Topic
Paper
Yale Model United Nations XXXIV
1911 Imperialist
Congress of Berlin
Matthew King
The 1911 Imperialist Congress of Berlin Topic Paper |2
Letter from the Undersecretary General, Specialized Committees
Dear Delegates,
Karibu Sana YMUN XXXIV and a personal welcome to Specialized Committees! My
name is Amandla Ooko-Ombaka and I am delighted to be your Under Secretary General this
year. I am a sophomore at the best residential college at Yale, Branford, and a potential
Economic and Mathematics major. I am born and bred in Nairobi, Kenya, but I grew up traveling
the world. I lived in Wausau, WI as a child, and completed high school just outside London. I
have participated in Model UN for the past seven years and many of my closest friends I met
through MUN. It has been an incredible learning experience. But aside from MUN, I dance
ballroom (latin) and hip-hop/contemporary dance competitively for Yale. I love good food and
good sleep.
This year, Specialized Committees has some of the most exciting committees I have
every worked with at YMUN. From the discourse on the Eurasian oil routes by the Security
Council and the EU, to the case for war in Iran presented by the US National Security Council,
there are opportunities to tackle the hot topic of energy security. You have the opportunity to
consider Great Power history and grand strategy through the historical simulations of the 1911
Imperialist Congress of Berlin and JCC British and Chinese Cabinets 1967. And finally, the
chance to create great (media house) power history is waiting for you in Press Corps. I am sure
that the issues presented by these committees will challenge, engage and urge you to think
outside the box.
All your staffers this year are phenomenal and they will play a key role in your YMUN
experience. Definitely take time to read through the background guides that they spent a good
amount of time putting together. They are an excellent springboard for your own research, and
the first step in your conference preparation. If you have any questions about the committees,
background guides or YMUN in general, do not hesitate to contact me, or your committee chairs.
I look forward to welcoming you to Specialized Committees at YMUN in January!
Boola Boola,
Amandla A. Ooko-Ombaka
Under Secretary General, Specialized Committees
Yale Model United Nations 2007
amandla.ooko-ombaka@yale.edu
The 1911 Imperialist Congress of Berlin Topic Paper |3
Letter from the Chair, The 1911 Imperialist Congress of Berlin
Dear delegates,
HEY everyone! My name is Matthew King and I will be your chair for this year’s YMUN, on
the 1911 Congress of Berlin. I am a sophomore in Saybrook College, originally from Long
Island, New York (Strong Island!!). I am double majoring in History and Political Science and
have a lot of Model UN experience. I have been a delegate since 8th grade and am currently on
the Model UN Team here at Yale. I also participate in the planning of our college Model UN
Conference (SCSY). Aside from Model UN, I participate in the Yale Concert Band as a
percussionist, the Yale Jazz Band as the drummer, and I am on the Yale Club Soccer team.
Eventually I want to go to law school and find my way into working for the US government.
The 1911 Berlin Conference Committee is all about formulating grand strategy. It is a
simulation in the framing, debating, and merging of differing ideas on where large policy
decisions should lead Europe. This committee will be a real test for your strength of ideas as
well as your abilities of persuasion and political dealing. It will be run in a very realistic manner,
so be ready to get your hands dirty with back-stabbing, behind-closed-doors dealing, and cutthroat politics!
European politics in the early 20th century is an incredibly interesting subject. It is, in essence,
the beginning of modern Europe, in political and global terms. This one continent, in whose
hands lay the fate of all the other continents, was shaken up by a number of smaller wars, finally
culminating in what was then called the Great War. Hence, the decisions made at this time, in
this committee, will dictate everything to follow. The future of European politics, and,
consequently, the world, is in your collective hands.
Yours,
Matthew King
matthew.king@yale.edu
The 1911 Imperialist Congress of Berlin Topic Paper |4
1911 Imperialist Congress of Berlin
The Nature of This Historical Simulation
What does this “historical” simulation entail? While the 1911 Congress of Berlin is an
imaginary creation on part of YMUN, the history that we will be dealing with is anything but
imaginary. The events before and during 1911 were real, forming what modern historiography
today terms as the “Approach to the First World War.” In knowing and understanding these
events as they actually transpired, there is a default precedent for delegates of this committee to
follow. The thirteen nations in this committee may well elect to take the same course of action as
the actual nations did in the early twentieth century, or they may choose to assess situations
differently. No doubt, the chair and crisis staff may have something different in store, forcing
delegates to make quick reevaluations of their stance and strategy. The actual history should
obviously serve as a guide, but not rigidly force decisions. At the same time, while delegates are
taking a free rein in maneuvering history, they must not distort it completely: they should be
perfectly aware of the historical significance of their actions. There is a fine line to walk;
hopefully the delegates can tread it with caution, yet with the enterprise necessary to achieve
their objectives.
This simulation is directly inspired by the 1878 Congress of Berlin, convened by the
German Chancellor, Count Otto von Bismarck, in order to prevent a large war from breaking out
in the aftermath of the Russo-Turkish war over the Balkans. The 1911 Congress hopes to allow
delegates to engage in diplomacy and compromise in a similar fashion. Germany in 1878 could
afford to host such a conference by virtue of its neutrality in the then-disagreement. However,
Germany is as embroiled in the geopolitical controversies facing the Great Powers in 1911 as
any other nation. For that reason, while the 1911 Congress has been graciously hosted by Kaiser
Wilhelm II of Germany, the Congress will be chaired by the neutral nation of Switzerland.
Most of the debate in this committee will be quick, not dissimilar from being in a class
where an instructor moderates comments and ideas. For those delegates versed with Model UN
procedural parlance, this means that the Congress is in default “moderated caucus.” Speakers are
recognized by the chair, who may or may not, at his/her discretion, decide to set a time limit on
speeches. Unlike in other committees, the chair is involved: though Switzerland will remain
neutral, it has a right to voice its opinions since it is a political entity in the European continent.
Hence, the chair may react to comments by rebutting or bolstering statements, and even agreeing
or disagreeing with them. However, when the Congress votes to take a certain action, the chair
(i.e., Switzerland) is not involved, and follows the direction set by the others in committee.
Besides debate and dialogue, committee will also involve writing memoranda to send
instructions to relevant places. Moreover, the flow of time is not regular, and may be increased
or decreased; at the decree of the crisis staff, the Congress could be propelled a year ahead within
a matter of minutes.
A Rough Historical Timeline
This following timeline does not serve as a history of the 13 nations involved in this Congress.
Instead, it aims at showing the clashes between European powers over imperial concerns, as
also the various coalitions formed between them over the course of historical crises, during the
last three centuries:
The 1911 Imperialist Congress of Berlin Topic Paper |5
December 31,
1600
March 2, 1602
Queen Elizabeth I grants a charter to the British East India Company
to trade with India.
The Dutch East India Company is officially incorporated, bringing
the Netherlands into the lucrative trade with India.
October 24, 1648 With the signing of the Treaty of Munster, the Peace of Westphalia is
concluded, bringing an end to the religiously-motivated Thirty Years’
War. The territorial adjustments made entrench the modern nationstate system on one hand, but, on the other, leave large parts of
Europe discontented.
July 10, 1652
The English Parliament declares war on the Netherlands over North
American trade routes.
April 5, 1654
The Treaty of Westminster concludes the First Anglo-Dutch War, but
does not resolve the commercial rivalry.
1664
The French East India Company is founded to compete with the
British and Dutch East India Companies.
1665
Charles II, recently restored to the throne of England, begins the
second Anglo-Dutch war over claims of lineage. The war ends in
1667, leaving the English fleet damaged, and the Dutch at the zenith
of their power.
1672
The Franco-Dutch War breaks out, pitting the Netherlands, the
German Holy Roman Empire and Spain against France and England.
Louis XIV, emperor of France, goes to war over the disputed Spanish
Netherlands region. England is eager to gain revenge on the
Netherlands (this is also the Third Anglo-Dutch War).
July 9, 1686
Holy Roman Emperor Leopold I forms the League of Augsburg,
consisting of Austria, Bavaria, Brandenburg, Portugal, Spain,
Sweden, Savoy and Saxony, in order to defend the Palatinate of the
Rhine against the hegemonic inclinations of France’s Louis XIV.
December 1688
William III of Orange becomes king of England, effectively bringing
the Anglo-Dutch rivalry to a close.
September 27,
Louis XIV attacks the Rhine, invoking the treaty governing the
1688
League of Augsburg.
May 12, 1689
William III, now king of England, joins Leopold in the League of
Augsburg against France, renaming it the “Grand Alliance.” This
war, called the War of the Grand Alliance, stretches until 1697,
extending to Ireland and North America.
1689
The North American theater of the War of the Grand Alliance is
called “King William’s War,” where French forces, along with their
Indian allies, attack British settlements in Canada.
September 20,
The Treaty of Ryswick ends the War of the Grand Alliance, reverting
1697
Europe to the status quo ante bellum.
1701
The War of Spanish Succession begins, with the German Holy
Roman Emperor Leopold I wishing to prevent Louis XIV’s control
over Spain. Britain, the Netherlands, Portugal and Norway join the
German Hapsburgs in opposing France. When the war draws to a
The 1911 Imperialist Congress of Berlin Topic Paper |6
close in 1714, French hegemony has been checked, with Britain
emerging as a more powerful state with extended commercial
interests in Latin America.
1702
With Britain fighting France in Europe for claims to the Spanish
throne, British and French colonists clash in North America in what
is later called “Queen Anne’s War.” When the war ends in Europe,
Britain holds onto many French possessions in Canada.
October 23, 1739 British Prime Minister Robert Walpole declares war on Spain over
skirmishes in the Caribbean. The War of Jenkins’ War involves both
powers vying for control of the Atlantic Basin. The British navy
captures a silver-exporting town in Panama from the Spanish next
month. By 1742, this war is incorporated in the larger struggle
embroiling the European continent in the form of the War of Austrian
Succession.
December 16,
The War of Austrian Succession begins when Prussia’s Frederick I
1740
invades Silesia, claimed by the Austrian Hapsburg monarchy. Soon,
all the large European powers become embroiled: Prussia was
supported by France, Spain, Sweden and the Italian principalities of
Naples and Sicily; Austria allied with Great Britain, Russia and the
Netherlands.
1744
The War of Austrian Succession extends to North America as “King
George’s War,” with British colonial troops capturing the French
stronghold of Louisburg off Nova Scotia. The French repay this by
sacking Saratoga in New York.
1744
The First Carnatic War breaks out in southern India. With Britain and
France pitted against one another in the War of Austrian Succession
on the European Continent, the Marquis of Dupleix, then-Governor
of the French East India Company, attacks English outposts. Madras
is captured by the French.
October 18, 1748 The Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle brings the War of Austrian Succession
to a close. With it, the First Carnatic War, too, ends with Madras
being restored to the British. In North America, Louisburg is returned
to France. In Europe, Austria switches its allegiances to France,
whereas Britain now becomes allied with Prussia and Russia,
promising naval support in return for the land strengths of the Eastern
European powers.
March 1757
Frederick II (the Great) of Prussia crosses into Saxony, an ally of
Austria, beginning the Seven Years’ War. Effectively involving every
major power on the continent, the war pits Prussia with its German
confederate allies, along with Great Britain and Portugal, against
Austria, France, Russia, Sweden and Spain.
1757-1763
Simultaneously, British troops fight the French in south India and
Bengal. Though France retains Pondicherry and Chandernagore after
the war, French efforts in India are seriously dented. Robert Clive
wins the Battle of Plassey in June 1757, ensuring British domination
of the Indian sub-continent.
The 1911 Imperialist Congress of Berlin Topic Paper |7
1757-1763
The Anglo-French rivalry extends to North America too in the
“French and Indian War.” French forces ally with American Indian
tribes against the British and their American allies, fighting all across
New England and the mid-Atlantic, and even as south and west as
modern-day Pittsburgh. The fighting extends to Newfoundland and
the Caribbean.
February 10,
The Treaty of Paris concludes the Seven Years’ War. Britain makes
1763
substantial colonial gains at the expense of France and Spain: it keeps
Senegal in Africa and New French possessions (Canada) in North
America, and takes all French territories east of the Mississippi river;
it takes Florida from Spain. For the loss of Florida, France
compensates Spain with French Louisiana. In the Caribbean,
however, Britain wins only Tobago, with France retaining most of its
previous colonies.
February 6, 1778 France signs the Treaty of Alliance with the American colonies in
their war of independence against Britain. The French supply troops
and ships to the American effort, as also wreaking havoc for the
British in the West Indies.
June 1779
Spain, as an ally of France, enters the American War of Independence
on the colonies’ side.
July 14, 1789
The French storm the Bastille, beginning the French Revolution.
August 21, 1791 Troubled by the anti-monarchist revolution presently underway in
France, the Holy Roman Emperor Leopold II and Prussia’s Frederick
II issue the Declaration of Pilnitz, siding with King Louis in France.
April 20, 1792
The French Assembly declares war on Austria. The Austrian and
Prussian monarchies assemble their armies against Revolutionary
France, making much headway until their defeat at Valmy on
September 20.
September 21,
The French victory at Valmy encourages the Assembly to declare the
1792
First Republic.
January 21, 1793 Louis XVI is executed, as Maximilien Robespierre and his Jacobindominated Committee of Public Safety unleash the Reign of Terror.
Britain now joins the monarchist coalition against France.
November 2,
The Directory is established in France. With Napoleon Bonaparte’s
1795
great successes and with the capture of the Netherlands, Prussia and
Spain sue for peace.
October 17, 1797 With the Treaty of Campo Formio, Austria sues for peace with
France, conceding Belgium and much of northern Italy. This marks
the collapse of the first anti-revolutionary European coalition.
July 1, 1798
Napoleon lands at Alexandria, commencing his campaign in Egypt,
with the intention of protecting French trade and threatening Britain’s
access to India. With Austria out of the way the year before, Britain is
the last country still defying France.
August 1, 1798
A French fleet under Vice-Admiral D’Aigalliers clashes with a
British fleet commanded by Rear-Admiral Horatio Nelson in the
Battle of the Nile. Nelson inflicts heavy losses on D’Aigalliers.
The 1911 Imperialist Congress of Berlin Topic Paper |8
January 1799
Napoleon learns of an impending Ottoman attack against the French
in Egypt, and strikes Ottoman Syria in preemption in February. By
May, he is forced to call a retreat back to Egypt.
February 1799
Russian troops under Aleksandr Suvorov make headway against
French forces in northern Italy, signifying the coming of the “Second
Coalition,” with Britain, Austria and now Russia, against France.
November 8,
With the Egyptian campaign stagnating, Napoleon returns to Paris,
1799
where he seizes power, declaring himself as the First Consul.
March 25, 1802
France and Britain sign the Treaty of Amiens, bringing peace
between the two almost-constantly warring nations, as also bringing
the “Second Coalition” against revolutionary France to an end.
May 18, 1803
Dissatisfied with Napoleon’s enforcement of the conditions of the
Amiens treaty, the British Parliament declares war on France. The
Royal Navy begins a blockade of French Channel ports.
December 2,
Napoleon crowns himself Emperor of France, six months after
1804
declaring the French Republic an Empire.
April 1805
Britain and Russia form the “Third Coalition” against France. Austria
joins after Napoleon declares himself ruler of Italy in March 1805.
October 21, 1805 Horatio Nelson’s British fleet destroys the Franco-Spanish fleet at the
Battle of Trafalgar off the coast of south-west Spain, effectively
putting an end to Napoleon’s objective to invade the British Isles.
December 26,
Austria sues for peace, signing the Treaty of Pressburg, after
1805
Napoleon crushes an Austrian army at Austerlitz earlier in the month.
Austria gives up Venetia and Tyrol.
July 1806
Napoleon constitutes the Confederation of the Rhine out of small
German states. In response, the “Fourth Coalition” is formed against
Napoleon, consisting of Prussia, Russia, Saxony, Sweden and Britain.
August 1806
Prussia decides to attack France on its own. With the Russian army
far away, the Prussians are soundly defeated.
July 7, 1807
Following Napoleon’s routing of the Russian army at Eylau and
Friedland, Czar Alexander I makes peace with Napoleon.
September 2,
The British successfully capture the Danish fleet at Copenhagen, in
1807
order to preemptively prevent Napoleon from using Denmark to
block the Baltic Sea to British shipping. In response, the hitherto
neutral Denmark allies with France.
October 27, 1807 Napoleon signs the Treaty of Fontainebleau with Spain, splitting
Portugal into three different kingdoms. When Portugal refuses to
accede to Napoleon’s new Continental System, French forces invade
Portugal via Spain, and take Lisbon within a month. The War of
Spanish independence begins when Napoleon orders the French
troops to seize Spanish forts. By 1812, with the help of internal
guerrilla insurrections, the British, under Arthur Wellesley, drive the
French out of Iberia.
1811
Since the Netherlands is occupied by France, the British East India
Company annexes the Indonesian island of Java, administering it
until 1816.
The 1911 Imperialist Congress of Berlin Topic Paper |9
June 24, 1812
Napoleon invades Russia with 691,000 troops, the largest invasion
force in European history till date. The Russian forces defending their
land number 175,000. By September, Napoleon enters Moscow.
December 14,
Napoleon retreats to Paris, fearing a revolt back in France as also
1812
driven out by a stiff Russian resistance in the winter. Napoleon’s
historical defeat motivates the consolidation of the “Sixth Coalition,”
consisting of Prussia, Austria and Sweden, against France.
October 16-19,
At the Battle of Leipzig, 191,000 of Napoleon’s forces (drawn from
1813
France and the Confederation of the Rhine) fought against 330,000
Allied troops. French troops are forced to retreat back into the border
of pre-Napoleonic France.
October 24, 1813 The Treaty of Gulistan is signed between Russia and Persia,
confirming the inclusion of large parts of Central Asia into the
Russian Empire.
March 9, 1814
The Allies (Prussia, Russia, Austria and Great Britain) offer
Napoleon a cease-fire with the Treaty of Chaumont, which he
promptly rejects.
March 30, 1814
The Allies enter Paris.
April 6, 1814
Napoleon abdicates, and is exiled to Elba, off the coast of Italy.
November 1,
Austrian statesman, Klemens von Metternich, convenes the Congress
1814 – June 8,
of Vienna to decide the fate of Europe after Napoleon’s collapse. The
1815
conference consisted only of the major powers—Russia, Prussia,
Austria and Britain (and France)—allowing the four major victors to
carve Europe in their favor, without having to consult lesser states.
March 20, 1815
Napoleon returns from Elba, and rules France for a “Hundred Days.”
June 18, 1815
At the Battle of Waterloo, 73,000 troops of the French Empire under
Napoleon are soundly defeated by an Allied force twice their size
under Arthur Wellesley and Gebhard von Blucher.
Post-1815
As a result of the Napoleonic Wars, and, more importantly, the
Congress of Vienna, the victors’ territories are considerably enlarged.
Russia gains large part of the Duchy of Warsaw towards its west.
Prussia now controls Westphalia and the Rhineland, along with
Warsaw in the east. Austria dominates a confederation of 38 German
states. Britain gains colonies in southern Africa (most notably Cape
Colony), Ceylon and the West Indies. The Bourbon monarchy is
restored in France. The “Age of Metternich” ushers in an era of
relative peace in Europe.
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December 1838
August 23, 1839
August 29, 1842
February 1848
March 24, 1848
A British army marches out of India in order to occupy Afghanistan,
preventing it from falling into the hands of an expansionist Russia.
The First Anglo-Afghan War ends in a disaster for the British. Two
more similar attempts made by the British end in vain too.
Britain seizes Hong Kong, a trading post, from the Qing Dynasty of
China, beginning the First Anglo-Chinese War. The British East India
Company tries to force China to import British opium, succeeding
due to the superiority of its arms.
The Treaty of Nanjing brings the First Opium War between Britain
and China to a close. Britain extracted massive trading concessions
from the Chinese, gaining Hong Kong territorially.
Paris erupts into riots, beginning a wave of pro-democratic
revolutions across continental Europe. All European powers, save
Britain, Russia, Ottoman Turkey and the Netherlands, are affected.
However, in most states, rebellions are crushed with a heavy hand.
The First Schleswig War begins with the German-speaking duchies
of Schleswig and Holstein—currently claimed by Denmark—
erupting into popular uprising in their demands to be part of a larger
German entity (they ride the tide of the mass European revolutions of
that year). Copenhagen attempts to incorporate the two provinces into
the Kingdom of Denmark by force later in the month. Prussia
intervenes in favor of the indigenous Germans.
T h e 1 9 1 1 I m p e r i a l i s t C o n g r e s s o f B e r l i n T o p i c P a p e r | 11
May 8, 1852
March 28, 1854
March 10, 1856
October 8, 1856
May 28, 1858
June 1858
August 2, 1858
April 12, 1861
September 23,
1862
February 1, 1864
The London Protocol is signed to end the First Schleswig War,
affirming the integrity of the Danish federation, and allowing
Copenhagen to include Schleswig and Holstein as part of this
federation. Yet, a break in the Danish line of succession leaves the
matter unresolved.
Britain and France, siding with Ottoman Turkey, declare war on
Russia, over symbolic Christian claims to the Holy Land (Palestine),
currently controlled by the Ottomans. The Crimean War is fought
around the Black Sea, the Mediterranean Sea, and even the Baltic
Sea, pitting 400,000 French and 250,000 British against 2.2 million
Russian troops. With heavy losses (especially French ones), the
Anglo-French alliance supporting the Sultan emerges victorious.
The Treaty of Paris is signed between Russia and an alliance of
Ottoman Turkey, France, England and Sardinia, finally concluding
the Crimean War. Russia loses large amounts of land in south-eastern
Europe, and is forced to give up its symbolic claim of protecting
Christians within the Ottoman Empire. The Black Sea is declared
neutral territory, bolstering the Ottoman grand strategic position and
proving disadvantageous to Russian geopolitical strategy. France,
under Napoleon III, emerges as a stable and strong nation, perhaps
even the strongest on the continent.
The Second Opium War between the Chinese Qing Dynasty and
Britain breaks out when Chinese officials seize a British-registered
vessel in the Hong Kong harbor.
The Treaty of Aijun between China and Russia establishes the
Russian frontiers in the Far East. A militarily strong Czarist Russia
gains great amounts of land from a scared Chinese emperor.
The Treaties of Tanjin conclude the Second Opium War, opening
eleven Chinese ports to Western trade as also legalizing opium trade
in China. China now becomes officially open to the West,
encouraging both foreign governments and Christian missionaries to
set base.
With the end of the Sepoy Mutiny in India, control of the British
interests in India is transferred from the East India Company—which
is henceforth dissolved—to the Crown.
Opening of hostilities in the American Civil War between the
Northern Union and the Southern Confederacy. By the time the war
ends in 1865, more than 500,000 lives have been lost in combat,
leaving the United States exhausted both military and economically.
King Wilhelm I of Prussia appoints Otto von Bismarck as MinisterPresident of the state, also vesting powers of the Foreign Minister to
him.
Prussian troops cross into the Duchy of Schleswig, beginning the
Second Schleswig War. Bismarck delivers his casus belli against
Denmark, due to the latter’s failure to consider the German ethnic
questions at stake; Holstein had previously refused to ratify the
T h e 1 9 1 1 I m p e r i a l i s t C o n g r e s s o f B e r l i n T o p i c P a p e r | 12
constitution handed to it by Copenhagen. Austria, as the dominant
player in the post-Napoleonic German Confederation, allies with
Prussia. Denmark, finding itself at the end of a losing battle in a
matter of months, is shocked that Bismarck is employing war as a
political tool (for it served to increase the extent of the German
confederation).
October 30, 1864 The Treaty of Vienna, between Denmark, Prussia and Austria, signals
the end of the Second Schleswig War. Prussia henceforth administers
Schleswig, while Austria takes charge of Holstein.
July 3, 1866
At their first meeting place at the battleground of Konnigratz, the
superior Prussian army inflicts a crushing defeat on Austrian forces,
drawing the Austro-Prussian War to a close almost as soon as it
began. Bismarck goes to war with Austria over questions of control
over the German Confederation, specifically as a perpetuation of the
Schleswig-Holstein matter.
August 23, 1866 The Peace of Prague ends the Austro-Prussian War. Despite Prussia’s
overwhelming treaty, the armistice proves relatively favorable to the
Austrians, who cede Venetia to France, which, in turns, cedes it to
Italy. Not only do Italian reunification efforts receive a shot in the
arm as a result, but Austria effectively bows to Prussian hegemony
within the German federation. Bismarck forms a breakaway North
German Confederation, which excludes Austria.
February 8, 1867 With the Austro-Hungarian compromise, the Habsburg Austrian
Empire dissolves into the dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary. While
Austria and Hungary maintain equal legal status, a common monarch
in Vienna retains authority to make foreign policy and military
decisions. The compromise was made to quell nationalistic dissent
within the Austrian state, as also to shore greater sympathy for the
Habsburgs after Austria’s recent defeat at Bismarck’s hands. With
this, 50 million peoples, of different ethnic and linguistic makeup, are
now ruled from Vienna.
July 1, 1867
With the promulgation of the North German constitution, the North
German Confederation under Bismarck assumes the status of a state,
and not just an alliance.
July 19, 1870
France declares war on Prussia over the issue of the succession to the
Spanish throne, beginning the Franco-Prussian War.
September 2,
After driving the French westwards, Prussian Field-Marshal Helmuth
1870
von Moltke completely encircle French troops at the Battle of Sedan.
King Napoleon III is taken prisoner.
September 4,
With Napoleon III deposed, the Second Republic of France is
1870
abolished, and the Third Republic is declared. The Government of
National Defense continues a five-month resistance against the
advancing Prussian forces.
September 20,
Italian nationalists, encouraged by Napoleon III’s recall of the French
1870
garrison from Rome to fight against Prussia, enter Rome. Large parts
of Italy are unified.
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January 18, 1871
May 10, 1871
September 1872
April 8, 1875
June-July 1875
April-May 1876
July 9, 1876
August 1876
December 1876
April 24, 1877
January 31, 1878
March 3, 1878
June 13 – July
Wilhelm I is proclaimed the German Emperor from the Palace of
Versailles outside Paris, as Bismarck brings the states of the North
German confederation into the Second German Reich.
The Treaty of Frankfurt resolves the Franco-Prussian War. It awards
the resource-rich provinces of Alsace and Lorraine to Wilhelmine
Germany, whose unified dominance is now accepted. France also has
to pay a five billion franc war indemnity within three years.
After defeating France, Bismarck invites Russia and Austria-Hungary
to form the League of Three Emperors, an alliance of the three
Eastern European monarchic powers, in opposition to the more liberal
democratic regimes in Britain and France. The governing treaty for
the League is renewed in 1881, and then again in 1884.
An inspired article in the Berliner Post entitled “Is War in Sight?”
raises the specter of a renewed Franco-German conflict. France, to
Bismarck’s surprise, has fully paid off the war remunerations to
Germany; the ensuing “War-in-Sight” crisis is, in fact, Bismarck’s
ruse to use propaganda to raise tensions with France once again. The
crisis reveals that Bismarck is wary of France’s potential for longterm armament, and prefers to bring about a quarrel once again.
Anti-Ottoman uprising takes place in Bosnia and Herzegovina,
caused by the heavy taxes that Istanbul imposes.
Bulgarians rise in insurrection against the Ottoman Empire, primarily
over ethnic tensions.
Russia and Austria sign the secret Reichstadt Agreement, agreeing to
partition the Balkans, depending on the outcome of the imminent
conflict.
Serb forces, aided by Bulgarians and a few Russian volunteers, are
defeated by the Ottoman Sultan’s army.
At the Istanbul Conference convened at the Ottoman capital, the
European Great Powers negotiate the boundaries of a future
autonomous Bulgaria. Surprisingly, the Ottomans themselves are not
represented. The Conference is interrupted by the announcement of a
new constitution for the Ottoman Empire, one which guarantees civil
liberties for minorities. Yet, the European Powers, under Russia’s
influence, decide to break up Bulgaria into a number of autonomous
provinces, administered by Russia and Austria-Hungary.
Russia declares war on Ottoman Turkey, citing the persecution of
Christian minorities in the Ottoman Empire as the casus belli.
Fighting begins in the Balkans. Russia gains the upper hand.
Motivated by a loss of 200,000 men and pressured by Great Britain,
Russia accepts the Ottoman offer of truce.
Russia and Ottoman Turkey sign the Treaty of San Stefano,
concluding the Russo-Turkish War. Bulgaria is recognized as an
autonomous principality, while Serbia and Montenegro affirm their
independence. Russia extends its power in the Black Sea.
Bismarck convenes the Congress of Berlin in the wake of
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13, 1878
October 7, 1879
December 16,
1880
1881-82
May 20, 1882
July 1882
February 26,
1885
March 29, 1885
June 18, 1887
June 15, 1888
March 20, 1890
1892
dissatisfaction over the terms of the Treaty of San Stefano. According
to the final Treaty of Berlin, while Romania, Serbia and Montenegro
remain independent, the Ottomans retain formal control over
Bulgaria. Bosnia-Herzegovina is placed under the administration of
Austria-Hungary, though formally remaining part of the Ottoman
Empire. The treaty paves the way for Greece to annex Thessaly from
Ottoman Turkey in a few years.
Prussia-Germany and Austria-Hungary sign the Dual Alliance,
pledging to fight if either is attacked by Russia.
Britain goes to war against Boer colonists over secession of the
Transvaal region from British governance in southern Africa. The
first major land war Britain fights since the Napoleonic Wars proves
the inadequacy of its land forces.
Austria-Hungary negotiates an informal alliance with Serbia to thwart
Russia from gaining control of Serbia, and thereby spreading its
influence in the Balkans.
The Dual Alliance between Germany and Austria-Hungary is
expanded to include Italy, thereby becoming the Triple Alliance.
Each member promised mutual support in the event of an attack from
two others Great Powers (or France by itself) on one of the members.
The French withdraw from the Suez Canal (it was built by the French
in 1869); this vacuum is quickly filled by Britain, which occupies
Egypt in order to ensure access to the Suez Canal, which guards the
approaches to India.
The General Act of the Berlin Conference, which was convened the
year before at the behest of Portugal and organized by Bismarck to
discuss the imperialist race for African colonies, is passed. The
conference was attended by all thirteen nations present at the 1911
Congress, along with Sweden-Norway and Belgium. Under the terms
of the treaty, the Free State of Congo came under the possession of
Leopold II of Belgium as part of the Congo Society. Portugal,
Germany, France and Italy confirmed the borders of their existing
African possessions.
Russian forces seize Afghan territory, nearly bringing Britain to war
against Russia on suspicion of the latter invading India.
Bismarck signs the Reinsurance Treaty with Russia, in an attempt to
stabilize relations with Moscow after the breakdown of the League of
Three Emperors. Both nations agreed to observe neutrality in a war
with a third party (unless that third party be France or AustriaHungary).
Wilhelm II becomes Emperor of Germany.
Bismarck resigns over differences with Kaiser Wilhelm II, decrying
the latter’s interventions in domestic and foreign policy. The Kaiser
refuses to renew Germany’s Reinsurance Treaty with Russia.
France and Russia enter into the dual Franco-Russian Alliance to
counter the growing German threat. France ends its diplomatic
T h e 1 9 1 1 I m p e r i a l i s t C o n g r e s s o f B e r l i n T o p i c P a p e r | 15
isolation by providing Russia with cheap loans to rebuild its military
machine.
December 17,
The United States Congress denounces the British refusal to arbitrate
1895
the dispute between Venezuela and British Guyana over their
common border. The United States announces its intent to resist
British aggression in Venezuela.
April 1898
The Spanish-American War begins after Spain rejects the American
demand to grant Spanish Cuba independence, instigating riots in
Havana and providing America with an excuse to intervene. The
theater of operations extends beyond Cuba into Guam and, especially,
the Philippines, where American naval vessels inflict a crushing
defeat on the Spanish fleet.
September 18,
British gunboats arrive at the Fashoda fort in Sudan, attacking the
1898
French position there over control of the Nile and Congo rivers. The
crisis sparked international tensions, though it was eventually
resolved.
December 10,
The Treaty of Paris concludes the Spanish-American War. Spain
1898
gives up all rights to Cuba, and surrenders Puerto Rico, Guam and the
Philippines to the United States, which begins to administer its first
overseas colonies.
October 11, 1899 The Second Boer War breaks out, bringing great sympathy for the
nationalist efforts of the Boers against British imperialism. Britain’s
relation with its empire is estranged, and it withdraws into isolation.
1900
The Second Fleet Act, sponsored by Admiral Tirpitz, passed by
Germany enunciates its intention to build a navy capable of
competing with Britain’s. Tirpitz, hence, begins the Anglo-German
naval race.
May 31, 1900
In response to the Boxer Rebellion aimed at foreigners in China,
troops from eight countries—France, Britain, Russia, America,
Germany, Italy, Japan and Austria-Hungary—intervene, in order to
protect Western interests in China. This eight-nation alliance
eventually quells the revolt.
January 30, 1902 Great Britain signs the Anglo-Japanese Alliance, hoping to not only
aid Japan’s modernization efforts, but also check Russian
expansionism. Both sides agree to aid one another in the event of a
war with a Great Power. The alliance is renewed in 1905 and 1911.
March 16, 1902
In response to the Anglo-Japanese Alliance, Russia signs a mutual
pact with France, pledging support (presumably against Britain or
Japan).
June 19, 1902
The United States Senate votes to build the Panama Canal, giving the
United States a unique position in global circumnavigation.
November 1902 British and German warships blockade Venezuelan ports in an effort
to force the government in Caracas to repay its European debts. U.S.
President Theodore Roosevelt intervenes in order to prevent a
European presence around Venezuela. He takes the matter to an
international court at the Hague, where the case is decided in
T h e 1 9 1 1 I m p e r i a l i s t C o n g r e s s o f B e r l i n T o p i c P a p e r | 16
Venezuela’s favor.
February 10,
Japan attacks the Russian Far East Fleet at Port Arthur, which falls
1904
after a long siege the next January. Japanese troops occupy Russianheld Mukden in Manchuria. By August, the Russian Pacific fleets are
not in fighting condition.
April 8, 1904
France and Britain sign a series of agreements known as the Entente
Cordiale, allying the two previously-warring nations, which by now
are threatened by Germany. According to the agreements, Britain
agrees to aid France in Morocco, and allow the French access to the
Suez Canal; Britain surrenders West African possessions in return for
Canadian ones; while the British agree to French hegemony in IndoChina.
October 21, 1904 The Russian Baltic Fleet, en route to meet the Imperial Japanese
Navy, mistakes British trawlers for Japanese vessels at Dogger Bank
in the North Sea. Russia and Britain almost go to war over what is
claimed an accident, until the situation is defused.
March 1905
The First Moroccan (“Tangier”) Crisis is sparked between Germany
and France over control of Morocco, as Germany attempts to foment
a Moroccan nationalistic movement against colonizing France. Kaiser
Wilhelm also intends to test the new Anglo-French Entente.
May 27-28, 1905 After spending seven months traveling halfway around the world, the
Russian Baltic Fleet arrives to fight the Imperial Japanese Navy.
Superior Japanese firepower and training allow Japan to win the
Battle of Tsushima.
September 5,
The Treaty of Portsmouth concludes the Russo-Japanese War, with
1905
the United States of America acting as the mediator at Portsmouth,
New Hampshire. Both Russia and China agree to evacuate Manchuria
and restore its sovereignty to China. Japan, however, keeps the
Liaodong Peninsula with Port Arthur, gaining access to the Russian
railway system. Russian diplomats earn little for Russia.
December 1905
Alfred Graf von Schlieffen, the head of the German general army
staff, is charged by Kaiser Wilhelm II to formulate a strategy of
meeting Germany’s military challenges after the Anglo-French
Entente Cordiale. Schlieffen circulates his plan of winning a twofront war against France and Russia.
January 16, 1906 The Algericas Conference is held to mediate the First Moroccan
Crisis. With the assistance of American diplomats (who serve as the
chief arbiters), European powers impose new financial laws on
Morocco. France comes out slightly more advantaged than Germany.
During the conference, which lasts until April, the British North Sea
Fleet joins the Royal Navy’s Mediterranean Fleet at Gibraltar,
possibly with the intent of intimidating Germany.
1906
Under the guidance and vision of Sir John Fisher, First Sea Lord,
Britain introduces a new type of battleship, the “Dreadnought.”
1907
Germany responds to the new British Dreadnought by laying down
the “Nassau” class of battleships.
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August 31, 1907
December 16,
1907
October 1908
July 1, 1911
With the Anglo-Russian Entente, an eighty-year “cold war” in
Central Asia and the Middle East between London and St. Petersburg,
nicknamed “The Great Game,” comes to an end: Persia is divided
into spheres of influence betsween the two Great Powers, while St.
Petersburg recognizes British dominance in Afghanistan. With this
Anglo-Russian rapprochement and with a pre-existing FrancoRussian alliance, the Triple Entente comes into existence between
France, Britain and Russia. All three nations now turn to the common
problem facing Europe: Germany.
The U.S. Great White Fleet, consisting of 16 modern battleships, sets
sails on the orders of American President Theodore Roosevelt, for a
43,000-mile voyage across the world. Roosevelt intends to
demonstrate American naval power, especially in the Pacific, to the
rest of the world.
Austria-Hungary triggers the “Bosnian Crisis” by annexing BosniaHerzegovina, hitherto nominally an Ottoman province.
The German gunboat Panther is deployed to the Moroccan port of
Agadir.
The Imperialist Congress of Berlin convenes in the early evening of July 1, 1911.