The Founding of the German Empire
At the beginning of the 19th century, Germany was a vast mosaic of states. This formed a
part of the Holy Roman Empire. The two largest states in it were formed of the territorial
possessions of Austria and Prussia. There were some secondary states in northern and
central Germany. There were hundreds of small states. Some were free cities and others
were ecclesiastical states. The Holy Roman Emperor, who for the past 300 years had
been chosen from the Hapsburg family of the Austrians, was now only a formal authority.
People of varied blood spread in Germany. The confederation of Rhine had already been
formed by Napoleon I. He had prepared the ground for the unification of Germany. He
reduced the number of German states by combining smaller states with the larger ones.
These states were united to form the Rhine confederation.
As the sentiments of the Germans were crushed, Napoleon’s power in Germany was
undermined. Besides this, there was also a predominance of the diplomats like Metternich
who crushed the liberal movements of the Germans (1815 - 1848). One remarkable fact
was that the Prussian Emperor framed a federal constitution for the people of Germany,
which was highly opposed by Austria.
The nationalist movement made progress only after 1848. The German empire is the
result of the policy of blood and iron carried out by Prussia in the three wars which were
crowded into the brief period of six years, i.e. 1864-1870. Prussia was in favor of German
unification and was opposed to Austria.
A new era begins with the coming of Bismarck in German history. He became the
chancellor of Germany. He deprived Austria from assuming the leadership of Germany.
He approved the unification of Germany under the able and supportive leadership of
Prussia. Bismarck made friendship with France and also Russia. This was against
Austria. He succeeded in his policy of blood and iron. He accomplished the Unification
of Germany and crowned the Prussian King as the Emperor of Germany. For carrying out
his policy ahead, he had to wage three wars, with Austria, France and Denmark.
Exhibit 4.4
Otto von Bismarck
4.3a The issue of Schleswing and Holstein
These two duchies were under Denmark, but they widely differed in constitution and
were organized as a territory of Denmark. The Duchy of Holstein was a part of German
federation. The people of Denmark and Germany lived together in these two duchies. A
conflict over the issue of nationalism arose between them. Both Germany and Denmark
desired to capture the duchies.
The King of Denmark desired the possession of the two duchies, Schleswing and
Holstein. The Duke of Augustenberg opposed this. Even Prussia and Germany were
against this move. The new King of Denmark took possession of Schleswing in 1863.
A war broke out between Austria and Prussia in 1864. The treaty of Vienna was signed
this year. According to this, the two duchies were to be handed over to Prussia and
Austria. However, Bismarck played his own game, and so even though Austria got
Holstein, she was unhappy and discontented.
After the violation of the Treaty of Gastein, Austria was badly insulted by Prussia. As it
was very humiliating, Austria declared war with Prussia. During this war the army of
Prussia captured Holstein and Austria was rooted from here. Bismarck signed a treaty
with Italy and France and as according to treaty, they remained neutral in the war.
However, Italy also promised to give military aid to Bismarck. She was defeated in the
battle of Custozza and Laussa. In the war of Sadowa, Prussia defeated Austria.
4.3b The Treaty of Prague
According to this treaty Austria lost Venetia to Italy and Holstein to Prussia. Austria also
had to pay heavy war indemnities. The previous German Federation was dissolved and
the North German Federation was established. The North German States were merged
with Prussia.
4.3c Relations with France (1870)
France was opposed to the German unification. Napoleon III was jealous of the growing
power of Prussia and the influence she had over German affairs. The policy adopted by
Napoleon III failed and the French turned against him. At this time Austria and England,
not to mention Russia, sided with Bismarck. During the war, France was badly defeated.
Napoleon III had to surrender after the war of Sedan and was taken prisoner. In France, a
Third Republic was established. She had to accept the decisions of Frankfurt and pay war
indemnities. Later, even Alsace and Lorraine were handed over to Prussia.
4.3d The Final German Unification
The United German National Federation was established and the Prussian Emperor was
declared the Emperor of the whole of Germany. A cabinet of ministers and a bicameral
legislature was formed to assist the new Emperor in this administration of the nation. The
North German federation became the German Empire.
The Balkan War
According to the conditions of the Berlin Treaty, different Christian races were forced to
stay in different kingdoms. These races gradually thought of making their own federation,
as they were greatly influenced by European ideologies. But their desire could not take
the shape of reality.
The Bulgarian Issue (1885) arose as it had captured Rumolia which troubled Serbia
immensely. It led to a war between Bulgaria and Serbia. As a result, the Balkan kingdoms
were prevented from forming a federation of their own. Bulgaria had intentions of
annexing Macedonia to her kingdom and establishing a democracy. Besides Bulgaria,
Serbia and Grecia also wanted Macedonia included in their kingdom. There were regular
fights among themselves. Due to this, the formation of a federation was effected. As
Bulgaria opposed it, even the Greek Prime Minister did not succeed in his efforts of
bringing these states closer to the formation of a federation.
However, when the birthday of the ruler of Montenegro was celebrated in 1910, the Ruler
of Bulgaria, the Serbian and Greek Princes also actively participated in it. After a military
pact made by Greece, Venezelos, the Greek Prime Minister, made a federation
comprising Greece, Serbia and Bulgaria. Later, Montenegro joined it. Thus, the Balkan
States formed the Federation.
4.4a The Main Issues leading to the Balkan Wars
As Turkey was weak, the Balkan Kingdoms (Bulgaria, Greece, Serbia and Montenegro)
decided to attack her, with the aim of distributing its parts among themselves. They
(Balkan Kingdoms) had made a pact among themselves to distribute the spoils of
Macedonia. Accordingly, they waged a war against Turkey and defeated it. Serbia and
Montenegro captured Albania and reached Constantinople. The unjust demands of the
victors made Turkey wage another war with the Balkans, but to no avail. She lost it
again. She was now forced to accept the terms of the victors. A Treaty was signed in
London (1913). According to this London Treaty, nearly all the territories of Turkey were
lost to the Balkans.
4.4b Balkan War of 1913
Now the Balkan Peninsula kingdoms fought among themselves on the question of the
distribution of Macedonia. In this war, Serbia, Montenegro, Greece and Romania took up
arms against Bulgaria. As it was difficult for Bulgaria to face the strong armies of these
kingdoms, she made peace with them.
4.4c Effect of the Balkan Wars
Turkey suffered immense loss of men and territorial possessions as a result of these wars.
Greece, Romania and Serbia acquired the territorial gains. Bulgaria was humiliated by its
defeat in war.
Turkey helped Romania, Serbia and Greece against Bulgaria. It also enhanced the
hostilities between the two, but the Treaty of Constantinople made peace between them.
The Peninsula of Balkan is said to be the Volcano of Europe. As far as Europe was
concerned, it remained constantly endangered by the conflicts of these kingdoms. The
interests of the European rulers clashed with one another for the Balkan Peninsula. The
Great War of 1914 was fought as a direct result of the Balkan wars.
The First World War
The First World War was a product of multiple factors. Europe was in the position of
international anarchy. There were 25 sovereign states in Europe on the eve of the World
War I, and each desired to act according to their individual conscience. Neither was
prepared to submit to the will or interference of the other because of the pride that their
international prestige would be lowered if they accepted the advice of any other state.
The feeling of nationalism was high and this made them believe that only their nation
was right, and they should go for war, whether it was right or wrong. Occasions of
serious rivalry and mutual hostility were in plenty.
4.5a Territorial Disputes
Some of the nations had territorial disputes with their neighbors. These territories were
forcibly occupied after certain states succeeded in wars. For instance, at the end of
Franco-Prussian war (1870-1871), Alsace and Lorraine, which were predominantly
French, were taken away by Germany. As France now considered herself to be more
powerful, she resorted to war.
4.5b Secret Alliances
This was a very important reason for the First World War. It divided Europe into two
hostile camps. Germany made a secret alliance with Austria-Hungary in 1879. In 1882,
Italy was a party to the Triple Alliance. Only after the downfall of Bismarck, Russia and
France came closer to one another and a pact was signed between them in 1894. England
and other rival powers became antagonistic towards Germany as Kaiser William II
adopted a comprehensive policy of world domination.
Russia wanted to increase her power in Asia. Till then England had been adopting the
policy of "Splendid Isolation," but to curb the rise of Russia in the Pacific Ocean, she
made a treaty with Japan in 1902.
These secret alliances and rival blocks divided Europe into two. England, France, Russia
and Japan were on one side and Germany, Austria, Hungary, Turkey and Italy on the
other.
Side I
Side II
England
Germany
Russia
Austria - Hungary
France
Turkey
Japan
Italy
Rivalry between these two groups went on increasing.
4.5c Military Training
Compulsory military training was introduced in most of the European countries. There
was a rat race among all the European countries for Naval and land supremacy. They
were also occupied in building warships. Advanced countries were spending as much as
85 - 89% of their total revenue for the purpose of defense.
4.5d Spirit of Nationalism
Every nation considered herself to be superior to the other and to prove this as a fact
became absolutely necessary for them. The self-contentedness of the nations and their
concern for being the best was an important reason for the war. To gain their selfish
motives, these nations were busy expanding their colonies.
Germany had crushed France and annexed Lorraine and Alsace. Now France was looking
for her turn to avenge the humiliation.
4.5e Absence of Inter nation Sovereignty
Horrible signs of chaos were seen all over Europe. Every country was free to do whatever
it desired to do. The respect for international law was absent. No definite rules,
regulations or policies were set. No respect or loyalty towards the pacts or treaties
existed. Every nation looked towards the other with suspicion. Any nation could violate
the international law. The opinion of people was not considered important.
In European nations, the rulers and administrators started to violate the opinions of the
general public. The diplomatic policies were kept confidential even from the legislatures
of the nations. The ministry of foreign matters became a center of fraudulence. Bribery
and corruption were deeply rooted in the system.
4.5f Part of Media Press
The media was also responsible for preparing people mentally for the war. They
instigated the feeling of hatred for the other countries and boosted its (war’s) importance.
Every journal and newspaper of a nation dwelt upon the smallest incident. This adversely
effected the public opinion.
4.5g Importance of Kaiser William II
Kaiser William II was of the opinion that his country, Germany, should rise to become a
leading world power. If this did not happen, Germany would plumb to abysmal depths.
With this object in his mind, he deepened the Keil Canal and made warships like torpedo
boats. He strongly believed that he who succeeds is never wrong, and that a good war
follows every cause. He followed the Austrian policy with regard to the Balkan
Peninsula. Kaiser William II also secured a permit for the construction of the BaghdadBerlin Railway through which he made pacts with Turkey.
4.5h Policy of Austria
The policy of Austria was much talked about as far as the Balkan issue was concerned. In
the Balkan Wars, Austria prevented Serbia from advancing towards the Aegean Sea.
Besides this, Austria had captured Bosnia and Herzegovina (1908).
4.5i The Immediate Cause
The situation was ready for the war. It just required a spark and this was provided by the
murder of the Austrian Prince, Archduke Ferdinand and his wife. They were assassinated
in the Bosnian capital of Sarajevo. The relations of Austria-Hungary and Serbia were
already strained. On 28th July, 1914, Austria declared war on Serbia.
This Great War was a result of escalating animosities prevailing among the European
powers, especially the hostility between France and Germany, between Germany and
Russia. England was against Germany as it was becoming powerful and Russia was
pitted against Austria. Therefore, the responsibility of the war can be attributed to
Austria, Germany, England, Italy and France. They made this into a World War.
The Great War 1914-1918 was universally destructive. The effects of these were seen in
many areas, as in the destruction of human life and property, and in the political, social
and economic fields. The evolution of capitalism and progress in the scientific spheres
were also important consequences.
In most countries, after this Great War, monarchy came to an end. Democratic
Governments were established in these countries. The authorities recognized the people's
rights.
Lots of money was spent in this war. After the Great War, the prices of articles went up.
Starvation stalked the world. The government restricted the price of the commodities.
Huge taxes were imposed on people. Many mills and factories were established. The
workers launched movements for the recognition of their rights.
Almost all countries were so heavily burdened that for years together their path of
progress remained impeded.
This war also had important social consequences. There was progress in the sphere of
women. Even European Christianity had no impact on the Great War. For politics came
to eclipse religion. All known religious dogmas were shattered. This apart, narrowminded radicalism was given up and a sense of fraternity was born in the people.
Questions
1. What were some of the ramifications of the Treaty of Prague?
2. Summarize in a brief paragraph the underlying causes of the First World War. Be
sure to mention the role played by territorial disputes, secret alliances, nationalism
and the impact of the media.
3. What was the immediate cause of the First World War?