as having
no blemish, hence pure.
2. Flexibility and Rigidity5, 82: - In order to avoid molecular drift and to achieve clearly defined boundary the
fatty acids must be rigid i.e. solid and flexible at the temperature of the body. The fatty acids that are solid
at the body temperature are long chain saturated and trans-unsaturated fatty acids.
3. Good Insulation Properties1, 62: - The hydrophobic hydrocarbon tails of all fatty acids have insulating
properties and would be able to prevent (a) the diffusion of ions; (b) leakage of electrical signals or (c) the
drop of voltage across the bilayer. Any fatty acid should be able to serve as an insulator with a low
dielectric constant to resist the flow of electrical signals through it. However, long chain saturated fatty
acids have marked lower dielectric constants.83
4. Should not React Easily with Oxygen or Water: 2, 59 - The more than two double carbon bonds in poly
unsaturated fatty acids can be easily attacked by water and oxygen molecules. Linoleic and linoleic acids
are easily elongated to many different very long chain poly unsaturated fatty acids 3.
5. Impermeable to Water and other Molecules61: - Poly unsaturated fatty acids are susceptible to the
ingress of water molecules and microorganisms.
6. Self-Sealing 4, 69, 70 - Saturated fatty acids have straight hydrocarbon chains and can self-seal tightly
together.
The six factors are fully satisfied by the saturated fatty acids. The saturated palmitic and stearic acids, two of the
predominant fatty acids naturally produced and found in the body of mammals, must therefore be meant for the bilayer of fatty acids.
The Bilayer of Fatty Acids and Cholesterol. In view of the vital role of the bilayer of fatty acids, when there is a
shortage of saturated palmitic and stearic acids, other types of available fatty acids, such as trans and cis
unsaturated fatty acids can be used in the self-sealing skin. The wedge or twisted shaped hydrocarbon chains of
cis unsaturated double bonds make it difficult for such fatty acids to pack tightly together and become self-sealing,
as demanded by the first and sixth factors. These qualities are achieved by the use of cholesterol to straighten the
chains, seal the bilayer and make it adequately rigid, flexible and impermeable. The use of cholesterol and polyunsaturated fatty acids in the bilayer produces LDL cholesterol, the bad cholesterol. The quantum of cholesterol
used depends on the level of unsaturation i.e. poly-unsaturated fatty acids require more cholesterol than monounsaturated fatty acids.
Figure 1 gives an idea of the structure of cholesterol. Figure 2 is a schematic drawing of cholesterol in monounsaturated fatty acids. Figure 3 is a schematic drawing of mono-unsaturated and saturated fatty acids. Figure 4
11
is space-filling models of saturated, mono-unsaturated and poly-unsaturated fatty acids. The space-filling models
show the challenge in ensuring that a poly-unsaturated fatty acid bilayer is properly sealed with cholesterol.
High concentrations of cholesterol disrupt the integrity of the cell membranes.2 page729. In effect the impedance of
the bilayer of fatty acids gets impaired, which is an unfavourable condition for the termination of signals. Impaired
bilayer of fatty acids would also a capacitor and a resistor connected in parallel within the bilayer.. It has been
noted that the “time constants Τ in biological membranes (bilayer) vary over a wide range, even though the
capacitance per unit of the membrane surface area is remarkably constant (about 1µF/cm2) in all membranes
examined1 page49.” The dissimilar time constants must be due to differences in the resistances of the different types
of hydrocarbon chains in the bilayer.1 page50.
Figure 1
The Structure of CHOLESTEROL
Cholesterol is represented by a formula in (A), by a schematic drawing in (B), and as a spacefilling model in (C).
Figure 2
Schematic Drawing of Cholesterol in Mono-unsaturated Fatty Acids
12
Figure 3
Schematic Drawing of Mono-Unsaturated and Saturated Fatty Acids Bilayer
Figure 4 Space-Filling Models of Saturated, Mono-Unsaturated and Poly-Unsaturated Fatty Acids
ANALOGY Insulators surrounding heating systems and electrical cables, systems and equipment and pipes
carrying fluids behave silently and unobtrusively. Users of electricity and fluids normally ignore and forget about
the insulators and pipes until problems arise. However, the manufacturers place a lot of importance on the
Insulators and pipes by ensuring that they can withstand all foreseeable hazards. Similarly, the saturated fatty
acids tend to be ignored because they are silent and unobtrusive.
13
HUMANS AND EDIBLE FAT
The biological cell needs fatty acids as implied above. Humans and animals tend to eat and digest food that helps
them to produce the type of fatty acids the cell and the body need. What are the suitable fatty acids for the cells of
humans and consequently the suitable food to produce such fatty acids? This can best be answered by
considering the fat and fatty acids in the cells and bodies of animals, with similar biological characteristics as
humans, but mammals do not eat fat as we know it. Herbivores eat food that contains very little or no fat, yet they
have considerable quantities of fat or fatty acids in their body and in the milk of the lactating female. Their body
must have produced the fat that it must have. The effective performance of each cell requires these specific fatty
acids and cholesterol as discussed above
The fat in the body of an herbivore, fully fed on grass, is made up of mainly long chain fatty acids i.e. about 5%
saturated myristic acid, about 30% saturated palmitic acid, about 5% monounsaturated palmitoleic acid, about
20% saturated stearic acid and about 40% monounsaturated oleic acid, see Table 2. There are no short and
medium chain saturated fatty acids. There are very little or no poly unsaturated fatty acids. The fat in the milk of
the lactating female herbivore is made up of about 15% of five different short and medium chain saturated fatty
acids and about 85% of the five fatty acids normally found in the body. There are very little or no poly-unsaturated
fatty acids see Table 3. 4
The body fat and the lactating milk fat of herbivores are produced by the cells from acetic acid4. The acetic acid is
generated during the fermentation of the grass in the first stomach of the herbivore. As discussed above, the short
chain saturated acetic acid is used by the cells to sequentially produce five short and medium chain saturated
fatty acids (i.e. butyric, caproic, caprylic, capric and lauric acids), long chain saturated myristic acid and
monounsaturated palmitoleic acid until the three other long chain fatty acids (i.e. saturated palmitic, saturated
stearic, and monounsaturated oleic acids) are produced. No other fatty acids, including all poly unsaturated fatty
acids, are produced.
Mammals, that do not have two stomachs, need to ingest the requisite fat or fermented food as part of the diet to
enable the cells to make and use the suitable fatty acids. Direct ingestion of fatty acids including acetic acid can
be harmful; hence, fat with the right fatty acids need to be ingested as part of the food or water.
Edible Fats and Fatty Acids
Plants do not take in, consume or “eat” fat as we know it. Actually, if you feed a plant with fat it is likely to die. Yet
the living parts of plants have fat or fatty acids. The cells of the plant also use the short chain saturated acetic acid
to produce their requirement of fat or fatty acids. The living parts of the plant contain mainly saturated palmitic acid
and monounsaturated oleic acid. The dead parts of the plant do not contain fat or fatty acids.4
The seed of the plant also contains fat at least around the living part, the eye. The largest family of seeds, the
grain with soft covering e.g. beans, rice, maize, soya bean, sunflower, cotton seed, rape/flax seed and wheat, etc.,
tend to have a variety of long chain saturated, unsaturated fatty acids and poly-unsaturated fatty acids around the
eye. A few seeds with very hard shell covering tend to have mainly short and medium chain saturated fatty acids
as part of the meat. Seeds with juicy fruit covering tend to have mainly saturated palmitic, saturated stearic and
monounsaturated oleic acids in the juicy fruit part and sometimes the seed. 4
Mammals, in their natural environment, tend to feed on fruits, grass/leaves and seeds with hard covering, which
have very low levels of poly-unsaturated fatty acids. During the process of feeding, the mammals carry the hard
covering or fruit seeds from one point to another creating the conditions for propagation. Most mammals tend to
avoid seed grains, especially those with high levels of alkaloids and poly-unsaturated fatty acids.
14
Humans societies that eat grains with high levels of alkaloids and poly-unsaturated fatty acids would normally
ferment the grain21, 22. The fermentation eliminates the harmful alkaloids and poly-unsaturated fatty acids while it
introduces acetic acid one of the basic molecules for survival. Most plants for various reasons including survival
and propagation strategies have poly unsaturated fatty acids and alkaloids for protection against predators. The
initiation of germination causes a catabolic action in the seed grain by converting the poly unsaturated fatty acids
and alkaloids into energy, thanks to isomerise and reductase, for germination 67. The process of fermentation
destroys the poly unsaturated fatty acids and alkaloids, while producing saturated acetic acid.
Currently, humans eat three types of fat. Each of the three types of fat is uniquely identified by the predominance
of certain fatty acids. When we eat fat, the body separates the fat into three main fatty acids and glycerol. The
body can convert glycerol to glucose, which is used to generate energy. Animals including humans cannot convert
fatty acids into glucose; thus the fatty acids cannot be converted into energy. The body uses each of the three
different fats in a specific manner, due to the types of fatty acids.
Type 1 Fats Type 1 fats have high levels of short and medium chain saturated fatty acids i.e. not less than 15%
and no or very little poly unsaturated fatty acids i.e. less than 2%. The short and medium chain saturated fatty
acids (SMCSFA) are acetic, butyric, caproic, caprylic, capric and lauric acids. Sources of such fats are organic
butter, breast milk, coconut oil, palm kennel oil and fermented foods, e.g. fermented grains (ahey, pito, ‘corn
dough’, soya sauce, etc.), fermented fruits (cider, wine, etc.), fermented tubers and tree parts (gari, konkonte,
palm wine, bitters, etc.) fermented fish and meat (kobi, momoni,etc.), etc.
The SMCSFA of this group when ingested go directly to the cells. Their presence in breast milk is a major reason
why breast milk protects the baby against diseases. These fatty acids, when eaten are converted into the three
predominant fatty acids by the cells to support their activities. Cohort and population studies and laboratory
experiments have shown that persons who eat fats containing high levels of such short and medium chain
saturated fatty acids (SMCSFA) exhibit good health. A number of web sites have published on the many findings
of the health benefits of these fatty acids73, 156 e.g. www.westonaprice.org and www.price-pottenger.org.
The SMCSFA are not found in the fat tissues; hence they do not contribute to body fat. Type 1 fats and their
derivatives are being used in many ways in the health sector and as food supplements for premature babies and
the immunologically impaired. Emeritus Professor Jon J. Kabara of the Department of Chemistry and
Pharmacology at Michigan State University and his team, after extensive research work proved the antiviral,
antibacterial, antifungal and antiprotozoal properties of the saturated short and medium chain fatty acids found in
lactating mother’s milk fat. Many other lipid scientists have confirmed the results of Professor Kabara 76
Type 2 Fats Type 2 fats have very high levels of saturated palmitic, saturated stearic and monounsaturated oleic
acids i.e. about a total of 90% and no or very little poly unsaturated fatty acids i.e. less than 10%. Sources of such
fats are organic butter, fresh milk, palm oil, shea butter, olive oil, organic animal fat, etc. These three fatty acids
are produced and used by the cells for the two main roles of fatty acids in the body i.e. the bilayer of fatty acids
and lubrication of the fluid membrane. The Type 2 fats have been identified as promoting and maintaining good
health while preventing diseases.
Type 3 Fats Type 3 fats are uniquely identified by high levels of long chain poly unsaturated fatty acids, cis or
trans i.e. 20% or more. Examples are soybean oil, corn oil, cotton seed oil, sunflower oil, safflower oil, canola oil
(rape seed oil), flax seed oil, ground nut oil, palm olein, margarine, shortening etc.
The long chain poly-unsaturated (LCPU) fatty acids cannot be produced naturally by mammals including humans.
They get into the body only through the food we eat. At the Fifty-Fifth Scientific Meeting of the Nutrition Society of
15
the United Kingdom held on 15 October 1949 on the theme Triglyceride Fats In Human Nutrition, Dr T. P. Hilditch
gave a lecture on ‘The Chemical Constitution of Natural Fats’. He pointed out: “It is not yet certain how far an animal can utilize fatty acids other than those which it can itself synthesize
(e.g. palmitic, stearic, oleic, palmitoleic). It has not yet been adequately demonstrated whether other acids
(e.g. erucic acid of rape oils, elaeostearic acid of tung oil) are also compatible with animal metabolism,
although it is well recognized that such oils may be initially accepted without apparent metabolic
disturbance.”
It is now clear that mammals initially accept fatty acids other than those which it can itself synthesize, but over the
years such fatty acids, which the cell cannot synthesize, gradually damage the health of those who ingest them.
The LCPU fatty acids are unstable and some of the cis-unsaturated fatty acid molecules turn into transunsaturated fatty acids during processing. These LCPU fatty acids, when eaten as processed unsaturated
vegetable oils or as part of unfermented grains, are stored in the fat tissues 4 making us grow fat. In the absence
of saturated palmitic, saturated stearic and monounsaturated oleic acids, the LCPU fatty acids reinforced with
cholesterol may be used in the cell wall or enter a cell. Such long chain poly-unsaturated fatty acids easily get
elongated 4 by the carbonium ions released during glycolysis to produce arachidonic acid and other very long
chain poly-unsaturated fatty acids. Arachidonic acid is oxidized by the oxygen molecules, meant for energy
production, to create prostaglandins while generating cell damaging free radicals 2.
16
TABLE 4 COMPARISON OF
SATURATED, MONOUNSATURATED AND POLYUNSATURATED FATS
Saturated Fats
Definition
Saturated fats have 50+% of
fatty acids as saturated and
<10% of Poly Unsaturated
Fatty Acids.
Saturated fats are produced
at low temperatures (around
Production 100oC); do not contain trans
fatty acids; stable and do not
go rancid easily.
Edible
Considered as suitable for
food.
Solid at temperatures below
25oC
Saturated fats raise HDL
Effect on
cholesterol and lowers LDL
cholesterol:
cholesterol levels.
Lactating mammal’s milk,
Derived
animal fat and tropical fruits,
from:
beans and nuts.
Form:
Health
Mammals including humans
naturally produce eight
saturated fatty acids in the
body i.e. butyric, caproic,
caprylic, capric, lauric,
myristic, palmitic and stearic
acids. The saturated short
and medium chain saturated
fatty acids are known to be
anti-microbial.
Milk butter, coconut oil, palm
Commonly
kernel oil, organic lard, palm
found in:
oil, shea butter, cocoa butter.
Mono-Unsaturated Fats
with <10% of PUFA
More than 50% of mono
unsaturated fatty acids
and less than 10% as
poly unsaturated.
Can be processed at
low temperatures
(around 100oC).
Virgin olive oil
considered as suitable
for food.
Liquid at room
temperature.
Raise HDL cholesterol
and lowers LDL
cholesterol levels
The fruit of the olive
Fats with > 20% of Poly
Unsaturated and Trans Fatty Acids
Unsaturated vegetable with more
than 20% as poly unsaturated.
Unsaturated vegetable fats are not
stable and go rancid easily; unless
processed at very high
temperatures (about 200oC),
thereby generating trans fatty
acids.
Goes rancid easily and not
recommended for food
Liquid at room temperature.
Processed unsaturated vegetable
fats raise LDL cholesterol and
lowers HDL cholesterol levels.
Seed grains.
Mammals including
humans naturally
produce two cis mono
unsaturated fatty acids
i.e. palmitoleic and oleic
acids.
Olive oil
17
Poly unsaturated fatty acids are not
produced by mammals. Ingested
poly unsaturated fatty acids can
become elongated to form many
different kinds of very long chain
poly unsaturated fatty acids, one of
which (arachidonic acid) reacts with
oxygen to become prostaglandin
while generating free radicals. The
prostaglandins, trans-poly
unsaturated fatty acids are
associated with almost all the
diseases and.
Corn oil, Sunflower oil, soybean oil,
canola oil (rape seed oil), cotton
seed oil, flax seed oil, margarine,
shortening, ground nut oil, etc.
FAT AND HEALTH
The cell, as the fundamental structural and functional unit of the body, is the basis of good or bad health. The
functional activities are carried out by the organelles using proteins and their derivatives powered by the energy
provided by glucose and its precursors i.e. carbohydrates, alcohol/glycerol and sugars. The movement of the
proteins in the fluid membrane is supported by the lubrication provided by the ester of mono unsaturated oleic
acid. The bilayers of saturated palmitic and stearic acids serve to prevent the leakage of the contents of the cell
and allow proper termination of electrical signals while acting also as “security” barrier against intrusion by
unwelcome foreign bodies. The health of the cell depends on the quality of both fatty acids in the bilayer and
inside the cell. Improper or impaired fatty acids affect and influence the performance of the cells in various ways.
Type 1 Fats. The saturated short and medium chain fatty acids found in type 1 fats are nontoxic. In view of the
research findings, the American FDA has approved a number of drugs which use derivatives of type 1 oils for
medical purposes e.g. Lauricidin, from lauric acid, is used for the treatment of genital herpes, hepatitis C and HIV;
Intravenous infusions based on SMCSFA for premature babies and the immunologically impaired; Caprylidene 96,
from caprylic acid, a medical food approved in March 2009 by FDA for the treatment of Alzheimer disease.
There are a number postulates on how these short and medium chain saturated fatty acids carry out the
destruction of the microorganisms 72 e.g.
 Fluidizing the lipids and phospholipids in the envelope of the virus thereby causing the disintegration of
the microbial membrane;
 Interference with signal transduction/toxin formation;
 Virucidal effect on enveloped RNA and DNA viruses.
 interference with virus assembly and viral maturation
Each of the four explanations makes sense; but what happens to the fatty acids after it has destroyed the
microorganism? Experiments by many researchers have shown that these SMCSFAs varnish from the body 36
hours after ingestion. We know that acetic acid produce step by step each of the five short and medium chain fatty
acids until palmitic acid results. The other two fatty acids are then produced. These three predominant fatty acids
are used to refurbish the cell. Such sequential production process will welcome the ingestion of preformed
SMCSFAs. The question is therefore answered by: Any of the short and medium chain saturated fatty acids when ingested can be used to produce the three
predominant fatty acids. The cell would use the saturated palmitic and stearic acids thus produced to
refurbish a microorganism impaired bilayer of fatty acids thereby destroying any microorganism that has
attacked the cell.The cell would also insert fresh “oleic oil” into the cell, thereby improving the dynamics of
the fluid membrane. Finally all microorganisms and any inappropriate fatty acids would be destroyed. The
cell having been refurbished resumes its normal activities in support of any medical regime and ensures
good health. It is worth to note that apo proteins, cell targeting proteins, have the ability to solubilize a
hydrophobic lipid. Apo proteins carry SMCSFAs to damaged fatty acids for replacement. 2 page 727
These short and medium chain saturated fatty acids inactivate many viruses, bacteria, fungi, yeast etc., which
have infected the bi-layer of fatty acids of the cell. They also are known to block the production of prostaglandins.
Annex 2 gives a list of microorganisms inactivated by short and medium chain saturated fatty acids and some of
the health benefits.
18
Type 2 Fats. The saturated palmitic and stearic and mono unsaturated oleic acids found in type 2 fats are also
known to be nontoxic. The bilayer of fatty acids and the lubricant inside the cell have been identified as made up
of the fatty acids in type 2 fats. Type 2 fats have been found to promote good health. 4, 5, 73, 87, 88, 89
Type 3 Fats. The quality of the bilayer of fatty acids can be impaired due to the presence of high levels of transunsaturated fatty acids, poly unsaturated fatty acids reinforced with large quantities of cholesterol and/or very long
chain poly unsaturated fatty acids. Prostaglandins and relatives eicosanoids, i.e. oxidized arachidonic acid, are
short lived, yet they disturb the normal activities of the cell in which they are synthesized and adjoining cells.
Prostaglandins impair and lower the impedance of the bilayer of fatty acids, while blocking the movement of the
molecules inside cell. 2, 29, 38, 39
The low impedance creates a sort of “bilayer capacitor” i.e. two conductors (carboxyl heads) sandwich a low
impedance insulator (impaired bilayer). Any electrical signal or impulse will then charge the “bilayer capacitor”.
The charged “bilayer capacitor” will be discharged through the bilayer. The charging and discharging of the bilayer
by electrical signals gradually singes the bilayer to form a gluey mass of poly unsaturated fatty acids and
cholesterol, a chaotic tangle of neuro-filaments. 1, 20
Impaired the bilayer of fatty acids can cause cross talk and prevents signals to terminate properly. Further,
impaired bilayer makes it easy for foreign matter and microorganisms to enter the cell. The foreign matter and
microorganisms especially bacteria and viruses would damage the cell in various ways including causing mutation
and metabolic disorder. 2, 31, 36, 46
The harm that can be caused by poly unsaturated fatty acids (both Trans- and Cis-) include:  Blockage of arteries is due to the accumulation of ox LDL cholesterol, which consists of poly unsaturated
linoleic acid and cholesterol. The arteries in various parts of the body can get blocked to cause ailments
such as hypertension, heart diseases, erectile dysfunction, cataract, etc. Veins do not get blocked. 2, 14, 78.
 Impairment of the bilayer of fatty acids by very high levels of cholesterol and poly unsaturated acids
creates conditions that allow the entry of cells by microorganisms such as fungi, yeast, bacterial, virus,
etc. resulting in the mal-functioning of cells and associated organs including mutation and metabolic
disorder e.g. diabetes, asthma, cancers, skin diseases, whites, colds (flu), etc. 19, 23, 81
 Inflammation and/or contraction of the fine muscles and disturbance of the lubrication of fluid membrane
by prostaglandins causing tumours, cramps and pain such as headache/migraine, menstrual pains,
inelastic uterus/vagina, muscle pull, labour complications, haemorrhoids, glaucoma, cancers, etc. 2, 29, 32,
35, 36, 37

Impaired bilayer of fatty acids (myelin) due to poor insulation caused by high levels of very long chain poly
unsaturated fatty acids would result in either failure in transmission/termination or improper transduction
of signals creating tumours, dementia and neural disorders, e.g. cancer, Alzheimer’s disease, autism,
epilepsy, inadequate functioning of the senses, etc. 1, 2, 16, 31, 48, 75, 89
THE FALLACY OF SATURATED FAT/CHOLESTEROL HYPOTHESIS AND THE CHARADE OF TRANS FAT
As at the beginning of the twentieth century, the consumption of processed unsaturated vegetable fats in the
world was for all practical purposes zero. 8, 10. There were practically no complaints about obesity or
cardiovascular diseases. Autism and diabetes were rare or not known. The word prostaglandin did not exist, just
as prostate enlargement was rare.38 In Ghana or the people who lived here are known to have been eating oil
from the palm tree for more than four thousand years 24 and would not use processed unsaturated vegetable fats
for food until after the 1940s.
19
By the end of the twentieth century, the consumption of processed unsaturated vegetable fats in the world had
risen to more than two thirds of the total consumed edible oils. Since the consumption of processed unsaturated
vegetable fats started increasing, the non-communicable diseases have also been increasing linearly with a time
lag of about 10 years or less. It is reckoned that by 2009, the United States of America had about 80 million
people with cardiovascular diseases and about 795,000 people suffer new or recurrent strokes each year. By the
age of 50, most American men start to worry about prostate enlargement. Autism in the United States of America
(USA) increased in paediatric prevalence by 556 per cent between 1991 and 1997. Processed unsaturated
vegetable fats are the main oil consumed in the United States of America. The WHO 2008-2013 Action Plan for
the Global Strategy for the Prevention and Control of Non-communicable Diseases states among other issues that
“Today, non-communicable diseases (NCDs), mainly cardiovascular diseases, cancers, chronic respiratory
diseases and diabetes represent a leading threat to human health and development. These four diseases are the
world’s biggest killers, causing an estimated 35 million deaths each year - 60% of all deaths globally - with 80% in
low- and middle-income countries.”
How and why did the world get into such dramatic health crisis? The WHO has accused industrially processed
fatty, salty and sugary foods. The global use of industrially processed unsaturated vegetable oils is more the result
of historical convenience and politically backed aggressive trade tactics.
How Unsaturated Vegetable Oils Became Edible 8 During the 1870 Franco-German war, the French Government
offered a prize for the production of a satisfactory butter substitute for use by the French army. A French chemist
Hippolyte Mège-Mouriés developed a butter-like substance from animal fat, oleomargarine. Mège-Mouriés
patented his concept and in 1871 he sold the patent to the Dutch company Jurgens, which became part of
Unilever. From 1877 up to the start of the 20th century, the United States of America (USA) restricted the sale of
margarine in America, through taxes, expensive licenses and colour bans. In Canada, margarine was banned
from 1886 until 1948. Until the 1960s, it was illegal to sell margarine in Australia, where butter is one of their major
agricultural products.
Before the beginning of the 20th century, as a follow up to the prize offered by the French Government, various
attempts were made to produce suitable edible fats from many different fatty materials, including unsaturated
vegetable fats.
Raw unsaturated vegetable fats are highly unstable chemically. They easily react with oxygen or water. Food
prepared with unsaturated vegetable fats become rancid in a very short period. Before 1911, all societies in the
world did not use unsaturated vegetable fats for food.
In the 1890s, Nobel laureate Paul Sabatier formulated the chemistry of hydrogenation, which was adopted to
modify some of the properties of unsaturated vegetable fats artificially to make them more stable, thereby
increasing their shelf life. Wilhelm Normann patented the technology of the hydrogenation of unsaturated
vegetable fats and sold it in 1909 to Procter & Gamble. In 1911, Procter & Gamble began marketing the first
hydrogenated fat, labelled CRISCO, produced from cottonseed oil, very cheap oil. When Crisco became available
in the market, the government of USA relaxed the restrictions on importing margarine into the USA.
Before and during the first half of the First World War, unsaturated vegetable fats such as cotton seed oil, soya
bean oil, sunflower oil, linseed oil, sesame oil, corn/maize oil, safflower oil, etc., known as drying fats, were used
mainly for paints, varnish, lubricants, insulation of electrical cables etc3 and rape seed oil was used as a lubricant.
During the development of steam engines, machinists found rapeseed oil to be better than other lubricants. The
World Wars created a high demand for rapeseed oil as a lubricant for the rapidly increasing number of steam
engines in naval and merchant ships. During World War II, European and Asian sources of rapeseed oil to the
20
Canadian and American markets were blocked resulting in a severe shortage of rapeseed oil lubricants. Canada
expanded its rapeseed production to meet the new demand of rapeseed oil for lubricants.
After World War II, with the advances in science and technology, derivatives of petro chemicals with acceptable
properties and consistent specifications became cheaper than unsaturated vegetable oils. By the 1950s the
petrochemical industry had, for all practical purposes, replaced the unsaturated vegetable fats in most of their
traditional roles, such as lubrication, paints, electrical cable insulators, linoleum, lighting, canvas covering, etc.
resulting in the imminent collapse of the unsaturated vegetable fats, especially rape seed oil, industry in USA and
Canada. New markets had to be found to avoid an economic crisis in the unsaturated vegetable fats business.
Hence, refined, bleached and deodorized (RBD) unsaturated vegetable fats were created.
The financial and marketing successes achieved by Procter and Gamble in the hydrogenation of unsaturated
vegetable fats excited entrepreneurs in the unsaturated vegetable fats industry. Processed unsaturated vegetable
fat is far cheaper than tropical saturated fats, olive oil, milk butter and animal fat. The marketing of processed
unsaturated vegetable fat was promoted using very aggressive tactics and extensive political support. 10, 12
The Genesis of the Cholesterol-Saturated Fat Hypothesis 10, 44, 64
In the early 1950s, concern was raised by scientists and medical personnel about high increases of certain “new”
metabolic health problems, especially heart diseases. Pathological and other studies, including the Framingham
Heart Study (1961), found that atherosclerotic plaque was made up of fat and cholesterol. There was no clear
identification of the fatty acid composition of the fat. The new “edible” processed unsaturated vegetable fats and
animal fats were considered as the possible source of the health problems. During that period, research
publications claimed that ingestion of saturated fat increased and ingestion of processed unsaturated vegetable
fat lowered cholesterol levels in the body. Logically ingestion of saturated fat was accused of the high cholesterol
found in the atherosclerotic plaque. However, the medical personnel were very careful. They suggested that both
processed unsaturated vegetable fat (unsaturated) and animal fat (saturated) are to blame. Their advice was
“minimise the amount of fat in the diet”.
In the 1930s a number scientists, including Burr and Burr (1930)/Nunn and Smedley-Maclean (1938) postulated
that certain long chain poly unsaturated fatty acids such as linoleic and linolenic, which are not synthesised by
animals, promoted growth (fat) in rats and cured fat deficiency disease. Other scientists, including SmedleyMaclean and Hume (1940)/Rieckerhoff, Holman and Burr (1949)/Reinius and Turpeinen (1954)/Klenk and Kremer
(1960) endorsed the postulate, but cautioned that the two fatty acids stayed mainly at the adipose tissues and
were not metabolised by the cells. They pointed out that the two long chain poly unsaturated fatty acids do get
elongated to form very long chain poly unsaturated fatty acids. The two long chain poly unsaturated fatty acids i.e.
linoleic and linolenic, became known as essential fatty acids.
In 1961, the Framingham Heart Study “confirmed” the link between raised cholesterol levels and fat and heart
diseases. 64 The processed unsaturated vegetable fat industry, supported by the USA establishment, claimed that
since the two long chain poly unsaturated fatty acids were essential then atherosclerotic plaque has to be caused
by saturated fatty acids. The American press quickly pronounced saturated fat as the cause of heart diseases.
The idea was branded as “Cholesterol-Saturated Fat Hypothesis”. Processed unsaturated vegetable fats were
then advertised as both cheaper and healthier than the traditional saturated fats i.e. butter, tropical fats and animal
fat.
The Cholesterol-Saturated Fat Hypothesis was used by the media, educational institutions and health/nutrition
professionals to denigrate saturated fats, especially tropical saturated fats. The press, including Reader’s Digest
and many institutions in US of A such as the American Heart Association and the Food and Drug Administration
were mobilized by the processed unsaturated vegetable fat industry in a well organised vile campaign against
21
saturated fats, especially tropical saturated fats. The American “Center for Science in the Public Interest” (CSPI)
campaigned against the use of tropical saturated fats by fast food outlets and any food industry.
The Demise of the Cholesterol-Saturated Fat Hypothesis
A number of internationally reputed lipid scientist and medical experts condemned the hypothesis, ab initio. They
claimed that the hypothesis was scientifically untenable as (a) it is counter to the results of population and animal
studies and (b) the histories of the diets of the world’s social groups did not support it. 73, 74
By 1988, various “establishment” institutions had been ostracizing any scientist that disputed the CholesterolSaturated Fat Hypothesis. Some of the scientists were labelled “whistle blowers” and lost their research funds;
others were quietly eased out of their jobs. A number of experts formed The International Network of Cholesterol
Skeptics (THINCS). They published literature reviews and research studies meant to debunk the CholesterolSaturated Fat Hypothesis. 93, 94
After 1972, with technological advances in microscopes and imaging techniques, it was realised that the animal
cell had a bi-layer of fatty acids. Further studies identified that when the bi-layer of fatty acids has unsaturated
fatty acids, then it has to be fortified with cholesterol. By 1988, pathological and many other studies, including the
Framingham Heart Study, had identified atheroma or atherosclerotic plaque to be made up of ox-LDL cholesterol
which consists of cholesterol and poly unsaturated fatty acids, linoleic acid. Subsequently, it was decided that LDL
cholesterol is the bad cholesterol and the HDL cholesterol is the good cholesterol. Various studies have shown
that ingested saturated fats balances total cholesterol, HDL cholesterol and LDL cholesterol; and ingested
processed unsaturated vegetable fats raises LDL cholesterol and lowers HDL cholesterol. 71
The Denigration of Saturated Fat
These new scientific findings indicated that the real cause of heart diseases was the presence of high amounts of
long chain poly unsaturated fatty acids in the body due to the ingestion of industrially processed unsaturated
vegetable fats. In order to pre-empt any financial and economic damage to that industry, the US Senate was
lobbied to pass a seemingly innocuous law, “Amendment to the Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act on edible
fats” in 1988, against the protestations of independent lipid scientists and very experienced and knowledgeable
medical experts. The law, for all practical purposes, banned the traditional edible saturated fats from all food items
in the American market. The concept of that law, which was adopted by the WHO, became a guide for the use of
edible fat in the world.
The global confectionery industries were coaxed, with considerable arm twisting, to adopt processed unsaturated
vegetable fats for their products. The consumption of these of industrially processed unsaturated vegetable fats
increased rapidly to become the global fats for the food industry and homes. The non-communicable diseases
also increased rapidly to become the current near epidemic in countries such as Ghana and real epidemic in the
North Americas and parts of Europe.
The Arrival of Trans-Fat and Related Charade.
The global epidemic of the non-communicable diseases ‘persuaded’ the WHO to act. The acceptance by the
scientists that the atherosclerotic plaque had its roots in the long chain poly unsaturated fatty acids, which had
been classified as essential for the body, created a dilemma. The experts considered the dilemma and suggested
that processed unsaturated vegetable fats which happened to be the source of long chain poly unsaturated fatty
acids also contained trans-fatty acids (TFA). Hence, trans-fatty acids had to take the blame. 26, 27
Codex Alimentarius defines trans- fatty acids (TFAs) as the geometrical isomers of monounsaturated and
polyunsaturated fatty acids having non-conjugated carbon-carbon double bonds in the trans-configuration. This
restricts the type of trans-fatty acids in question to poly unsaturated fatty acids. Since we do not and cannot eat
22
directly fatty acids; there is the need to know the type of fats that would contain a TFA. Some of the national and
international official documents tend to be silent about the type of edible fats that would contain trans-poly
unsaturated fatty acids. 25 Often the term trans-fat is used to refer to fats supposed to contain trans-fatty acids,
and the literature tends to equate trans-fat to saturated fat.
The 57th World Health Assembly held on May 22, 2004 recommended inter alia, that “populations and
individuals should limit energy intake from total fats and shift fat consumption away from saturated fats
to unsaturated fats and towards the elimination of trans-fatty acids”.
As defined by Codex Alimentarius the trans-fatty acids in question are poly unsaturated fatty acids, which would
not normally occur in saturated fats. Trans-fatty acids are found mainly in processed unsaturated vegetable fats.
Hence, shifting fat consumption away from saturated fats to unsaturated fats would rather go against the intention
to eliminate trans-fatty acids from the diet. Further, limiting fat intake can create certain physiological problems,
since fatty acids are important molecules for the survival of the cells. 2 The importance of fat in the diet is
illustrated by many incidents in history, including the life story of Saint Hilarion who died in 371 AD. 95
Saint Jerome’s account of the life and diet of Saint Hilarion illustrates the importance of oil in the diet. Saint
Hilarion was born in 291 AD at Thabata in the South of Gaza. He died in 371 AD in Cyprus when he was 80 years
old. At the age of fifteen he joined the Hermitage of St Anthony for two months and left with some monks. Later,
he established a monastery and lived on a strict diet. After age 31, Saint Hilarion lived on a diet of six ounces of
barley bread and boiled vegetables without oil. At the age of 35, he suffered from signs of malnutrition, his
eyesight grew poor, his body shriveled and he developed dry mange and scabs, so he modify his diet with the
addition of oil. Between the ages of 35-63, he lived on six ounces of barley bread and boiled vegetables with oil.
Between ages of 63-80, he lived on six ounces of water, boiled vegetables with oil and a broth made from flour. 95
The WHO’s recommendation is misleading, confusing and scientifically flawed. However, a number of counties
have taken steps towards eliminating trans-fatty acids from their food. 8
 The U.S. of America passed a law requesting that the level of trans-fat should be shown on the label after
January 1, 2006, similar to the level of saturated fats and poly-unsaturated fats. The major question is
tropical saturated fats and processed unsaturated vegetable fats are easily identified; but what is transfat? Questions are now being asked about the genuineness of labels.
 In 2004, the European Food Safety Authority produced a scientific opinion on trans-fatty acids for the
European Union. On Thursday 25th September 2008, the European Parliament proposed a ban on
artificial trans-fatty acids throughout the EU.
 In Britain, a number of organizations including the Food Standards Agency (FSA) and the National
Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (NICE) have made suggestions and recommendations on how
to address the trans- fatty acids issue. So far voluntary measures to reduce trans- fatty acids have been
the official direction in Britain.
 Denmark was the first country to introduce laws strictly regulating the use of trans- fatty acids as food, in
March 2003. This effectively banned processed unsaturated vegetable oils for human consumption. It is
estimated that the Danish government's efforts to decrease trans-fatty acid intake is related to a 50%
decrease in deaths from ischemic heart disease.
 Since April 2008, Switzerland followed Denmark's trans- fatty acids ban.
 Iceland has imposed total ban on trans- fatty acids.
 India has given administrative instructions to their food industries to use saturated fats;
 China has started using tropical fats for their food industry.
23
The American establishment has instructed their industry to avoid tropical saturated fats. Measures have been put
in place to produce new types of “edible” fats e.g. algalin, which they reckon will contain no trans-fatty acids.
Canada has made attempts to produce genetically modified “CANOLA” intended to resemble olive oil and coconut
oil.12
Dr Steen Stender of Denmark believes strongly that people don't read labels, and when they do read them, they
will not necessarily understand these labels. He went on “Instead of warning consumers about trans-fatty acids
and telling them what it is, we've simply removed it” He, in fact, has much stronger words for countries like the
United States of America and Canada: "As they say in North America: 'You can put poison in food, if you label
it properly.' Here in Denmark, we remove the poison and people don't have to know anything about trans-fatty
acids." 25
CONCLUSION
The WHO has recommended the elimination of trans-fatty acids from food. Many countries have complied with
the recommendation of the WHO. Yet the non-communicable diseases and ailments keep on rising globally. It
means the root cause of the non-communicable diseases has not been fully addressed.
The above analysis shows that fat or its precursor, acetic acid, is important in our daily diet. It also shows that
Type 3 fats, the main oil now consumed in the country, may be the root cause of the non-communicable diseases,
since they have high levels of trans- and cis- poly unsaturated fatty acids.
The ingestion of types 1 and 2 fats, according to the analysis, should strengthen the bilayer of fatty acids of the
cells, the organelles, synapses and axons. These fats will also ensure that the right lubricating oil is inside the cell.
Consequently, the ingestion of such fats should prevent the non-communicable diseases and promote healthy
ageing. Such fats should also play a major role in the management of a large number of the current noncommunicable diseases and ailments.
Types 1 and 2 fats should also promote the healthy growth of babies and children and facilitate the good health of
pregnant women and lactating mothers while preventing congenital diseases and reducing considerably the many
health problems associated with parturition.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
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By Kaku Kyiamah
+233-(0)208138025/(0)243152053; feanza1995@yahoo.ca
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