Ethiopia
UN Country Team
Common Country
Assessment
September 1999
Addis Ababa
2
CONTENTS
Abbreviations i
Executive Summary ii
Introduction 1
Objectives of the CCA 2
CHAPTER 1: COUNTRY SITUATION
4
1.1. The economy 4
1.2. The social sectors
9
1.2.1. Health 9
1.2.2. HIV/AIDS Epidemic 11
1.2.3. Education 15
CHAPTER 2: PERFORMANCE OF COMMON COUNTRY ASSESSMENT
INDICATORS 21
2.1. Population 21
2.2. Poverty 25
2.3. Employment and sustainable livelihood 31
2.4. Food security and environment 36
2.5. Gender equality and advancement of women 41
2.6. Governance and participation 43
2.7. Refugees and returnees in Ethiopia 47
2.8. Conclusion 49
CHAPTER 3: STATISTICAL ANNEX 55
3.1. Key indicators at Country level 55
3.2. Key indicators at Regional level
67
3.3. Acknowledgments 84
REFERENCES 85
3
Abbreviations
AAU – Addis Ababa University
AIDS - Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome
GDP – Gross Domestic Product
CCA – Common Country Assessment
CSA – Central Statistical Authority
EDSP – Education Sector Development Programme
EMA – Ethiopian Mapping Authority
ENI – Ethiopian Nutrition Institute
FPPB – Federal Prison’s Police Bureau
FSC – Federal Civil Service Commission
HSDP – Health Sector Development Programme
ILO – International Labor Organization
MEDAC – Ministry of Economic Development and Cooperation
MoE – Ministry of Education
MoH – Ministry of Health
MOLSA – Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs
NBE – National Bank of Ethiopia
NEBE – National Election Board of Ethiopia
NGO – Non-governmental Organization
NHDR – National Human Development Report
PER – Public Expenditure Review
PPP$ - Purchasing Power Parity in US Dollars
SNNPR – Southern Nations, Nationalities and People’s Regions
UNAIDS – Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS
UNDP – United Nations Development Programme
UNICEF – United Nations Children’s Fund
UNHCR – United Nations Higher Commissioner for Refugees
WB /CAS – World Bank / Country Assistance Strategy
WFP – World Food Programme
WHO – World Health Organization
4
Executive Summary
A new approach to development has been evolving in the United Nations
System: people should be put at the center of the development process, a vital tool
in development which, among other things, requires coordination among the different
actors in development: individuals, national governments, the United Nations and
other development partners. The Common Country Assessment (CCA) was
conceived and initiated along these important principles. More specifically, the CCA
is a mechanism that is recognized by the UN System as a joint compilation and
review of a common set of indicators at the country level as a basis for planning and
coordinating programme activities. Several countries, including some in sub-Saharan
Africa, have already conducted their CCA and are using it for various development
initiatives. In Ethiopia, the CCA was initiated by an Inter-Agency Task Force set up
for the purpose through the coordination of the UNDP Country Office.
The CCA for Ethiopia, first and foremost, draws extensively its core indicators
on various official reports by different agencies of the Ethiopian Government. In the
absence of such information from the Government, other contributors towards this
important task include UN Agencies operating in Ethiopia, local and international
NGOs and others.
This document contains three chapters and a couple of sections under each
chapter.
Chapter 1 discusses, briefly, the socio-economic situation of the country
using recent and available official statistical information. The chapter has two subsections, namely: the economy and the social sectors.
In the sub-section dealing with the Ethiopian economy, analyses focused
mainly on economic situation of the country during the last regime, the transition
period and situation of the country as it stands currently.
Chapter 2 reviews the CCA indicators for Ethiopia at some length. The
chapter specifically focuses on population, poverty, employment and sustainable
livelihood,
food
advancement,
security and
environment,
governance and participation,
gender
equality and
women’s
refugees and returnees,
and
5
conclusion. As far as possible, recent and reliable data were used to describe
current situations. Trend analysis was also conducted as data availability permit. The
regional variations, urban and rural discrepancies and gender gaps were also
analyzed for most of the major indicators.
Chapter 3 is a statistical annex showing trends and the most up-to-date level
of the CCA indicators both at country and regional levels. As such, the indicators at
the country level are grouped under the following major headings: Population,
Poverty,
Employment/Sustainable
Livelihoods,
Gender
Equality/Women’s
Advancement, Governance and Participation, Environment, Economic Indicators and
Others such as Government Revenue and Expenditure, Prices, Income, Welfare of
Children and Other Health-related Indicators, Agriculture and Manufacturing. On the
other hand, regional indicators are grouped under the major indicators of Population
(including size, density, dependency & sex ratios, access to safe water, sanitation,
electricity, variations in educational participation rates and adult literacy), Poverty,
Gender Equality, Women’s Advancement & Reproductive Behavior, Health Services
& Life Expectancy.
6
Introduction
The United Nations, at the beginning of this decade, has adopted a new
approach to progress, the human dimension of development where development
focuses on enlarging people’s choices. In other words, development should focus on
enabling people to increase their productivity, to have access to equal opportunities
in economic as well as political spheres on a sustainable basis, and for people to
participate fully in the decision making processes that shape their lives. The UN has
further recognized that this goal could only be achieved by making national
governments development partners, encouraging and supporting them especially
towards fulfilling their international obligations and commitments. For the UN System
to face these development challenges of a specific country, it needs among other
things to harmonize national indicators and on the basis of these indicators set
national development priorities. Thus, the United Nations General Assembly in its
Resolutions, Nos. 47/199, 50/120 and 50/227, has emphasized the need for greater
coordination among the partners of the UN System. Thus, the Common Country
Assessment (CCA) has become the first step for such coordination. The CCA is a
joint compilation and review of a common set of indicators at the country level as a
basis for planning and coordinating programme activities.
The Common Country Assessment for Ethiopia was initiated by a UN InterAgency Task Force that was formed in November 1997 with the UNDP Country
Office playing the coordinating role. The Task Force, which comprised heads of
agencies or representatives of UNFPA/CST, UNICEF, IOM, UNDP, FAO, WHO,
ILO/EAMAT, WB and UNAIDS, in its series of joint meetings up to May 1998, has
identified indicators, designed the initial time frame for the preparation of the CCA
and underscored the need for the collaboration of key governmental and nongovernmental institutions in the exercise right from the very start. Thus, on the basis
of this recommendation, a technical committee was formed to conduct the actual
work with the support of a national consultant. The Technical Committee was
expanded to include pertinent drawn from Government (MEDaC, CSA and MoLSA)
and an NGO (ActionAid – Ethiopia).
7
Objectives of the Common Country Assessment
As pointed out in the introductory section, the CCA, by and large, could be
used as an instrument for assessing and analyzing the country’s development
situation. In this regard, the CCA combines various assessments, which are
conducted from time to time by UN Agencies in formulating their respective country
programmes. Thus, the major objective of the CCA for Ethiopia could be cited as
follows.
 To enhance Inter-Agency cooperation in translating global goals,
regarding human development, into national strategies
 To collect and review common set of indicators in the context of
national development priorities.
 To forge common understanding among development partners
about key internal/external risks to the national development
process.
 To compile comprehensive sets of socio-economic indicators that
could be used as basic inputs in designing the UN Development
Assistance Framework for Ethiopia.
Methodology and the consultative process in producing the CCA
The CCA for Ethiopia was conducted on the following methodological and
consultation basis.

An inter-agency task force identified the basic indicators and the
format of the report based on several consultations with individual
agencies, country experiences, the private sector, NGOs and other
development partners.

Data on the identified indicators were collected and compiled mostly
from official publications of the government. Gaps were filled from
other sources.

Several consultations with officials from line ministries (such as the
ministries of Health and Education) were done to agree on relevant
8
issues regarding data consistency and timeliness. The experts from
Government who were delegated to CCA the task force facilitated
most of this process. The private sector (Chamber of Commerce) and
NGOs (such as ActionAid –Ethiopia) were also consulted.

The CCA document was drafted on the basis of the indicators and the
format outline set for the purpose. The document was then reviewed
section by section and as one document by the CCA task force,
various agencies and individuals: Programme managers of several
UN agencies, pertinent academicians from the Addis Ababa
University, experts from line ministries and other individuals.
Comments and suggestions were compiled and used to further
improve the draft report.

The inter-agency technical committee formed for the preparation of
the United Nations Development Assistance Framework (UNDAF) for
Ethiopia further reviewed the report based on the April 1999 Revised
New Guidelines of the CCA. (Note that the first draft of the CCA predates the New Guidelines).
CHAPTER 1: COUNTRY SITUATION
1.1. The economy
Ethiopia is an agricultural based economy, more than 85 percent of its
population largely depending on it for its livelihood. There has been little reform and
modernization in agriculture although the need for it has been more or less well
articulated by different regimes over the years. On the other hand, the modern
sectors, especially industry, are still at the infant stage.
9
In the country’s long history, the two decades, i.e. the 1970’s and 1980’s,
have been recorded as years of civil war, draught and famine and economic crisis.
The regime that happened to rule the country during those two decades had denied
the people the right to participate in issues concerning the development of their
country. As a result, centrally planned economic mismanagement policy coupled
with civil unrest has led the country to near collapse of the economy during the late
80’s. The performance of the economy during those two decades was alarming in
every sense of the word.
The agricultural sector, commonly referred to as the backbone of the
country’s economy, was severely affected in various aspects during those years.
Despite its vast arable land, only about 23 percent of the total area of the country is
intensively and moderately cultivated. For years, each agricultural household is
forced to live on smallholdings (less than 2 hectares on the average), employ
extremely backward farming techniques to support more than 5 persons. Due to
these reasons, agricultural production and productivity were very low. From Table 1,
it can be observed that the growth in the area under major crops has been
fluctuating from year to year partly due the failure of the rainy season. Accordingly,
the growth in agricultural production was also fluctuating to a marked extent with a
record decline in 1991/92 and a record harvest in 1995/96. It can be derived from
Table 1 that the total yield per hectare for all major crops has shown little
improvement from year to year and was less than an average of 15 quintals
(whereas it is more than 50 quintals in other countries including in less developing
ones). Similarly, the growth rates in agricultural gross domestic product have been
slow in the later years of the 1980’s as exhibited in Chart 1.
Table 1: Estimates of area and production of major crops produced in Ethiopia
Year
1986/87
1987/88
1988/89
Cereals
Area
Production
Pulses
Area
Prodn.
Others
Area
Prodn.
(Millions (Millions of (Millions (millions Millions (millions
of Ha).
Qt)
of Ha).
of Qt)
of Ha.
of Qt)
5.3
61.8
0.6
5.6
0.2
0.8
5.2
59.1
0.7
5.4
0.2
0.8
4.7
57.4
0.6
5.6
0.2
0.8
Total
Area
Millions of
Ha.
Prodn.
(millions
of Qt)
6.1
68.2
6.1
65.3
5.5
63.8
Rate of growth
Area
Prodn.
Millions of (millions
Ha.
of Qt)
-0.2
-9.4
10
-4.3
-2.3
1989/90
1990/91
1991/92
1992/93
1993/94
1994/95
1995/96
1996/97
5.0
4.0
3.9
4.0
4.7
5.7
6.6
6.8
61.5
55.4
46.4
51.8
47.4
61.5
82.7
84.4
0.6
0.7
0.7
0.7
1.6
0.9
0.9
0.9
Source: Central Statistical Authority,
6.5
9.6
6.2
5.8
5.1
7.7
8.1
8.5
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
1.0
3.2
0.8
0.8
8.2
1.1
1.9
2.8
5.8
4.9
4.8
4.9
6.5
6.9
7.9
8.1
68.9
68.2
53.5
58.4
60.7
70.4
92.8
95.7
5.9
-15.2
-3.0
1.8
34.2
6.1
14.2
2.4
Annual Reports of Agricultural Surveys (various
years)
From 1986/87 through 1991/92, the annual growth rate of agricultural GDP
was on the average only 1.1 percent and was mostly on the decline. However, some
improvement was observed from 1992/93 onwards. On the other hand, the rate of
growth in the industrial sector whose contribution to the overall GDP ranges only
between 10-15 percent, has been on a steady decline during the late 80’s and early
90’s and revived to register a growth of around 8 percent in 1996/97 fiscal year. The
most dynamic component of the industrial sector, large and medium scale
manufacturing industries, were the most affected during the mentioned period. On
the other hand, the services sector has been on the average growing between 19851996 except the year 1990/91which characterizes a near collapse of the economy in
all sectors.
In general, the Ethiopian economy has faced a number of up and downs
during the last three decades. The severe drought of recent years (1984/85, 1987/88
and 1993/94), economic mismanagement and civil unrest throughout the country
were among the major causes for slowing down socio-economic development.
Agriculture, which contributes more than 50 percent to the country’s GDP and
about 85 percent to the export earning, has a strong influence on the overall
performance of the economy. Thus, GDP growth was very slow in the early 80’s,
was on the decline in the late 80’s and has shown record declines of the decade in
1990/91 and 1991/92.
Economic recovery was witnessed after the change of government, the
restoration of peace and stability and the launch of the structural adjustment
programme from 1992/93 onwards.
11
8.1
-1.0
-21.6
9.1
3.9
16.0
31.8
3.2
Chart One: Growth of Real GDP and its Components
Source: Ministry of Economic Development and Cooperation
Growth of Real GDP and its Components
40
30
20
10
0
-10
-20
-30
89/90
90/91
91/92
92/93
93/94
AGRICULTURE
INDUSTRY
OTHER SERVICES
TOTAL
94/95
95/96
96/97
97/98
DISRIBUTIVE SERVICES
The Ethiopian economy has shown a record growth in 1992/93 (real GDP has
grown by 12.4% over the previous year) but slowed down during the next two years
in 1993/94 (1.7%) and 1994/95 (5.4%) due to the bad weather condition that affected
agricultural production, and picked up in 1995/96 (10.6%). However, a further
slowdown was witnessed in 1996/97 (5.7%) and 1997/98 (2.8% ) due to the El Nino
weather condition. According to recent forecast for 1998/99, the economy is
expected to grow by 6.4 percent (down from an earlier growth target of 9.4 percent)
given the onset of the drought in early 1999 and the slowdown in leading economic
indicators over the past months.
During 1991 and 1992,the annual rate of inflation reached a peak of 21
percent. In 1993, it stood at 10 percent while it has gone down to a mere 0.9 percent
in 1996. It declined further to an impressive minus 6.4 percent in 1997, an indication
of good economic performance over recent years.
On the other hand, the new investment regime has stimulated both domestic
and foreign investment. Over the last 6 years, the Ethiopian Investment Authority
has issued investment certificates that covered a total capital outlay of US$ 5 billion
worth of projects1 in various sectors. Further liberalization of the investment regime
is still needed to encourage private investment especially in the agricultural sector.
1
Source: Ethiopian Investment Authority
12
The country’s trade has also got some degree of liberalization to register a
substantial increment in foreign exchange earnings. As a result, Ethiopia’s foreign
exchange reserve has grown from a mere one week of imports in 1989/90 to a level
sufficient to cover import requirements for more than 16 weeks in 1996/97.
According to projections, the reserve is expected to cover less than 14 weeks
imports which is the result of a slow down in economic growth. Exports as
percentage of imports have risen from a level of about 18 percent in 1991/92 to more
than 41 percent in 1996/97. The currency realignment in 1992 and other favorable
monetary policies have resulted in this improvement in the country’s export/import
ratio.
It can also be observed that public ownership in the various sectors of the
economy is on the decline from an absolute domination of state monopoly prior to
1991. Though this is an encouraging sign for a move to a market oriented economy,
there are still demands for greater flexibility in policy especially regarding land
ownership.
Gross domestic savings as percent of GDP has reached more than 8 percent
in 1996/97 as compared to the low level of the late 80’s. This rise in domestic
savings in turn has enabled the public sector investment in social services and
infrastructure development to go up.
The balance of payments deficit has fallen to less than 10 percent of GDP in
1996/97 as opposed to the staggering double digits in the late 80’s and early 90’s.
In another development, public revenue has gone up to more than 18 percent
of GDP in 1996/97 as compared to a level of only under 4 percent in 1990/91 while
public expenditure has been contained to less than a quarter of GDP over the
mentioned period. The budget deficit (excluding grants) has, thus, decreased from
more than 11 percent of GDP in 1989/90 to 5 percent in 1996/97.
Ethiopia being a heavily indebted country is currently seeking debt relief from
Paris Club creditors and from all other bilateral and commercial creditors. The
country’s debt outstanding, excluding ruble denominated debt owed to Russia,
amounted to 83 percent of GDP in Fiscal Year 1996.2 Scheduled debt service
amounted to about 34 percent of exports and non-factor services and 26 percent of
13
government revenues during the same fiscal year. This indeed is a heavy burden to
the economy by any measure. In recognition of this fact, the government has
designed a prudent debt management policy, i.e., borrowing only on concessional
terms.
In sum, under the direction of its new economic reform program, Ethiopia has
managed to achieve economic growth, low level of inflation, a relatively stable
exchange market and an overall macroeconomic performance that could be termed
as satisfactory. This performance should be further strengthened by creating
conducive atmosphere in all sectors for an increased participation of the private
sector and other development partners.
1.2. The social sectors
1.2.1. Health: Ethiopia is a country associated with various health problems
that severely affected its human development. The crude death rate is 15 per 1000
people while those of infant and under 5 mortality rates currently stand at 110 and
161 per 1000 live births, respectively. Maternal mortality rate has reached 700 per
100,000 people. These mortality rates were even worse in the late 80’s and early
90’s when most health services were hampered due, mostly, to war, draught and
civil unrest that prevailed during those periods. It should be noted that all these
indicators are very high even by sub-Saharan African standards. On the other hand,
life expectancy at birth is 53 years. At present, public health services are accessible
to only 49 percent of the population. This picture tells only half of the truth, as
accessibility to health services in rural areas is worse because of lack of road
networks. Likewise, according to the 1994 Population and Housing Census of
Ethiopia, only 1 percent of the rural population have access to sanitation services
while it is 60 percent for the urban population; and safe water is only accessible to
20 percent of the rural population and 80 percent of the urban population.
The public health services are designed to be accessible through a four-tier
infrastructure that consists of primary health care units for 25,000 people, district
2
Source, The World Bank: Country Assistance Strategy of the World Bank Group for the Federal Republic
of Ethiopia, Report No. 17009 – ET, Africa Region, Washington DC, August 1997.
14
hospitals for 250,000 people, regional hospitals for 1 million people and specialized
hospitals for 5 million people. On the other hand, health professionals (physicians,
nurses, etc.) and health facilities (health centers, hospitals, hospital beds, etc.) to
population ratios are very far from the WHO standard. 3
In recognition of the serious health problems in the country, the government
of Ethiopia issued a new health policy in 1993 to insure primary health care for all by
decentralizing the health system and developing the preventive components of
health care as well as promoting the participation of the private sector in the health
services development. However, major results have yet to be registered. In fact,
recent studies have shown that respiratory infections and malaria are two of the
most serious and priority health problems in the country but which could be
eradicated by concerted preventive action. Ironically, evidences show that the
country’s health system is still physician oriented and hence curative while the major
health problems are preventive as indicated above.4
Total health expenditure as a share of GDP is currently about 2 percent, up
from a level of 1.3 percent prior to 1991 but down from a level of about 3 percent in
the mid-eighties. On the other hand, the share of public health expenditure out of the
total expenditure has picked up from a level of around 3 percent in 1990 to 6 percent
in 1996/97. However, per capita health spending is currently about 1 US Dollars
(sub-Saharan African 13.3 US$)5.
Virtually all health service provisions are carried out by the public sector.
However, there is a strong need to change this trend to involve the private sector in
the area of health services development as stipulated in the 1993 health policy
document. There are some encouraging signs in this area over the last 5 years
though much remains to be done to accelerate this development.
Huge disparities are evident in the area of health services provisions between
urban and rural areas and among regions. For instance, a third of the entire hospital
3
WHO standard:
Physician: 1: 10,000 people; Nurses: 1: 5,000 people; Hospital beds: 1: 3,000 people; Hospitals: 1:
250,000 people; Health center: 1: 100,000 people; and Health station: 1: 10,000 people.
4
See, FDE, Social Sector Review/Per III, Volume 2: Main Report: Education, Health and Generic Issues,
A report prepared for MOF by the Center for the Study of African Economies, Oxford University, Addis
Ababa, March 1997.
5
World Bank (1997): Ethiopia, Public Expenditure Review, Volume I, Main Report, November 1997.
15
beds, almost two-thirds of the physicians and half of the nurses are accumulated in
the capital, Addis Ababa. The level of access to social services, especially of health
services, among regions is quite alarming. Regions such as Afar, BenishangulGumuz and Somali are at the lowest level in terms of access to health facilities (i.e.,
hospitals, health centers, etc), safe water and sanitation facilities as compared to
regions such as Addis Ababa, Dire Dawa and Harari. In some regions the health
facilities are in poor conditions both physically and in terms of availability of health
personnel which makes life difficult for the most vulnerable group of population,
women and children. In fact Ethiopia has the highest infant and maternal mortality
rates in the world.
1.2.2 HIV/AIDS epidemic6: HIV probably started to spread in Ethiopia in the
early 1980s. The first evidence of HIV infection was found in 1984, while the first
AIDS case was reported in 1986. Although HIV prevalence was very low in Ethiopia
during the early 1980s, it has been increasing rapidly in the past few years. The
Ministry of Health (MOH) estimated that by 1993 HIV prevalence among adults
(those aged 15 years and older) was 3.4 percent. By 1997 HIV adult prevalence had
increased to 7.4 percent. It was estimated that there were 2.4 million adults in
Ethiopia living with HIV in 19977.
In the period 1988-1992 the Surveillance Division of the Department of AIDS
Control, MOH, conducted HIV surveys for monitoring trends among different
population groups in different parts of the country. The average HIV prevalence in
the country in 1988 among female multiple partner sexual contacts (MPSCs) was
18.5 percent. In the following year, the average prevalence rate in the seven towns
increased to 29.2 percent, which was a progression rate of 57.8 percent in 12
months.8 By 1990 these rates had increased ranging from 30 percent in Metu town
to 50 percent in Nazareth town. By 1991, the HIV prevalence in Bahir Dar and
6
The whole text in this section is courtesy of UNAIDS, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
AIDS in Ethiopia: Background, Projections, Impacts, Interventions, Ministry of Health, second edition,
1988.
8
M. Mehret and L. Khodakevich, Surveillance of HIV infection in Ethiopia, Ethiopian Journal of Health
Development, Vol. 4, No. 2, 1990.
7
16
Nazareth towns had already exceeded 60 percent.9 Among the Ethiopian Freight
Transport Corporation (EFTC) employees the rate of progression was 33 percent
among the drivers, and 78 percent among the technicians (initial prevalence rates
were 17.3 percent and 4.1percent, respectively); the sero-conversion rate was 7.2
percent within 12 months among these EFTC workers.10 No HIV sero positive
person was found among the 300 hospital outpatients in Assela Hospital who were
tested in the 1985-86 survey. By the end of 1989, 3.5 percent of the same population
group were HIV infected, showing that HIV was spreading rapidly among the urban
communities in Ethiopia.11 The National AIDS Control Programme undertook the
monitoring of HIV infection among pregnant women attending antenatal clinics using
the unlinked anonymous method recommended by WHO, in 4 urban and 6 rural
sites in different parts of the country during the period 1992-1993. Eleven to thirteen
per cent of the urban pregnant women were found to be HIV infected. Among the
rural sites, 0 to 7 percent of the pregnant women were found infected, indicating that
rural populations were not spared by the HIV/AIDS epidemic. The HIV sentinel
surveillance activity was maintained in Addis Ababa in collaboration between the
Health Bureau of the Addis Ababa City Administration and the Ethiopia Netherlands
AIDS Research Project (ENARP) based in the Ethiopian Health and Nutrition
Research Institute (EHNRI). Among pregnant women attending antenatal clinic in
Addis Ababa, the HIV prevalence has increased from 6 percent in 1989 to 18
percent in 199812.
A cross-sectional HIV survey was carried out among pregnant women in
Jimma during the period April 1993 to May 1994 to determine the prevalence of HIV
infection among pregnant women. Some 8.6 percent of the 747 women tested were
found to be HIV positive13. In Gambella, 252 pregnant women attending antenatal
care at their first visit through July and August 1997 were screened for HIV
9
AIDS in Ethiopia: Background, Projections, Impacts, Interventions, Ministry of Health, second edition,
1988.
10
M. Mehret and L. Khodakevich, Surveillance of HIV infection in Ethiopia, Ethiopian Journal of Health
Development, Vol. 4, No. 2, 1990.
11
M. Mehret and L. Khodakevich, D. Zawdie, and B. Shanko, Progression of HIV Epidemics in Ethiopia,
Ethiopian Journal of Health Development, Vol. 4, No. 2, 1990.
12
AIDS in Ethiopia: Background, Projections, Impacts, Interventions, Ministry of Health, second edition,
1988.
13
M. Eshetu, T. Libnedingel, Y. Ali, HIV infection among pregnant mothers attending antenatal care in
Jimma Hospital, Bulletin of Jimma Institute of Health Science, Vol. 7, No. 2, July 1997.
17
antibodies using the unlinked anonymous method. The prevalence of HIV was found
to be 12.7 percent. Since 1992, there has been no nationally compiled HIV sentinel
surveillance data. The originally established HIV surveillance activities were
interrupted and discontinued. Recent efforts to revive the national surveillance
system include the drafting of the national HIV sentinel surveillance protocol, which
defines the methodology of data collection by the regions. The next step will be the
training of the regional sentinel surveillance teams and supervising data collection by
regional teams.
The National HIV/AIDS Team at the Ministry of Health estimates that 88
percent of all infections in Ethiopia result from heterosexual transmission.
Documented risk factors for HIV transmission include: sex with multiple partners,
commercial sex, extramarital sex, non-faithful partners, sexually transmitted
diseases, infected blood and blood products, traditional malpractice and sex with a
spouse especially for women14.
A survey undertaken in 1993 revealed that 11 percent of the adults who were
sexually active in the past twelve months reported having had non-regular sexual
relationships. More men (18 percent) than women (5 percent) reported this practice
which also varied by city, ranging from 10 percent in Awassa, to 17 percent in Addis
Ababa. One out of every two persons who reported having had non-regular sexual
relationships did so without using a condom in their last non-regular sexual
relationship15. In the same survey cited above, reported episodes of urethral
infection due to sexually transmitted disease in men over the previous twelve months
was 5 percent. The highest proportion of 8 percent being reported among those
aged 20-24 years. Among pregnant women in Addis Ababa, 9 percent revealed
serological evidence of syphilis.
To prevent the spread of HIV and mitigate its impact, the National AIDS
Control Programme was established in 1987 by the Government of Ethiopia. The
National AIDS Control Programme in collaboration with WHO/GPA and other donors
developed and implemented the first and second Medium Term Plans for the
14
AIDS in Ethiopia: Background, Projections, Impacts, Interventions, Ministry of Health, second edition,
1988.
15
M. Mehret, T.E. Mertens, M. Carel, H. Negassa, W. Feleke, N. Yitbarek, and T. Burton, Baseline for the
evaluation of an AIDS programme using programme indicators: A case study in Ethiopia, Bulletin of the
World Health Organization, 1996.
18
prevention and control of HIV in Ethiopia. The interventions undertaken include:
Information, education and communication, care for people living with HIV/AIDS,
provision of protective materials for clinical use, training of health care workers in
universal precautions, and proper sterilization techniques, blood safety initiatives,
counseling of people living with HIV/AIDS and their relatives, HIV surveillance and
research.
In compliance with the decentralization strategy of the country, human,
financial and material resources were decentralized to the regions, which now have
the responsibility of planning, implementing, monitoring and evaluating health
interventions in their respective regions. This reorganization has resulted in the
interruption of all core HIV/AIDS control activities.
The second Medium Term Plan ended in 1996. At the end of 1995 WHO/GPA
was phased out and The Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS)
was established. In Ethiopia, the UN Theme Group was established in the last
quarter of 1995 with the main goal of bringing together the efforts of the six UNAIDS
cosponsors into a collaborative effort to strengthen the national response to the
HIV/AIDS epidemic.
The bilateral and multilateral donors, the national and international NGOs,
and the religious organizations have played a crucial role in the response to the
HIV/AIDS epidemic in Ethiopia. However, all the above efforts have so far resulted in
less than the desired outcome.
The Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia drafted a National HIV/AIDS
Policy, which was endorsed by the Council of Ministers in August 1998. The
objective of the policy is to provide an enabling environment for the prevention and
control of HIV/AIDS in the country. The specific objectives of the policy include: the
establishment of effective HIV/AIDS prevention and control strategies that involve
government
sectors,
non-governmental
organizations,
private
sectors
and
communities and that safeguard the human rights of people living with HIV/AIDS and
avoid their discrimination. Other objectives are: empowering women, youth and other
vulnerable groups to take action to protect themselves against HIV/AIDS; promoting
institutional, home and community-based care and psycho-social support to people
living with HIV/AIDS, orphans and surviving dependants; and promoting and
19
encouraging
research
activities
targeted
towards
preventive,
curative
and
rehabilitative aspects of HIV/AIDS.
Coordinated by the Federal Ministry of Health and the Regional Health
Bureaus, all the regions have drafted multisectoral HIV/AIDS Strategic Plans during
the period January to September 1998. The federal level sectors scrutinized these
plans and planned strategies for facilitating their implementation. Finally, a Strategic
Framework was elaborated defining national priorities in responding to the HIV/AIDS
epidemic, co-ordination mechanisms, management arrangements, monitoring and
evaluation plans. These documents currently await government endorsement.
1.2.3. Education: The national literacy rate, according to the 1994 Population and
Housing Census, was 23.4 per cent. However, this is by far lower than the level of
the late 70’s and 80’s. In fact, the rate has shown a steady decline during the early
years of the 90’s but slightly picked up from 1994 onwards.
Chart 2: Adult Literacy Rate
Adult literacy rate
90
80
70
60
Ra
te 50
% 40
30
20
10
0
1990
1991
1992
1993
Year
1994
1995
1996
The high literacy rate in earlier years was the result of the Literacy Campaign
that was abandoned during the peak of the civil war. This Campaign which had
gained wide popular support and international admiration during the 70’s and
20
80’s had been conducted on a continuous basis for over a decade and were
considered by many as one of the most successful literacy campaigns in Africa.
The current adult literacy rate which is estimated at a little over 25 percent
varies between male and female, rural and urban and among regions. Disparities are
particularly marked between urban and rural (69 percent against 15 percent in that
order, in 1994) and between male and female (30 percent against 17 percent).
Chart 3: Discrepancies in adult literacy rates
Source: FDRE, Population and Housing Census Commission (1998): The population and housing
census of Ethiopia, Results at country level, statistical report, Volume I, Addis Ababa, June 1998.
Variations in adult literacy rates can also be observed among regions in the
country. Afar and Somali regions have literacy rates of only less than 10 percent
while Addis Ababa, Harari and Dire Dawa registered more than 50 percent. Addis
Ababa particularly has the highest literacy rate, 82.5 percent (Chart 3). All these
results show that Ethiopia has one of the highest illiteracy rates in the world whose
variations are significant among its regions, between its rural and urban population
and male and female.
21
Net enrollment ratio16 in Primary Education was 12.2 percent in 1994 down
from a level of 19.2 percent in 1984 which means about 88 percent of the primary
school age children were out of school in 1994 against 80 percent in 1984.
Furthermore, there were significant variations in net enrollments between male and
female, rural and urban and among the country’s regions. In particular, rural and
urban primary school net enrollment ratios in 1994 were 6 percent against 59
percent in favor of the urban side. At the country level, high dropout rates (32
percent) and repetition rates (11 percent) are indications that the quality of education
at the primary level is continuously declining when compared to earlier years.
On the other hand, primary educational participation, according to the
population and housing census of 1994, were at the lowest level in Afar and Somali
regions while Addis Ababa, Harari, Dire Dawa, Tigray and Gambella regions had the
highest enrollment in that order.
Similarly, net enrollment in Secondary Education was only 5 percent in 1994,
again down from the level of 1984 and huge disparities existing between urban and
rural areas and between regions. Total enrollment in 1994 at secondary level was
relatively better for Addis Ababa, Harari and Dire Dawa but was extremely low in
Somali followed by Afar and Benishangul – Gumuz regions.
School enrollment in general was at an all time low level during the peak of
the civil war in the late 80’s and early 90’s partly due to the forced conscription of the
youth to the war front. According to the 1984 and 1994 population and housing
census results, enrollments improved from 1994 onwards both in primary and
secondary levels but are still below the level of the 70’s and early 80’s.
16
The net enrolment ratio is the number of students enrolled in a level of education who belong in the
relevant age group expressed as a percentage of the population in that age group.
22
Ch ar t 4 : Var iat io n s in Ad ult Lit e r acy Rat e s am o n g r e g io n s - 1 9 9 4
Dire Dawa
Addis Ababa
Harari
Gambella
SNNPR
Benishangul - Gumuz
Somali
Oromiya
Amhara
Afar
Tigray
0
20
40
60
80
100
Source: FDRE, Population and Housing Census Commission (1998): The population and housing
census of Ethiopia, Results at country level, statistical report, Volume I, Addis Ababa, June 1998.
Private sector involvement in primary and secondary education development
are encouraging recently. However, there is still a long way to go to ease the burden
of the public sector particularly in secondary education.
Tertiary education in Ethiopia is quite at an infancy stage though the first
university is over 50 years old. After the fall of the military dictatorship and change of
government in 1991, a number of institutions of higher education were opened to
produce skilled manpower that could play a vital role in the country’s development
endeavors. Virtually all tertiary education institutions in the country are public whose
capacity is highly limited as compared to the ever increasing demand. Coupled with
this problem is the lack of necessary expertise in specialized areas. For this reasons,
enrollment in higher education institutions in this country is very small even
23
compared to small economies in Africa and Asia. Furthermore, gender inequities are
most serious at the tertiary level than any of the other levels not to mention the huge
disparities existing in the level of access to educational facilities among the regions.
The gender inequities are closely linked among other things to household demand
for education in respect of the cultural role of women at that age.
Private sector development in tertiary education is almost non-existent mostly
due to lack of clarity of the investment policy in this area and hence the reluctance of
the private sector to get involved in university education development.
Every year the bulk of the secondary school graduates who are unable to
advance to the tertiary level are forced to join the rank of the unemployed population
which is currently on the rise at an alarming and dangerous pace. Technical and
vocational training could have helped to combat this problem besides creating the
necessary environment for technological advancement. However, only a handful of
such training institutions exist in the country, most of them in the capital and other
major cities and therefore are obviously unable to accommodate more than a
fraction of the secondary school leavers.
Education expenditure as a share of GDP has been increasing since 1992/93
from a level of 2.7 percent (sub-Saharan Africa 5.7 %) to around 3.8 percent
1996/97. Similarly, public expenditure in education as a share of total spending rose
from 11.5 percent (sub-Saharan Africa 20 %) in 1992/93 to around 15 percent in
1996/97.
It is worth mentioning at this stage that the government, in recognition of
these shortcomings in the education sector, had issued the education and training
policy (March 1994) and an education sector development program (ESDP)
(October 1996). The two documents, by and large, have identified the problems that
existed in the sector for long, ways of tackling them and main priority areas. The
central goal of the ESDP is a planned target of universal primary education by 2015.
The ESDP and its implementation procedures are already making an impact on the
sector and improvements are emerging in the areas of public spending on education
and enrolment at all levels of education.
24
CHAPTER 2: PERFORMANCE OF COMMON COUNTRY
ASSESSMENT INDICATORS
2.1. Population
Ethiopia is one of the highly populated countries in Africa. According to the
1994 Population and Housing Census projection, the country’s population has
reached 59.9 million in 1998, the second largest in sub-Saharan Africa and third
from the whole continent, behind Nigeria and Egypt. The majority of the population,
85.5 percent, resides in rural areas while the rest, only 14.5 percent is urbanite. The
three regional states, Amhara, Oromiya and SNNPR together contribute more than
80 percent of Ethiopia’s total population. The population, which grows at about 3
percent per year, is expected to double in just less than 28 years. The high level of
fertility, the large size of population in the reproductive age group combined with low
age at marriage and low female education are the major cause for this high rate of
population growth
Chart 4: Trend in population growth – 1995-2030
140.0
120.0
100.0
Population
(m illions)
80.0
60.0
40.0
20.0
0.0
1995
2000
2005
2010
2015
2020
2025
2030
Year
Source: FDRE, Population and Housing Census Commission (1998): The population and housing
census of Ethiopia, Results at country level, statistical report, Volume I, Addis Ababa, June 1998.
outweighing the other determinant, the mortality component.
25
The age composition of the population also supports this fact. The Census
projection shows that in 1998 the country had 43.8 percent of its population under 15
years of age, 53.2 percent between the ages of 15 and 64 (known as working age)
and a mere 3 percent above the age of 64 years. Children (0 to 14 years) and youth
(15 to 24 years) together account for 64.3 percent of the total population of the
country indicating that the population of Ethiopia is quite young. In demographic
terms, this means that the population pyramid shows a wide – base age structure,
i.e., an age structure with a very large proportion of children and a very small
proportion of elderly persons, typical of a population age structure with high fertility
and mortality rates. Ironically, the current age structure of the population is the same
as that of 1984.17 However, the current conventional dependency ratio18 has shown
a marked difference when compared to that of 1984. At the country level, the overall
dependency ratio is 94.1 percent implying that in Ethiopia every 100 people in the
productive age has to support 94 dependents (down from 124 in 1984). The burden
of dependency is particularly serious at younger ages (85 percent) than at older
ages (9 percent), and also among the rural population (99 percent) than in urban
areas (67 percent)19.
The age distributions of the rural and urban population are similar except for
children below 15 years of age and those of the youth (15 to 24 years of age). In
rural areas, the percentage of children below 15 years of age (45.2 percent) is higher
than that of the proportion of children in urban areas (36.7 percent). On the other
hand, the proportion of youth in urban areas (24.1 percent) is higher than that of
rural areas (19.9 percent). The high proportion of children in rural areas is explained
by the high fertility rate observed in rural women, while the high proportion of youth
in urban areas is partly due to the migration of the youth from rural to urban areas for
further education, in search of jobs, etc.
17
See Office of the Population and Housing Census :The 1984 population and housing census of Ethiopia,
Analytical Report at National Level, Addis Ababa, December 1991
18
Conventional dependency ratio is defined as ratio of children (0 to 14 years) to the productive age (15 to
59 years) plus the ratio of the population aged 60 years and over to that of the productive age.(Source:
Census Analytical Report 1984). Some studies take 15-64 as productive age group, but for comparison
purpose we will stick to the age group 15 to 59 in this analysis.
19
This result should be interpreted with caution. The actual dependency load, i.e., ratio of non-workers to
workers is by far higher than the ones indicated as conventional dependency ratios simply because not all
persons in the productive age are actually at work.
26
The age composition of the population in the regional states20 shows that
Somali region has the highest proportion of child population (0 to 14 years) with 46.7
percent of its population being children while Addis Ababa has the lowest proportion
of child population (33 percent). On the other hand, Addis Ababa has the highest
percentage of youth population (15 to 24 years) with 27 percent of its population
falling in this age group. This comes as no surprise since the region is the center of
all socio-economic activities and opportunities including employment, education and
specialized training, etc. that attract the young generation from all over the country.
Tigray has the lowest youth population with 19 percent. Regions of Oromiya, Somali
and Tigray have the lowest percentage of working age population with 51 percent of
their respective population falling in that age group while Addis Ababa has the
highest with 64 percent. Tigray and Amhara regions have 4 percent of their
population falling in the old age group (above 64 years) while Gambella has the
lowest proportion of elders with only 1.5 percent.
Conventional dependency ratios show that, Tigray and Oromiya regions have
the highest dependency ratio with 102 percent, i.e., every 100 person supporting 102
dependents, and Addis Ababa has lower dependency ratio (59 percent).
Dependency at younger ages is high in Somali region (93 percent) and low in Addis
Ababa (53 percent), while the old age dependency ratio is the highest in Tigray
region (13 percent) and the lowest in Gambella (4 percent).
In 1998, a sex ratio21of 100.9 for Ethiopia indicates that there are more males
than females in the country (i.e., 1009 males per 1000 females) with variations in
urban (979 males per 1000 females) and rural (1014 males per 1000 females) areas.
The lower sex ratio in urban areas is partly due to female dominated migration into
urban areas. According to the census projection, the sex composition of the
population of Ethiopia will be male dominated, i.e., slight excess of males, up to the
next quarter of a century after which the reverse will
happen.
Population - 1999
20
Population - 1999
Urban
analysis
14.7%
This particular
for the regions is based on the census projection for 1995, due to lack of
information for 1998.
21
The sex ratio is defined as the number of males per 100 females.
Female
49.8%
Rural
85.3%
Male
50.2%
27
Chart 5: Population by rural-urban and male-female category
There are variations in the sex composition of the population in regions. Affar
has the highest sex ratio (129 males per 100 females) followed by Somali region
(119 males per 100 females), while Addis Ababa has the lowest sex ratio (fewer than
94 males per 100 females) followed by Tigray (97 males per 100 females).
In Ethiopia the total fertility rate of 6.2 children per woman in 1984 has
climbed to 6.5 children per woman in 1998, but is expected to decline to a level of
5.8 beyond the year 2000. There are huge variations among regions with Oromiya
region having the highest total fertility level of 7 children per woman and Addis
Ababa, the least with 2 children per woman. The fertility rate, which is a big
determinant in the fast growth of the country’s population, is expected to reach a
level of 3.8 children per woman by the end of the next quarter of a century.
2.2. Poverty
Ethiopia, with an estimated per capita income of about US$110 22 (recent
estimates by MEDaC, US$167), is one of the most poverty stricken countries on the
globe. This figure, which is less than a third of a-dollar-a-day poverty line set by the
World Bank, can tell a lot of challenges facing this country in its current overall
sustainable human development initiatives.
The Government of Ethiopia has recently published a document on the level
and extent of poverty in the country based on the 1995/96 Household Budget
Sample Survey conducted throughout the country. According to the document, 45
percent of the Ethiopian population live in absolute poverty. 23 Rural and urban
disparities in poverty levels are significant with 47 percent of the rural population
falling below the poverty line against 33 percent of the urban population.
22
UNDP: The 1998 Human Development Report. Government economists and officials are challenging this
figure especially, in recent years. They claim that the current income per capita figure for the country is 4050 percent higher than that quoted by the international community ranging somewhere between 150 to 170
US Dollars. Nevertheless, this is still by far lower than the poverty line defined by the World Bank for
developing countries!
23
Source: Ministry of Economic Development and Cooperation, Poverty Situation in Ethiopia, Addis
Ababa, March 1999.
28
The document also revealed for the first time that the poverty gap is higher in
rural areas when compared to the gap in urban areas. That is, the poor in rural areas
are on average 13 percent short of fulfilling the required minimum expenditure while
the urban poor are on average 10 percent short. Similarly, the inequality among the
poor was found out to be higher in rural areas than in urban areas.
There are huge variations among regional poverty levels as depicted in Chart
7. “.. . Of all regions in Ethiopia, Tigray region has the highest level of absolute
poverty. The Amhara and Southern regions have the next highest level of absolute
poverty….The (predominantly) urban regions, namely Harari, Addis Ababa and Dire
Dawa have the lowest levels of absolute poverty.”24
Percent of people below the poverty line - 1996
50
40
30
percent
20
10
0
Rural
Urban
Country
Source: Ministry of Economic Development and Cooperation, Poverty situation in
Ethiopia, Addis Ababa, March 1999.
Chart 6: Rural-Urban disparity in poverty levels
The above picture of poverty scenario in the country can also be supported
by the level of human poverty profiles: adult illiteracy; population without access to
safe water, health services, sanitation; under-weight children under five; etc. As
24
Ministry of Economic Development and Cooperation, Poverty Situation in Ethiopia, Addis Ababa,
March 1999.
29
such, the aim here is to show the deprivation of the Ethiopian people of these basic
necessities as “…poverty also means that opportunities and choices most basic to
human development are denied”25.
The illiteracy status of a country is considered as one of the major indicators
of the level and extent of poverty, because literacy (and hence educational level) is
firmly associated with the standard of living of people. In Ethiopia, official statistics
estimates of adult illiteracy rate was around 23 percent by February 1990 and has
climbed to a level of 77 percent in 1994 with considerable variations in rural and
urban areas, among regions and male and females26.
Regional variations in absolute poverty levels-1996
60
50
40
level -% 30
20
Dire Dawa
Addis Ababa
Harari
Gambella
Benishangul-G
Somali
Oromiya
Amhara
Affar
Tigray
0
SNNPR
10
Regions
Chart 7: Regional variation in absolute poverty levels
Ministry of Economic Development and Cooperation, Welfare Monitoring Unit, Poverty
Situation in Ethiopia, Addis Ababa, March 1999.
25
United Nations Development Programme, Human Development Report 1997, Oxford University Press,
New York, 1997.
26
See, Basic Education Statistics (July 1994) published by Education management and information
systems, Ministry of Education, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia; and also the 1994 population and housing census
of Ethiopia, Results at country level, Volume I, June 1998, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
30
Literacy among males and females and urban and rural areas in Ethiopia as
in many developing countries is always in favor of the male and urban areas. Thus
illiteracy in 1994 was 83.1 percent for females against 70.1 for male, 84.7 percent for
rural Ethiopia against only 31.2 percent for urban areas.
There are huge variations among regional states, the highest
Dire Dawa
Addis Ababa
Harari
Gambella
SNNPR
Benishangul-G
Somali
Oromiya
Amhara
Affar
100
90
80
70
60
Rate _% 50
40
30
20
10
0
Tigray
Variation in adult illiteracy rates-1994
Regions
Chart 8: Variations in adult illiteracy rate among regions
Source: FDRE, Population and Housing Census Commission (1998): The population and housing census of
Ethiopia, Results at country level, statistical report, Volume I, Addis Ababa, June 1998.
illiteracy prevailing in Affar (93 percent ) and Somali (92 percent) and the least in
Addis Ababa with about 18 percent. Rural-urban gaps in adult illiteracy within
regions have exposed a striking result: Harari, Addis Ababa and Dire Dawa have the
highest discrepancies within their respective rural-urban areas.
Population without access to safe water 27 is another indicator of human
poverty.
In Ethiopia, 76 percent of all households28 do not have access to safe water
in 1994, and recent data shows that there are no marked improvements since then.
27
Access to safe water is usually taken to mean reasonable access to clean water (in terms of distance and
adequate water supply) including tap and protected well/spring.
31
The rural-urban gap is quite alarming: 85 percent of rural households against 19
percent of urban households. This beyond any doubt shows that the majority of the
Ethiopian population is exposed to water borne diseases, such as diarrhea, more
than any people anywhere in the world. Looking at regional variations, with the
exception of Addis Ababa, Dire Dawa and Harari regions, more than 70 percent of
households in the rest of the regions have no access to safe water, most notably
Affar (87 percent of households), Somali (85 percent) and Benishangul-Gumuz (82
percent). On the other hand, 2.5 percent of the households residing in Addis Ababa
have no access to safe water facilities.
Population without access to sanitation facilities 29 is the other indicator of the
depth of poverty. At the country level, around 87 percent of all households have no
access to sanitation facility. Variations are awesome both among regions and
between rural and urban households. About 43 percent of urban households have
no access to sanitation facilities while almost all rural households (94 percent) have
no sanitation facility. It is reasonable to expect from the above discussion that most
regions to be at the worst situation. Some 94 percent of households in Amhara, 93
percent in Tigray and 92 percent in Affar have no access to sanitation while 26
percent of households residing in Addis Ababa have no access to sanitation facility.
Malnutrition is severe in Ethiopia. The average per capita intake of energy is
estimated to be 1750 calories, which is only 80 percent of the minimum daily
requirement needed for an average person to perform a normal day-to-day activity.
As a result, about 47 percent of children under five years of age are under-weight
(i.e., low weight for age), 64 percent are stunted (i.e., low height for age) and 5
percent wasting (i.e., low weight for height)30. This poor nutritional level is an
underlying cause for most of the health problems that emanate from micronutrient
deficiencies. In fact, according to the country’s health development program of 1996,
Ethiopia is one of a few African countries where micronutrient deficiencies are
significant public health problems.
28
This analysis is based on the 1994 Census results in which safe water and sanitation facilities were
reported by housing units. However, for the sake of clarity the analysis here is based on households because
according to the census result one housing unit approximately represents one household.
29
Access to sanitation is usually taken to mean access to toilet facilities (including outdoor latrines), i.e.,
access to safe and efficient disposal human waste facilities.
30
Federal democratic republic of Ethiopia, Ministry of Health (1996): Health Sector Development Program
(1997 –2001), October 1996, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
32
The burden of disease is also aggravated by poor access to health services.
In Ethiopia, the health service coverage is only 48.5 percent, one of the lowest in
sub-Saharan Africa. Variations in access to health services are only too obvious both
in physical terms (poor road and transport situations, especially in rural areas), and
the low level of per capita income.
At this stage, it is important to get an approximate magnitude of the poverty
situation in the country. According to a government document,31 it was estimated
that about 35 percent of the rural population are chronically poor. Taking this fact
into mind, and considering the other category of the poor, i.e., those which are
vulnerable to the adverse effects of draught, economic reforms, etc., it is estimated
that half of the rural population are poor in terms of meeting the basic human needs
described above. Similarly, the magnitude of urban poverty is no different from the
rural one. Here, too, the incident of poverty is estimated to be more than half of the
urban population. On the other hand, variations in the incident of poverty among
regions and gender differentials are evident. Regional states of Somali, Affar,
Benishangul – Gumuz and Gambella, which are highly deprived of the basic
capabilities such as literacy, access to safe water sanitation, health services, etc
have the highest incident of poverty than the rest of the regions. From day-to-day
observation, it is clear that income distribution disparities within urban population are
very high and hence the extent and magnitude of severe poverty is highly prevalent
in urban areas than in rural areas.
Women in Ethiopia are the most disfavored in society almost in everything:
education, employment (except low paying and non-management jobs), health
services provisions, etc. And therefore, women bear a disproportionate share of
poverty as compared to men and at the same time shoulder an unequal burden in
coping with its adverse effects.
Finally, a word on the government’s poverty eradication schemes.
Ethiopia based its economic reform program, development strategies and primary
development goals on the eradication of poverty, since 1991. However, as poverty in
Ethiopia is deep-rooted, its eradication requires an integrated inter-sectoral and
multi-pronged approach. Thus, apart from the policies and strategies directed at
33
eradicating poverty, the government launched specifically designed programmes
aimed at addressing the poverty situation that may result from the effects of the
ongoing reform programme. These specially focused programmes come in the form
of provision of targeted subsidized food rationing, provision of subsidized agricultural
inputs such as fertilizer, seeds, etc., and the introduction of income generating
schemes. Those targeted for such purposes were the poorest and vulnerable groups
including retrenched workers due to the reform programme, demobilized ex-soldiers,
the disabled and disadvantaged, displaced people and refugees. All these
programmes are being conducted through the Ethiopian Social Rehabilitation Fund,
a central organ established for undertaking poverty eradication development
projects.
The government has taken a major step in eradicating poverty in this country.
Indeed, the public sector in Ethiopia is being stretched beyond its limit to cope with
the sheer poverty that exists in this country. Therefore, it is the position of this
document that this noble effort should be supported by a more concrete participation
of the private sector in poverty eradication schemes.
2.3.Employment and sustainable livelihood
Ethiopia has a large labor force, in fact one of the largest in sub-Saharan
Africa, which is mainly engaged in agricultural activities and is growing at the rate of
around 3 percent per annum. Out of the country’s total labor force of 53.2 percent in
1998, only 17 percent are urbanites while the bulk of the labor force, 83 percent,
resides in rural areas implying that agriculture is the most dominant sector that
employs most of the labor force.
There are no official figures for the rate of unemployment32 in Ethiopia.
However, several ad-hoc studies have put, especially the urban unemployment rate,
at 30 to 40 percent and that there are clear indications that it is growing especially in
See, “Study on Social Dimension of Adjustment in Ethiopia”, Ministry of Planning and Economic
Development, Addis Ababa, May 1992.
32
The 1994 Population and Housing Census estimates unemployment rate for the country to be around 4
percent, 22 percent for urban areas and less than 1 percent for rural areas. However, these estimates are
based on the assumption that nearly all economically active persons in rural areas were employed during
the census period, which in reality could not be true. Therefore, these figures underestimate the real
unemployment rate.
31
34
recent years. A dramatic rise in the rate of unemployment during the early years of
the 90’s was due to a shift in employment policy33, structural
100
millions
80
60
40
20
0
1995
2000
2005
2010
2015
2020
2025
2030
year
Chart 9: Growth of labor force
Source: FDRE, Population and Housing Census Commission (1998): The population and housing
census of Ethiopia, Results at country level, statistical report, Volume I, Addis Ababa, June 1998.
reform of public enterprises (including civil service reform) and the redeployment of
the ex-soldiers. Furthermore, the 1994 population and housing census reported that
a significant number of persons who have completed at least high school were
unemployed.
There are various indirect ways to assess the employment situation of a
country based on economic activity rates34, ratio of unemployed to vacancies, etc.
Chart 10: Economic activity rates, 1994
33
University and college graduates used to get automatic employment immediately after graduation during
the previous regime, a policy that was abandoned following the launching of the economic reform
programme.
34
Economic activity rates are defined as the percentage of the economically active population to that of the
total of the economically active and inactive population.
35
Economic activity rates - 1994
100.0
80.0
60.0
Rates- %
40.0
20.0
0.0
Male
Fem ale
Total
Country
82.1
62.9
72.5
Urban
62.0
39.1
50.0
Rural
85.5
67.4
76.5
Source: FDRE, Office of the Population and Housing Commission: The 1994 population
and housing census of Ethiopia, Results at country level, Statistical Report Volume I,
Addis Ababa, June 1998.
Table 3 shows that activity rate for the country is around 73 percent, implying
that the extent of non- participation in economic activity (27 percent) in Ethiopia and
the underlying unemployment rates are high. The table also shows those activity
rates for females and urban areas were lower. In the case of females, the lower
rates can possibly be attributed to the fact that more females were engaged in nonincome generating activities than males35. Likewise, the lower activity rates in urban
areas could partly be explained by the high number of student population at an early
age whereas such children in rural areas are usually engaged in farm activities
(herding cattle, helping out parents in various agricultural activities). On the other
hand, part of the lower activity rate in urban areas could be due to the underlying
high unemployment rate in urban areas.
There are variations in economic activity rates among regions. Regions of
Benishangul – Gumuz (84 percent), Amhara (81 percent) and Affar (81 percent)
have the highest activity rates (indicated in parenthesis). Lower activity rates were
registered in Addis Ababa (53 percent), Harari (56 percent) and Dire Dawa (61
percent). These figures show beyond any doubt that urban population’s non-
35
Debates are still going on as to the classification of certain activities performed by women as nonproductive (non-income generating activities) or other wise.
36
participation in economic activity are high and so is the unemployment rate36. (Note
that economic activity rates are negatively associated with unemployment rate, i.e.,
the lower the economic activity rate the higher is the underlying unemployment rate
and viseversal ).
Public sector employment has been the most dominant formal employment in
Chart 11: Economic activity rates in regional states-1994
Source: FDRE, Population and Housing Census Commission (1998): The population and housing
census of Ethiopia, Results at country level, statistical report, Volume I, Addis Ababa, June 1998.
this country for a long period. By June 1997, the country’s total civil service is
estimated at a little more than 300,000 of which 85.8 percent are serving in the
regional states and 14.2 percent in the federal government37. Women employees
account for a mere 29 percent in the overall civil service structure, 27 percent in
regional states and 40 percent in the federal government.
36
The three regional states, Addis Ababa, Harari and Dire Dawa have the highest proportion of urban
population.
37
Source: Federal civil service commission (1998): Personnel Statistics (1989 Ethiopian Fiscal Year),
Addis Ababa, March 1998.
37
The educational level of the majority of those employed in the country’s civil
service structure is low; more than three-quarters are 12 grade complete or less,
while those having college or university education account for only 13 percent of the
total employed public servants most of which are accumulated in the federal
government.
There are various indications that due to the ongoing structural adjustment
program, formal employment in the public sector has declined markedly at least
during the first few years of the reform process. Further, the employment
performance of the economy since the launch of the economic reform programme
has yet to register significant expansion. Coupled with this is the level of wage rates
in the public sector employment. Average wage payments were on the decline
between 1989/90 – 1990/91 due, mainly, to massive lay-off during the change of
government. However, from 1993 onwards the average wage bill has increased
significantly38. Data are lacking as to the level of the average wage bill in the private
sector. However, considering the large number of well-qualified and experienced
personnel leaving the public sector and joining the private sector, it is logical to
conclude that the average wage bill of the later is significantly higher than the former.
Thus, public wage bills should be reviewed periodically to overcome such human
resource development challenges.
In Ethiopia, the private sector, which is currently up from scratches, is playing
an important role in developing formal employment. Due to private investment
especially in the services sector, banking and insurance and medium scale
manufacturing industries, formal employment is growing in these sectors. However,
private investment in the agricultural sector is quite minimal partly because of the
land tenure system the government is pursuing.
On the other hand, informal sector employment is growing at least in the
major urban centers. A study39 on urban informal sector exposed that in 1996, about
740, 000 persons were employed in the informal sector out of which 65 percent were
females. Urban centers in Oromiya region, Addis Ababa and Urban centers in
38
Data on average wage rates in the private sector are not available. But, the number of well qualified and
experienced experts and senior personnel form the public sector and joining the private sector is increasing
39
FDRE, Central Statistical Authority & Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs (1996): Report on urban
informal sector sample survey, statistical bulletin 174, Addis Ababa, May 1997.
38
Amhara region have registered high informal sector employment with 26 %, 23 %
and 16 %, respectively, of the total informal sector workforce.
Finally, It is the position of this document that the government should look into
its land policy and boost the confidence of the private sector to invest in the
agricultural sector, which is the single most dominant sector that can bring about
sustainable human resource development in the country.
2.4. Food security and environment
“ ... Food security exists when all people, at all times, have physical and
economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs
and food preferences for an active and healthy life.”40
At the global level, the perception about food security was motivated quite
recently. It was developed as a response to the fact that widespread hunger, and
even famines, have occurred even though national or global food supplies were
theoretically sufficient to provide adequate nutrition for all.
According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations the
essence of food security is that “all people at all times have access to safe and
nutritious food to maintain a healthy and active life.”41 It is readily apparent that this
definition incorporates three elements of food security: availability of food supplies,
access to food by households and individuals, and intertemporal stability of food
supplies.
The problem of food insecurity is serious in Ethiopia because most of those
people who are food insecure live in rural areas, earn almost all of their income from
agriculture, and obtain most of their nutritional requirements directly from their own
food production. Such households are land-scarce, poor pastoralists, elderly,
disabled or newly established settlers. In urban areas, low-income households
employed in the informal sector, the elderly, disabled, etc., are food insecure. The
manifestations of food insecurity throughout the country support this fact. As stated
in earlier sections, the prevalence of chronic malnutrition (especially for children
40
World food summit:1996 Plan of Action, para. 1.
FAO(1996). “Socio-political and economic environment for food security”, Technical Background
Document 3 for the World Food Summit, Rome.
41
39
under 5 years of age) has reached 47 percent, an estimated 64 percent (1992) were
stunted. Further, more than one third of children experience significant illness by the
age of one year. As a result infant and child mortality rates in this country are one of
the highest in the world. Total availability of average per capita calorie, both from
domestic food production and imports, is 16 to 20 percent below the minimum
standard of 2100 KCl. Thus, prevalence of nutritional anemia is high (18.4 percent in
1997). In general, micronutrient deficiencies prevailing throughout the country are
causing significant health problems.
Coupled with the consistent decline in production of cereals (on a per capita
basis) over the last half a century, food insecurity in Ethiopia, both chronic and
transitory42, has been and is still being aggravated by recurrent drought (and hence
famine). Recurrent drought shocks have been especially severe after the big famine
of the mid-1980’s, increasing the frequency of harvest failures over the last two
decades. Thus, drought shocks now occur every 3 to 4 years thereby increasing the
magnitude of food insecurity for each event of drought.
Chart 12: Proportion of population affected by drought, 1984-1995*
42
Chronic food insecurity is manifested in severe malnutrition afflicting a substantial proportion of poor
people, while transitory food insecurity involves a temporary decline in households’ or individuals’ access
to food. Famine arising from drought, displacement of people, etc., is the most extreme of this.
40
1999
1998
5.0
5.8
7.5
1997
10.7
1996
6.9
1995
12.0
1994
9.2
1993
15.0
14.2
1992
1991
6.5
1990
11.2
1989
8.8
1988
1987
5.5
13.8
1986
16.1
1985
1984
10.0
*Source: Disaster Preparedness and Prevention Commission, Report on assistance requirements
for disaster prevention & preparedness activities, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia (various years).
The highest proportion of population affected by drought occurred in 1985
(more than 16 percent) and 1992 (15 percent). This proportion is still high in recent
years. It is common knowledge that with spillover effects of drought more and more
people from the drought affected sections of the society join absolute poverty and
reliance on drought relief.
Disparities in food insecurity are all too obvious among the regional states.
This is especially serious in the northern part of the country, Affar, Tigary, parts of
Amhara and in the peripheral region of Somali, where persistent drought and
displacement of people usually occur. Chronic food insecurity also affects most of
parts of North Omo in SNNPR particularly due to poverty arising from land scarcity
and overpopulation.
To improve the food security in Ethiopia, the government has designed a food
security strategy in 1996. The central target in this drive towards achieving food
41
security is to double per capita incomes within fifteen years and narrow the food gap
within five years.
There were and still are various causes of food insecurity in Ethiopia apart
from drought, i.e., inadequate rainfall and soil erosion. Conflicts, which divert scarce
financial resources to the war effort, are at the forefront. Other causes include
inadequate transport and infrastructure which severely constrains the total farm
production that can be physically marketed and also makes delivery of food aid to
drought-hit areas difficult. (Various studies have shown that three-quarters of all
farms are more than half-a-day’s walk from an all-weather road). Backward and
distorted land tenure systems and economic policies are also one of the major
causes of food insecurity in this country. For instance, under the former regime
farmers were required to surrender a large proportion their agricultural production to
public Marketing Corporation at a price well below the market rate. This situation
was completely abolished following the change of government in 1991 and the
country’s move towards a market oriented economy. However, little change has
been done to the land tenure system: state ownership of land. Apart from the serious
insecurity it creates among farmers, this policy also reduces the incentive to improve
land and increase agriculture production.
Thus, it is the position of this document that the government should review its
current land policy. Furthermore, policies which encourage agricultural exports
should be thoroughly assessed so as not to undermine food security, because
whether or not people are adequately fed is determined by their entitlements to food,
not by aggregate food production.
Another important aspect of food security is the environment. Ethiopia with a
vast area of land, around 1.1 million square kilometers, has a population which is
dependent on subsistence agriculture. Deforestation and soil degradation as well as
erratic rainfall take the largest blame for food insecurity and poverty in this country,
most of which arise from human and livestock pressures on land.
The country, which has been rich in natural resources, is now loosing fast
most of its forests. Currently, only about 3 to 4 percent of the total land area is
covered by forest (down from a coverage of around 40 percent at one time in the
past ), and
is fast dwindling at an annual deforestation rate of 0.2 percent. In
northern Ethiopia (Tigray, Affar and parts of Amhara), the effect of deforestation has
42
created an unbalanced ecosystem which is manifested in frequent drought and food
shortage. The country is also severely loosing its topsoil. It is commonly estimated
that every year between 1.5 to 2 billion tons of topsoil are washed away. 43 This is
coupled with diminishing average farm size and agricultural income resulting in food
insecurity. The country is also loosing its rare wildlife and other species because of
this unbalanced ecosystem.
Agricultural land use statistics shows that 45 percent of total land area is
arable land. However, only about 13 percent of potential cultivable land is currently
used for annual crops. Most of the arable lands that are not being used are pastoral
land and/or do not receive sufficient rainfall to sustain rain-fed agriculture or are
infested by malaria or trypanosomiasis. Irrigation rates are at the lowest level even
by the standards of the poorest countries. (Of the potential irregable land, only 3
percent are currently irrigated).
The forgoing discussion revealed that though there are high population
densities in some areas in Ethiopia, there are considerable areas of good quality
land that remain uncultivated. Agricultural policies should target this rich and
abundantly available natural resource by involving the private sector and employing
modern farming technology.
In general, the key environmental issues in Ethiopia could be summarized as:
 Severe deforestation leading to shortage of fuelwood and timber
 Land degradation and soil erosion
 Failure to protect wildlife resources
 Lack
of
(and/or
poor)
water
conservation
mechanisms
 Inefficient and backward utilization of livestock
resources
2.5. Gender equality and advancement of women
Some years have passed since Ethiopia ratified the United Nations
Convention on Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination against Women. The 1995
43
Source: World Food Program (Country Office - Ethiopia)
43
Constitution of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia has also included in its
chapters the prohibition of discrimination on the basis of gender.
According to the Population and Housing Census projection, in 1998, about
29.8 million or one-half (49.7 percent) of the population are women out of which 25.4
million (85.2 percent of total women) live in rural areas. Therefore, the country’s
socio-economic development cannot be completed without their full participation
both in the decision making and implementation process. However, the situation of
women in this country, in the past as well as now is deplorable. The following major
areas are selected to substantiate this fact: health, education, employment,
workload, law and legislation and harmful traditional practices.
In the area of health, maternal mortality rate, as explained somewhere in this
document, is 700 per 100000 people, by far the highest in sub-Saharan Africa.
Institutional delivery is a mere 10 percent (1997), thus, leaving the deliveries of 90
percent of women to nature and to untrained, backward and traditional birth
attendants. Article 802 of the 1957 penal code prohibited the publicity and
distribution of contraceptives. (The article was amended only at the end of 1998
through Proclamation No. 141/1998.)44 As a result, contraceptive prevalence rate is
very low, 9.8 percent in 1997. Thus, the country has the highest fertility rate at 6.5
children per woman. Reproductive health and reproductive rights have not yet
materialized in this country45. In this regard, women especially carry a heavy but
largely avoidable burden of poor health associated with reproduction and sexuality.
Furthermore, more than half of all mothers suffer from lack of balanced diet and
malnutrition.
The situation of women in the area of education is no different. Literacy rate
for females is 17 percent (against 30 percent for males) in 1994. Gross enrollment of
females in primary schools is 21 percent (29 percent for male), 10 percent (13
percent for male) in senior secondary schools. Women account for only 11 percent
of the total enrollment in tertiary level education, in 1996. Women in rural areas are
particularly disadvantaged against equitable school participation at all levels.
44
Source, FDRE: Federal Negarit Gazeta, 5th Year, No. 21, Addis Ababa, 15th December 1998.
These rights refer to the rights of all couples and individuals to decide freely and responsibly the number,
spacing and timing of their children and to have the information and means to do so, and the right to attain
the highest standard of sexual and reproductive health. (Source, Ministry of Health: Reproductive Health
Needs Assessment Report, Addis Ababa, May 1998).
45
44
In the area of employment, we have seen earlier that about one-half of the
country’s labor force are women of which more than 80 percent live in rural areas.
On the other hand, out of the total employed in the public sector only 28 percent are
women. Those women occupying professional and technical posts are only 0.5
percent (against 5.5 percent for male) of public sector employment. Some 30
percent of low paid factory workers are women earning only 21 percent of the total
amount paid to factory workers. The majority of urban informal sector employees are
women and work as firewood collectors, petty traders, etc.
In Ethiopia, as in many developing countries, women have a heavy workload.
According to recent studies, women in rural areas spend 13 to 17 hours a day in
farms, food preparation, firewood and water collection, childcare and other
household chores. Though the situation in urban areas is a bit different, here too,
activities involving housekeeping, child raising and cooking is “naturally” left to
women.
Ethiopian women are also discriminated by legislation and legal notices which
classify the status of women in society as weak and “person in disability” (legal
notice of 1943) and should be represented by their husbands in any legal and
societal activities including administering common property.
One of the most serious aspects of women inequality and discrimination in
Ethiopia is manifested in the harmful traditional practices.
In fact, most of the
harmful practices are directed against women. Girls in rural areas are victims of
genital mutilation, early marriage, kidnapping and rape, etc., all of these contributing
to the high maternal mortality rate in the country.
In recognition of the above facts about women in Ethiopia, the government
has issued a national policy on women in 1993 with the major objective of improving
the situation of women, and make sure that women participation in all development
spheres is crucial to the future progress of the country. There are some encouraging
signs in that this commitment is already showing some results. Currently, women’s
associations are popping up every where in the country and are fighting to eliminate
legal and traditional obstacles, wrong attitudes and misconceptions about them. In
some rural areas, they are demands for equitable land distribution for women
farmers. Women have also actively participated in the first multi-party general
elections throughout the country. As a result, women held 2.4 percent of seats in
45
parliament. (The proportion in most regional councils is higher than the federal
government). Further, the first speaker in the House of Federation in the parliament
of Ethiopia is a woman.
Finally, one can see that all these are important steps in women’s
advancement in the country. However, there are various challenges facing women
and the society at large over this issue. Ethiopia being a traditional society that
values its societal beliefs makes the issue all too complex. Therefore, the best
starting point to face the challenge will be to concentrate on awareness programs of
the issue right at the grass root levels.
2.6. Governance and participation
Ethiopia, only up until less than a decade ago, has been known by its
autocratic and highly centralized systems of the feudal and the military regimes.
The two regimes, especially the latter, were anti-pluralism and antidemocracy that denied the people the opportunity to participate in issues that
concern their lives. Both systems were symbolic in the sense that the ruling bodies
at the center controlled all decisions including political and socio-economic
development issues.
The situation dramatically changed in 1991 when the current ruling party
came to power. As such, this government recognized, for the first time in the
country’s long history, the need for good governance based on popular participation.
It is true that Ethiopia, being a vast country with multi-ethnic and multi-cultural
society, is not suitable to a centralized system of administration. Experiences of
other countries show that in such heterogeneous societies good governance
programmes should give priority to decentralization of power for an effective and
sustainable development based on participation at the grass root levels. Thus,
following the collapse of the former regime in may 1991, a transitional charter has
paved the way for decision making to be decentralized and the formation of regional
administrations. The country’s new Constitution, which was adopted in May 1995,
thus created nine federal states and two autonomous administrative councils. Each
of these eleven federal states was vested with the power of independent legislative,
judiciary and executive organs.
46
Ethiopia also endorsed the principles of democracy and pluralism in its
constitution. Thus, the sovereignty of the federal states is expressed through the
people’s representatives (commonly known as the federal parliament) that is
democratically elected every five years by popular vote. The country’s first general
multi-party election was conducted in 1995 at federal and state levels which was
supervised by foreign observers and the process was, by and large, termed as free
and fair. According to the National Election Board of Ethiopia, some 57 political
parties have participated in this process. And, of the total eligible voters throughout
the country, 84.1 percent have been registered during the build up to general
elections. The most striking success of this election was the huge turn out, more
than 93 percent of registered voters. Indeed, this is quite an achievement in
countries like Ethiopia where economic survival, not democracy, is at the forefront of
people’s daily life.
There are some unique features in the federal system of Ethiopia. Firstly, the
federal states were formed essentially along ethnic lines (some call it “ethnic
federalism”), an issue which is quite complex and volatile especially in Africa.
Whether the case of Ethiopia will bring a success story is to be seen in the future.
However, we can clearly see that currently the federal system chosen by the country
is working. Secondly, the legislative powers are vested, at the federal level, two
bodies, the House of People’s Representatives which has legislative powers as well
as control of the revenue, and the House of the Federation, its powers emanating
from the unique structure of the federal system, therefore, has the power of
interpreting the constitution and determining the allocation of revenue between the
federal government and the states.
The judiciary system in current Ethiopia is also structured along the principles
of freedom from interference from any state organ at all levels. In fact, as in most
advanced democratic societies, the Constitution of the country has clearly defined
the powers of the judiciary system in building a just and democratic society in
Ethiopia in line with global human rights conventions and laws. It is obvious that a
strong judiciary organ needs, among other things, a conscious civil society and well
qualified law personnel (judges, lawyers, etc). The Ethiopian judiciary system,
certainly, is at the infancy stage in this regard. The number of qualified judges, both
at the federal and state levels and the substantial increase in the number of cases
47
that do not get verdict within a reasonable period of time can give enough evidence
that the judiciary system has yet to travel a long way to keep up with the country’s
development endeavors and democratization process. The country, in recognition of
this fact, has already embarked upon a serious capacity building strategy with the
support of its development partners. While major improvements are yet to be
observed, there are, however, some encouraging signs in the area of recruiting and
training of judges in the newly formed Civil Service College and other higher
education institutions in the country. This process of capacity building should be
encouraged to include other dimensions such as quality, increased women’s
participation, etc.
A Prime Minister, elected by the legislative body runs the executive organ at
federal level. The office of the Prime Minister is responsible for insuring an efficient
and honest civil service and hence good governance.
The first challenge of the government after the formation of the federal
system was to reform the corrupt and inefficient civil services of the previous
regimes. To achieve this goal, therefore, the government formed a civil service
reform task force in 1996, under the direction of the Prime Minister. Already there
are lots of progress in this regard, but a big breakthrough has yet to come.
The second challenge of the executive body was capacity building both at the center
and the federal sates. This involved a number of donor agencies and international
organizations including the UNDP, which was at the forefront through its various
country programmes. The government was able to conduct huge training
programmes starting from the center all the way down to the district level. As far as
governance and participation in this country is concerned this activity should be
recorded as one of the best achievements, which stand as a good example for other
developing countries.
Ethiopia has acceded to a number of human rights declarations and
conventions of the international community including various human rights
instruments of the United Nations, the Organization of African Unity (OAU) and other
various global conventions and laws. The Constitution has also endorsed the
country’s commitment to the principles of human rights and laws governing it. The
Recent activities geared towards the establishment of an Ombudsman office is also
a step forward to further insure the observation of human rights in the country.
48
The rights to freedom of expression through media and other mechanisms in
Ethiopia is also endorsed in the Constitution. The private press, which is increasing
in number from time to time, is one good example. Further, the country has recently
decided to open up other media (radio, television) and telecommunications to the
private sector. While these are important corner stones in the future development of
the country, efforts should be equally stepped up to build strong civil societies, and
develop the capacity and willingness of reviewing policy measures, from time to
time, on popular participation.
2.7. Refugees and Returnees in Ethiopia
Ethiopia has been host to large numbers of refugees for over three decades.
In 1998, Ethiopia provided asylum to refugees from Somalia, Sudan, Djibouti, Kenya
and various other countries. The refugee population stood at some 262,155 at the
end of 1998 (See Table 4).
Table 4: Refugee population in Ethiopia by country of origin and location, 1998
Country of origin
Somalia
Sudan
Population
Location in
Ethiopia
195,129 East
58,602 West
Kenya
4,940 South
Djibouti
3,000 North East
Urban refugee
Total
484 Addis Ababa
262,155
Refugee assistance: With regard to the Somali, Djiboutian and Kenyan refugees,
UNHCR was involved in three areas of activity: (i) Providing care and maintenance;
(ii) promoting voluntary repatriation; (iii) consolidation of refugee camps, local
integration and capacity building activities. On the other hand, the overall strategy for
the Sudanese refugees was to assist them meet their basic needs through multisectoral projects, like partial self –sufficiency through food production and income
49
generating activities given that the Sudanese refugees reside in an area which has a
tremendous potential for agriculture. However, effective implementation of the food
production strategy has been hampered principally by inadequacy of farmland made
available by the government to refugees.
The general health and nutritional status of refugees was satisfactory except
in Bonga refugee camp in the west where nutrition surveys showed an increase in
the global malnutrition rate of up to 20.6% < 80% Weight-For-Height.
Voluntary repatriation of refugees: The end of May 1998 brought to a close
organized voluntary repatriation of Ethiopian refugees in Sudan, which had been
going on since 1993. Some 72,000 Ethiopian refugees benefited from this particular
operation. It is likely that some of the refugees remaining in the Sudan will decide to
repatriate in the future. They will be assisted to do so on an individual basis.
Between 1992 and 1998, approximately 69,1678 Ethiopian refugees
repatriated from camps in Kenya mainly to the Somali Regional State. Some 3,000
more Ethiopian refugees in Kenya are expected to return in 1999.
Repatriation of Somali refugees from camps in eastern Ethiopia to North
West Somalia, which started in December 1997, continued in 1998. A total of 59,115
Somalis were repatriated from Hartisheik, Darwanagi and Teferi Ber refugee camps,
to safe and peaceful areas between West of Hargeisa and Boroma. Continuation of
the repatriation in 1999 will be contingent upon political stability in N-W- Somalia and
the strength and sustainability of UNHCR reintegration projects on both sides of the
border. Linked to this is the economic strength of Northwest Somalia itself. Saudi
Arabia’s ban on importation of livestock from the Horn of Africa for fear of the
dreaded Rift Valley Fever has hurt the economy of Northwest Somalia badly.
Finally, while the UNHCR Office in Ethiopia is providing the necessary
assistance to refugees in the various locations in the country, it is at the same time
assisting the reintegration of the Ethiopian returnees, centered around communitybased services, such as up-grading of roads, water systems, schools, health
facilities and income generating support. Discussion on the reorganization and
consolidation of the existing camps in Eastern Ethiopia by UNHCR, in cooperation
with the central and regional governments were initiated as the repatriation gathered
momentum and some of the camps became empty. Some of these activities, being
50
developmental, RLO solicited and coordinated inputs from other UN-Agencies,
bilateral and multilateral donors for reintegration projects in the refugee-impacted
areas.
2.8. Conclusion
This assessment and analysis of the development situation can serve as a
basis for and essential step for the preparation of the UNDAF for Ethiopia. It can also
be used as an instrument for dialogue between the government and UN System,
development partners and the broader development community.
Ethiopia, having emerged from a devastating long civil war and economic and
social chaos at the beginning of this decade, is fast recovering from its wounds. The
economy triggered by the reform programme and the favorable weather condition
that boosted agricultural production, is already off the ground and showing
remarkable growth during the last seven years. The ardent task of building a civil
society on the principles of democracy, human rights, and empowerment of the
people is also well under way. On the other hand, the country, which was under
oppressive and dictatorial regimes, is faced with deep-rooted development problems
that could only be tackled with the support of development partners at the global
level. Thus, in line with the assessment in earlier chapters of this document, the
country’s priority development challenges are summarized as follows.
Poverty eradication
It was already pointed out that the poverty crisis in Ethiopia is on the most
part the result of past inappropriate policies compounded by other internal and
external shocks. The severe economic decline experienced during the 70’s and 80’s,
coupled with drought and famine and the civil war resulted, in human depravation
and poverty. In recognition of this fact, Ethiopia has expressed its commitment for
poverty eradication and guided the national policies towards it. There are various
evidences to support this commitment on the part of the country. Primarily, all sector
programmes and strategies of the country that have been issued over the past few
years are directed at reducing/eradicating poverty. Moreover, as a result of the
recent economic reform measures, economic decline has been reversed and growth
51
is resuming. As the facts tell us on the ground, however, these changes are not
sufficient to reduce poverty. Poverty being a complex and multi-dimensional
phenomenon, its eradication also requires inter-sectoral, multi-faceted and
integrated approach. To this end, the eradication scheme requires among other
things, the empowerment of people effectively for an increased participation in
decision making that affect their lives, an equitable and sustained economic growth
and gender equality in all spheres of life must be ensured. The reality and the
challenge that the country faces will need the concerted efforts at the national level
supplemented by regional and international supportive action.
Employment
Creation of sufficient opportunities for productive employment continues to be
a difficult task for sub-Saharan Africa.
Ethiopia which has one of the largest labor force in sub-Saharan Africa could
not create enough and equitable employment opportunities for its young generation.
More than 90 percent of the students completing the high school level are joining the
bulk of the unemployed every year. Further, as recent studies have shown, the
number of orphans and street children is rising at an alarming rate especially in
major urban centers. Women are still discriminated at high management and paying
jobs in the formal sector, etc. The rural sector remains the major source of
employment for the country absorbing more than 80 percent of the labor force. Also,
the sector is experiencing a favorable policy environment for an increasing food
production.
Recognizing the private sector’s role in employment generation, Ethiopia has
already embarked upon private sector development initiatives through its Agricultural
Development Led Industrialization strategy. Investment in modern commercial
agriculture, which could have absorbed most of the labor force, is at the lowest stage
when compared to countries like Kenya, Uganda, Zimbabwe, etc, and employment
creation schemes, in general, are moving at a very slow pace. An important aspect
of the strategy for the private sector contribution to employment generation is the
development of the relatively large informal sector in Ethiopia by removing
52
restrictions on its activities, providing the necessary skills training and financial
access.
Health and the HIV/AIDS pandemic
The health sector in Ethiopia is one of the few sectors that have received top
priority in the development process. Increments in budgetary allocation and
expenditure by the public sector especially since 1993 support this assertion.
Recently, primary health care units (mostly public) are rising in number particularly in
rural areas. However, as stated earlier, the low level of per capita income and poor
road networks have contributed to the inaccessibility to most of these health services
by the bulk of the population. Indicators such as life expectancy, infant and maternal
mortality rates and the prevalence rates of some preventive diseases such as
malaria show that the country’s health situation is one of the worst in sub-Saharan
Africa. Coupled with these health problems is the HIV/AIDS epidemic, which is
currently spreading throughout the country at an alarming and disturbing rate. In fact,
the World Health Organization and other bodies like the UNAIDS have recently
classified Ethiopia as one of the leading fifteen countries in the world with high adult
HIV prevalence rate of more than 7 percent.
The epidemic is a serious threat to the country’s human development
initiatives in that it affects on the most part the adult population, which is the vital
force in development.
Though preventive actions have been slow especially on the part of the public
sector, currently there are concrete reports that the country’s health facilities are
stretched beyond capacity to cope with the epidemic and its effects, a situation
calling for an increased global intervention.
Food security
Ethiopia is one of a few countries in sub-Saharan Africa that is affected by
chronic and transitory food insecurity. Among other factors, the high population
growth rate and the dependency on the agricultural sector, the erratic pattern of rain,
the backward farming technology, the inappropriate policies of the past and the ever
dwindling rural landholdings which proved inadequate for subsistence production of
53
food crops, have all contributed to chronic food insecurity. As a result, stunting,
severe and moderate child malnutrition are common in Ethiopia. Moreover, there is
transitory food insecurity arising from drought, refugee inflows and displacement of
people. Drought, which recurs, on average, every 3 to 4 years, has aggravated the
problem to the extent that in many areas of the country, there is an overlap of both
elements of food insecurity, chronic and transitory, which expands the size of the
vulnerable population. Thus, “… each year more than four million people in the rural
sector have problems of securing enough food for themselves, and need help.” 46
The country, in recognition of the seriousness of the problem, has designed a
strategy for food security in 1996, with the major objective of raising the level of food
self-reliance on the basis of accelerated agricultural development programme
especially that of food grain production in areas of reliable rainfall using modern
technology. Further, the strategy aims at the establishment of sustainable
agricultural growth using deeper technological progress than the current one, as well
as a reversal of the population pressure on agricultural land. As this is obviously a
long-term strategy, efforts were made in short and medium term strategy to improve
technology transfer and participation of farmers by launching the National Extension
Intervention Programme all over the country. Despite all the efforts made, the
country is still in need of a concerted capacity building effort, from all development
partners in sustenance initiated achievements.
Other potential priority areas
There are various challenges that should be put to light and given priority in
the country’s development agenda. In this regard, the process of human capital
formation is high on the list. Ethiopia’s educational participation rate, which is very
low by any standard, should get the support, especially, of the UN System, for a
sustainable and accelerated human development.
On the other hand, the private sector, which plays a vital role in any
development process, should be encouraged in all sectors. Hindrances that were
observed over the last few years, such as the land policy, etc, should be carefully
46
Government of Ethiopia (1996), Food Security Strategy, Addis Ababa, November 1, 1996.
54
reviewed so as not to undermine the private sector’s commitment to bring about a
meaningful developmental change in the country.
The country’s decentralization and democratization process and people’s
participation in governance is getting momentum from time to time. However, there
are some loose ends especially in the area of capacity building and participatory
development in regional states. Ethiopia being a diverse multi-cultural and multiethnic society make the problem even more difficult. Further, efforts at building the
capacity of regional sates in the production, management and use of concrete
information in their day to day activities should be encouraged and strengthened. In
this regard, an increased and coordinated approach to the problem by the
international community is crucial.
As the role of information management and technology is vital in socioeconomic development, it should be more appreciated and recognized by policy
makers in Ethiopia.
In conclusion, the indicators outlined in this document show that Ethiopia is
faced with various development challenges. On the other hand, recent trends in
development have convinced the international community beyond doubt that the
country is committed to improving the living standard of its people. This commitment,
however, should maintain the momentum in creating the conducive atmosphere for
an increased involvement of non-governmental organizations, the private sector, the
UN System and other development partners in all tiers of development.
55
CHAPTER 3: STATISTICAL ANNEX
3.2. Key indicators at country level
A. POPULATION
Indicator
1. Population size (millions)
Year
Value
Source
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2005
2010
2015
2020
2025
2030
53.5
54.6
56.4
58.1
59.9
61.7
63.5
73.0
83.5
94.5
106.0
117.6
129.1
Census 1994
Census projection
Census projection
Census projection
Census projection
Census projection
Census projection
Census projection
Census projection
Census projection
Census projection
Census projection
Census projection
Female population, (% of total)
1998
1999
2000
2005
2010
49.8
49.8
49.8
49.9
49.9
Census projection
Census projection
Census projection
Census projection
Census projection
Urban population, (% of total)
1998
1999
2000
2005
2010
14.5
14.7
14.9
16.0
17.2
Census projection
Census projection
Census projection
Census projection
Census projection
Urban population, growth rate, %
1995-2000
2000-2005
2005-2010
4.38 Census projection
4.10 Census projection
4.06 Census projection
Rural population, growth rate, %
1995-2000
2000-2005
2005-2010
2.74 Census projection
2.57 Census projection
2.35 Census projection
56
Indicator
Year
Value
Source
Annual population growth rate
1995-2000
2000-2005
2005-2010
2.92 Census projection
2.73 Census projection
2.62 Census projection
Crude birth rate, per 1000 pop.
Crude death rate, per 1000 pop.
1995-‘00
1995-‘00
Total fertility rate (children per woman)
1995-2000
2000-2005
2005-2010
6.52 Census projection
5.83 Census projection
5.34 Census projection
Population density (people/ sq.km)
1997
50.4 MoH
Dependency ratio
1995
2000
2005
2010
0.84
0.83
0.80
0.78
Census projection
Census projection
Census projection
Census projection
Sex ratio
1995
2000
2005
2010
101.49
100.86
100.60
100.51
Census projection
Census projection
Census projection
Census projection
44.17 CSA
14.96 CSA
B. POVERTY
1. Poverty levels
Population below poverty line, total, %
Rural
Urban
2. Sanitation
Access to sanitation, total (%)
Rural
Urban
3. Living area (excluding bathroom)
People per room (excluding bathroom)
Rural
Urban
4. Literacy, total, (%)
Male
1995/96
1995/96
1995/96
1997/98
1997/98
1997/98
1994
1994
1994
1984
1990
1994
1984
45.5
47.5
33.2
MEDaC
MEDaC
MEDaC
12.5 MoH
5.7 MoH
55.0 MoH
3.2
2.3
3.4
27.0
77.2
23.4
34.6
CSA
CSA
CSA
MoE
MoE
CSA, Census comp.
CSA
57
Indicator
Female
5. School enrollment, gross (%)
Primary school, total
Primary school, male
Year
Value
Source
1994
1984
1994
29.8 CSA, Census comp.
19.6 CSA
16.9 CSA, Census comp.
1984
1994
1996
1997
1984
1994
1996
1997
45.9
25.1
34.6
40.1
52.7
28.7
43.2
50.3
CSA
CSA
CSA
CSA
CSA
CSA
CSA
CSA
1994
1984
1994
1984
1994
1984
1994
1984
1994
21.3
33.6
23.5
34.2
19.8
18.1
12.6
11.7
9.9
CSA
CSA
CSA
CSA
CSA
CSA
CSA
CSA
CSA
Primary school, female
Junior secondary, male
Junior secondary, female
Senior secondary, male
Senior secondary, female
6. Weight
Low birth weight (%)
1988
C. EMPLOYMENT/ SUSTAINABLE LIVELIHOODS
1. Gross Domestic Product (Real GDP)
Annual growth (%)
2. Employment
Annual growth of labor force (%)
Informal sector employment, male (%)
Informal sector employment, female (%)
Public sector employment, male (%)
Public sector employment, female (%)
Labor force in agriculture, % of total
Male
Female
Labor force in industry, % of total
17 MoH
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
3.6
-4.4
-3.7
12.4
1.7
5.4
10.6
5.7
MEDaC
MEDaC
MEDaC
MEDaC
MEDaC
MEDaC
MEDaC
MEDaC
1998
1996
1996
1997
1997
1994
1994
1994
1994
3
35.1
64.9
71
29
89.2
51.4
37.8
2.3
CSA, Census comp.
CSA
CSA
FSC
FSC
CSA, Census comp.
CSA, Census comp.
CSA, Census comp.
CSA, Census comp.
58
Indicator
Male
Female
Labor force in services, % of total
Male
Female
Size of labor force (million)
3. Unemployment rate, total (%)
Rural
Urban
4. Life expectancy at birth, total (years)
Year
Value
Source
1994
1994
1994
1994
1994
1994
1994
1994
1994
1984
1994
1984
1.3
1.0
6.9
3.6
3.3
25.9
2.9
0.7
22.0
51.9
50.7
50.8
1994
49.8 CSA, 1994 Census
1984
1994
D. GENDER EQUALITY/ WOMEN’S ADVANCEMENT
53.1 CSA, 1984 Census
51.8 CSA, 1994 Census
Male
Female
1. Maternal mortality
Rate per 100,000 live births
2. Infant mortality
Rate per 1000 live births
Rate, male, per 1000 live births
Rate, female, per 1000 live births
Women (labor force), % of total
Agricultural employment (women), % of total
Managerial, supervisory levels (women) %
4. Politics
Parliamentary seats, women (% of total seats)
Local council (KILIL) seats, women (%)
5. Violence
Rapes/attempted rapes, no. registered
CSA, Census comp.
CSA, Census comp.
CSA, Census comp.
CSA, Census comp.
CSA
CSA, 1994 Census
CSA, 1994 Census
CSA, 1994 Census
CSA, 1984 Census
CSA, 1994 Census
CSA, 1984 Census
1996
1996
700 MoH
1400 WHO/UNICEF
1984
1994
1984
1994
1984
1994
1994
1994
1994
110.1
116
117.2
125
102.6
108
43.2
37.8
9.5
CSA, 1984 Census
CSA, 1994 Census
CSA, 1984 Census
CSA, 1994 Census
CSA, 1984 Census
CSA, 1994 Census
CSA, Census comp.
CSA, Census comp.
CSA, Census comp.
1995
1995
1.8 NEBE
5.3 NEBE
1994/95
1995/96
127 CSA, Stat. Abstract
227 CSA, Stat. Abstract
E. GOVERNANCE AND PARTICIPATION
1. Mass media & Communication
Newspapers per 1,000 persons (no.)
Radios per 1,000 persons (no.)
TV sets per 1,000 persons (no.)
Post offices per 1,000 persons
Main telephone lines, per 1,000 persons
2. Political Participation
1992
1992
1992
1992
177
4
1
3
CSA, Stat. Abstract
CSA, Stat. Abstract
CSA, Stat. Abstract
CSA, Stat. Abstract
59
Indicator
Political parties participated in elections (no.)
Voters registration, (% of eligible voters)
Voters voting, (% of total registered)
F. ENVIRONMENT
1. Electricity
Population with access to, (%)
2. Safe Water
Population with access to, (%)
Total
Rural
Urban
3. Sanitation
Population with access to, (%)
Total
Rural
Urban
4. Land (millions of sq. km)
Arable land (as % land area)
Forests
Year
Value
Source
1995
1995
1995
57 NEBE
84.1 NEBE
93.7 NEBE
1998/99
1998/99
1998/99
23.1 MoH
14.3 MoH
78.9 MoH
1998/99
1998/99
1998/99
12.5 MoH
5.7 MoH
55.0 MoH
1997
1997
1992
1.11 EMA
45 EMA
4 EMA
G. ECONOMIC INDICATORS
1. Trade balance
Trade balance, US$ millions
2. Exports as % of imports
3. External debt
% of GDP
1985/86
1990/91
1991/92
1992/93
1993/94
1994/95
1995/96
1996/97
1985/86
1990/91
1991/92
1992/93
1993/94
1994/95
1995/96
1996/97
1986/87
1990/91
-632.0
-752.8
-720.6
-829.4
-635.1
-609.4
-1002.7
-823.4
41.9
26.9
17.7
21.1
30.6
42.7
29.0
41.3
MEDaC
MEDaC
MEDaC
MEDaC
MEDaC
MEDaC
MEDaC
MEDaC
MEDaC
MEDaC
MEDaC
MEDaC
MEDaC
MEDaC
MEDaC
MEDaC
37.7 NBE
39.4 NBE
60
Indicator
4. Gross domestic savings as % of GDP
5. Gross domestic product
Per capita, US$
Per capita, PPP$
Per capita
6. Inflation
Rate per annum
7. Annual exchange
Annual exchange rate to US$, average
Year
Value
Source
1991/92
1992/93
1993/94
1994/95
1995/96
1996/97
31.8
71.9
92.0
82.3
71.6
64.4
NBE
NBE
NBE
NBE
NBE
NBE
1986/87
1990/91
1991/92
1992/93
1993/94
1994/95
1995/96
1996/97
7.6
3.4
3.0
5.6
5.0
6.7
6.6
8.3
NBE
NBE
NBE
NBE
NBE
NBE
NBE
NBE
1996
1994
1995/96
110 UNDP/WB, HDR
430 UNDP, NHDR
167 MEDaC
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
5.2
20.9
21.0
10.0
1.2
13.4
0.9
-6.4
NBE
NBE
NBE
NBE
NBE
NBE
NBE
NBE
1992/93
1993/94
1994/95
1995/96
1996/97
1997/98
1998/99
(Quarter I)
5.01
5.77
6.25
6.32
6.50
6.88
7.15
NBE
NBE
NBE
NBE
NBE
NBE
NBE
OTHER INDICATORS
H. MACRO-ECONOMIC TRENDS
Budget deficit as % of GDP
1986/87
-4.2 MEDaC
61
Indicator
Current account balance, US$, millions
Before official capital transfers
I. GOVERNMENT REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE
Public revenue as % of GDP
Year
Value
Source
1990/91
1991/92
1992/93
1993/94
1994/95
1995/96
1996/97
1997/98
-8.5
-7.0
-5.9
-7.7
-4.2
-5.2
MEDaC
MEDaC
MEDaC
MEDaC
MEDaC
MEDaC
MEDaC
MEDaC
1995
1996
-237 WB, CAS
-592 WB, CAS
1986/87
1990/91
1991/92
1992/93
1993/94
1994/95
1995/96
1996/97
18.4
3.6
10.8
12.0
13.7
17.0
17.8
18.2
MEDaC
MEDaC
MEDaC
MEDaC
MEDaC
MEDaC
MEDaC
MEDaC
Public expenditure as % of GDP
1986/87
1990/91
1991/92
1992/93
1993/94
1994/95
1995/96
1996/97
24.0
24.4
20.2
19.5
25.0
24.3
25.9
23.8
MEDaC
MEDaC
MEDaC
MEDaC
MEDaC
MEDaC
MEDaC
MEDaC
Public expenditure on health as % of GDP
1992/93
1993/94
1994/95
1995/96
1.0
1.8
1.7
1.2
MoH
MoH
MoH
MoH, HSDP
Public expenditure on education as % of GDP
1992/93
1993/94
1994/95
1995/96
2.7
4.1
3.9
3.6
PER. MOE
PER, MOE
PER, MOE
MoE, ESDP
J. PRICES
National Consumer Price Index (CPI), General
1995/96=100
1996/97
1997/98
1998/99
99.1 CSA
101.5 CSA
105.3 CSA
62
Year
Indicator
CPI, Food, 1995/96 = 100
Value
Source
1996/97
1997/98
1998/99
92.5 CSA
97.4 CSA
105.3 CSA
1996/97
113.5 CSA
1997/98
1998/99
118.3 CSA
117.9 CSA
1996/97
1997/98
1998/99
104.7 CSA
101.5 CSA
99.8 CSA
1996/97
1997/98
1998/99
127.1 CSA
130.9 CSA
133.2 CSA
CPI, Health, 1995/96=100
1996/97
1997/98
1998/99
111.2 CSA
99.3 CSA
91.9
CPI, Education, 1995/96 = 100
1996/97
1997/98
1998/99
98.5 CSA
107.9 CSA
98.7 CSA
CPI, Rent, water, fuel & power, and
construction materials 1995/96 =100
CPI, Clothing and Footwear, 1995/96 = 100
CPI, Transport and Communication,
1995/96= 100
K. INCOME
Level of per capita income/ expenditure, USD
National 1996
Urban 1996
Rural 1996
167 MEDaC
217 MEDaC
159 MEDaC
Per capita food expenditure ( % of total)
National 1996
Urban 1996
Rural 1996
Per capita real income, % growth
1986/87
1987/88
1988/89
1989/90
1990/91
59.6 MEDaC
56.1 MEDaC
60.2 MEDaC
10.0
-2.0
-3.4
1.0
-8.1
MEDaC
MEDaC
MEDaC
MEDaC
MEDaC
63
Indicator
Year
1991/92
1992/93
1993/94
1994/95
1995/96
1996/97
1997/98
Value
Source
-5.7
7.9
-1.9
2.8
7.0
3.3
6.9
MEDaC
MEDaC
MEDaC
MEDaC
MEDaC
MEDaC
MEDaC
L. CHANGES IN WELFARE OF CHILDREN
Births attended by health personnel (%)
Children Immunization coverage (%)
Low birth weight, %
Infant mortality rate (per 1000 live births)
Under five mortality rate
Stunting, %
Wasting, %
Underweight, %
1997
1996
1988
1995-‘00
1995-‘00
1993
1994
1994
10.2
67
17
110
161.1
64
7
MoH
MoH
MoH
1994 Census
1994 Census
MoH, HSDP
MoH, HSDP
MoH, HSDP
M. BETTER HEALTH
Incidence, tuberculosis, per 100,000 pop.
Incidence, Hepatitis, per 100,000 pop.
Cases, HIV infection in pregnant women (%)
Cases, AIDS reported, ‘000
Cases, HIV infection, % of population
Contraceptive prevalence rate, %
N. HEALTH SERVICES
1. Health services per MoH/WHO standard
Physicians per 10,000 population
Hospital beds per 3,000 population
Nurses per 5,000 population
Midwife per 10,000 population
Health center per 25,000 population
2. Health facility to population ratio
Hospital: Population
Hospital bed: Population
Health Center: Population
Health station: Population
3. Health services coverage (%)
1997
1997
1997
1993
1997
1998
18
57
4.3
1.5
9.8
6.0
1997
1997
1997
1997
1997
1998
“
“
“
1992/93
1996/97
1997/98
0
0
0
0
0
1:644,694
1:4927
1:214,630
1:18,190
MoH
MoH
MoH
MoH
“
“
MoH
MoH
MoH
MoH
MoH
MoH
MoH
MoH
MoH
38.0 MoH
48.5 MoH
51.0 MoH
64
Indicator
4. Health budget as % of total
5. Per capita health budget ( in Birr)
6. Leading causes of morbidity in hospitals (% cases)
Helminthiasis
Malaria
Acute upper respiratory infections
O. AGRICULTURE
Land utilization:
Forested area (% of total)
Grassland (% of total)
Cultivated area (intensive, moderate), % Total
Production:
Cereals (million quintals)
Year
1992/93
1996/97
1997/98
1992/93
1996/97
1997/98
1997/98 “
“
“
5.4
6.0
6.0
4.79
11.61
12.26
Source
MoH
MoH
MoH
MoH
MoH
MoH
7.1 MoH
6.9 MoH
6.6 MoH
1994/95
1995/96
1996/97
4 EMA
30.5 EMA
22.8 EMA
EMA
58.5 CSA
107.4 CSA
86.3 CSA
Teff
1994/95
1995/96
1996/97
18.6 CSA
31.1 CSA
20.0 CSA
Maize
1994/95
1995/96
1996/97
13.6 CSA
17.2 CSA
25.3 CSA
Barley
1994/95
1995/96
1996/97
9.4 CSA
18.1 CSA
7.4 CSA
Wheat
1994/95
7.3 CSA
1995/96
1996/97
11.2 CSA
10.0 CSA
1994/95
1995/96
1996/97
1994/95
1995/96
1996/97
7.0
17.9
20.1
7.9
8.7
3.3
Sorghum
Pulse production (million quintals)
1992
1992
1992
Value
CSA
CSA
CSA
CSA
CSA
CSA
65
Indicator
Year
Value
Source
% contribution of agriculture to GDP
1985/86
1986/87
1987/88
1988/89
1989/90
1990/91
1991/92
1992/93
1993/94
1994/95
1995/96
1996/97
50.0
51.4
50.5
50.0
50.9
56.0
56.4
53.4
50.6
50.0
51.5
50.4
MEDaC
MEDaC
MEDaC
MEDaC
MEDaC
MEDaC
MEDaC
MEDaC
MEDaC
MEDaC
MEDaC
MEDaC
Annual growth rate of agricultural production
1987/88
1988/89
1989/90
1990/91
1991/92
1992/93
1993/94
1994/95
1995/96
1996/97
-4.3
-2.3
8.1
-1.0
-21.6
9.1
3.9
16.0
31.8
3.2
% contribution of manufacturing to GDP
1985/86
1986/87
1987/88
1988/89
1989/90
1990/91
1991/92
1992/93
1993/94
1994/95
1995/96
1996/97
5.2
5.5
5.5
5.5
5.3
2.8
2.9
3.8
4.2
4.4
4.3
4.3
MEDaC
MEDaC
MEDaC
MEDaC
MEDaC
MEDaC
MEDaC
MEDaC
MEDaC
MEDaC
MEDaC
MEDaC
Annual growth of manufacturing GDP,%
1985/86
1986/87
1987/88
1988/89
1989/90
8.1
29.1
-7.9
9.1
-8.3
MEDaC
MEDaC
MEDaC
MEDaC
MEDaC
CSA, (Computed)
CSA, (Computed)
CSA, (Computed)
CSA, (Computed)
CSA, (Computed)
CSA, (Computed)
CSA, (Computed)
CSA, (Computed)
CSA, (Computed)
CSA, (Computed)
P. MANUFACTURING
66
Indicator
Year
Value
Annual growth of manufacturing GDP,%
1990/91
1991/92
1992/93
1993/94
1994/95
1995/96
1996/97
-32.1
-20.7
49.0
12.7
9.4
7.7
5.6
Employment in manufacturing, (‘000)
1992/93
1993/94
1994/95
1995/96
82.1
87.8
90.2
90.3
Source
MEDaC
MEDaC
MEDaC
MEDaC
MEDaC
MEDaC
MEDaC
CSA
CSA
CSA
CSA
67
3.1. Key indicators at Regional level
A. Population
Region
Indicator
Year
Value
Source
1. Population size (millions)
Tigray
Affar
Amhara
Oromiya
Somali
Benishangul-G
SNNP
Gambella
Harari
Addis Ababa
Dire Dawa
1998
1998
1998
1998
1998
1998
1998
1998
1998
1998
1998
3.5
1.2
15.4
21.0
3.5
0.51
11.8
0.20
0.15
2.35
0.29
CSA, Census 1994
CSA, Census 1994
CSA, Census 1994
CSA, Census 1994
CSA, Census 1994
CSA, Census 1994
CSA, Census 1994
CSA, Census 1994
CSA, Census 1994
CSA, Census 1994
CSA, Census 1994
1998
1998
1998
1998
1998
1998
1998
1998
1998
1998
1998
50.8
42.5
50.0
50.0
45.7
49.5
50.4
49.0
50.0
51.7
49.7
CSA, Census 1994
CSA, Census 1994
CSA, Census 1994
CSA, Census 1994
CSA, Census 1994
CSA, Census 1994
CSA, Census 1994
CSA, Census 1994
CSA, Census 1994
CSA, Census 1994
CSA, Census 1994
2. Female Population (% total)
Tigray
Affar
Amhara
Oromiya
Somali
Benishangul-G
SNNPR
Gambella
Harari
Addis Ababa
Dire Dawa
3. Urban Population (% total)
1998
2000
16.14 CSA, Census 1994
16.82 CSA, Census 1994
Affar
1998
2000
7.93 CSA, Census 1994
8.36 CSA, Census 1994
Amhara
1998
2000
9.94 CSA, Census 1994
10.31 CSA, Census 1994
Tigray
68
Region
Indicator
Year
Value
Source
Oromiya
1998
2000
11.41 CSA, Census 1994
11.85 CSA, Census 1994
Somali
1998
2000
14.63 CSA, Census 1994
15.15 CSA, Census 1994
Benishangul-G
1998
2000
8.44 CSA, Census 1994
8.82 CSA, Census 1994
SNNPR
1998
2000
7.36 CSA, Census 1994
7.66 CSA, Census 1994
Gambella
1998
2000
16.50 CSA, Census 1994
16.98 CSA, Census 1994
Harari
1998
2000
60.00 CSA, Census 1994
60.50 CSA, Census 1994
Addis Ababa
1998
2000
100.00 CSA, Census 1994
100.00 CSA, Census 1994
Dire Dawa
1998
2000
71.09 CSA, Census 1994
71.99 CSA, Census 1994
4. Population Density
(people per sq. km)
Tigray
Affar
Amhara
Oromiya
Somali
Benishangul-G
SNNPR
Gambella
Harari
Addis Ababa
Dire Dawa
1994
1994
1994
1994
1994
1994
1994
1994
1994
1994
1994
62.6
N.A.
86.9
53.1
N.A.
9.3
92.4
7.0
421.3
3985.2
207.6
CSA, Stat. Abstract ‘97
CSA, Stat. Abstract ‘97
CSA, Stat. Abstract ‘97
CSA, Stat. Abstract ‘97
CSA, Stat. Abstract ‘97
CSA, Stat. Abstract ‘97
CSA, Stat. Abstract ‘97
CSA, Stat. Abstract ‘97
CSA, Stat. Abstract ‘97
CSA, Stat. Abstract ‘97
CSA, Stat. Abstract ‘97
5. Dependency Ratio
Tigray
1995
2000
0.85 CSA, Census 1994
0.86 CSA, Census 1994
Affar
1995
2000
0.78 CSA, Census 1994
0.70 CSA, Census 1994
69
Region
Indicator
Year
Value
Source
Amhara
1995
2000
0.82 CSA, Census 1994
0.83 CSA, Census 1994
Oromiya
1995
2000
0.88 CSA, Census 1994
0.88 CSA, Census 1994
Somali
1995
2000
0.91 CSA, Census 1994
0.78 CSA, Census 1994
Benishangul-G
1995
2000
0.85 CSA, Census 1994
0.83 CSA, Census 1994
SNNPR
1995
2000
0.87 CSA, Census 1994
0.87 CSA, Census 1994
Gambella
1995
2000
0.72 CSA, Census 1994
0.66 CSA, Census 1994
Harari
1995
2000
0.61 CSA, Census 1994
0.58 CSA, Census 1994
Addis Ababa
1995
2000
0.48 CSA, Census 1994
0.38 CSA, Census 1994
Dire Dawa
1995
2000
0.63 CSA, Census 1994
0.61 CSA, Census 1994
Tigray
1995
2000
96.7 CSA, Census 1994
96.8 CSA, Census 1994
Affar
1995
2000
130.7 CSA, Census 1994
127.7 CSA, Census 1994
Amhara
1995
2000
100.9 CSA, Census 1994
100.2 CSA, Census 1994
Oromiya
1995
2000
100.1 CSA, Census 1994
99.7 CSA, Census 1994
Somali
1995
2000
120.0 CSA, Census 1994
117.9 CSA, Census 1994
Benishangul-G
1995
102.4 CSA, Census 1994
6. Sex Ratio
70
Region
Indicator
Year
Value
Source
2000
101.7 CSA, Census 1994
SNNPR
1995
2000
99.0 CSA, Census 1994
98.8 CSA, Census 1994
Gambella
1995
2000
104.4 CSA, Census 1994
103.9 CSA, Census 1994
Harari
1995
2000
99.9 CSA, Census 1994
102.1 CSA, Census 1994
Addis Ababa
1995
2000
94.0 CSA, Census 1994
93.0 CSA, Census 1994
Dire Dawa
1995
2000
102.2 CSA, Census 1994
101.1 CSA, Census 1994
B. Poverty
1. % of people below poverty line
Tigray
Affar
Amhara
Oromiya
Somali
Benishangul-G
SNNPR
Gambella
Harari
Addis Ababa
Dire Dawa
National
Tigray
Affar
Amhara
Oromiya
Addis Ababa
Dire Dawa
Tigray
Amhara
Oromiya
SNNP
2. Profile of calorie intake per adult
per day
Rural
“
“
“
Urban
“
“
“
“
“
1995/96
“
“
“
“
“
“
“
“
“
“
“
57.9%
51.8%
56.7%
34.7%
34.6%
47.6%
56.5%
41.8%
29.1%
30.0%
24.6%
45.5%
MEDaC
“
“
“
“
“
“
“
“
“
“
“
1995/96
“
“
“
“
“
“
“
“
“
“
1902
1957
2004
1800
1993
1831
1734
2108
2127
2040
MEDaC
“
“
“
“
“
“
“
“
“
“
71
Region
Harari
Indicator
Year
Urban
1995/96
Value
2085
Source
MEDaC
3. Access to sanitation, HHs (%)
Tigray
Total
Urban
Rural
1994
1994
1994
7.0 CSA, Census 1994
28.6 CSA, Census 1994
2.7 CSA, Census 1994
Affar
Total
Urban
Rural
1994
1994
1994
8.3 CSA, Census 1994
41.6 CSA, Census 1994
3.9 CSA, Census 1994
Amhara
Total
Urban
Rural
1994
1994
1994
5.8 CSA, Census 1994
37.3 CSA, Census 1994
2.5 CSA, Census 1994
Oromiya
Total
Urban
Rural
1994
1994
1994
12.9 CSA, Census 1994
59.0 CSA, Census 1994
7.3 CSA, Census 1994
Somali
Total
Urban
Rural
1994
1994
1994
10.9 CSA, Census 1994
47.6 CSA, Census 1994
4.1 CSA, Census 1994
Benishangul-G
Total
Urban
Rural
1994
1994
1994
19.0 CSA, Census 1994
63.2 CSA, Census 1994
14.9 CSA, Census 1994
SNNPR
Total
1994
12.8 CSA, Census 1994
Urban
Rural
1994
1994
63.0 CSA, Census 1994
9.2 CSA, Census 1994
Gambella
Total
Urban
Rural
1994
1994
1994
14.8 CSA, Census 1994
31.0 CSA, Census 1994
11.4 CSA, Census 1994
Harari
Total
Urban
Rural
1994
1994
1994
41.8 CSA, Census 1994
69.2 CSA, Census 1994
1.5 CSA, Census 1994
Addis Ababa
Total
Urban
1994
1994
74.1 CSA, Census 1994
75.1 CSA, Census 1994
72
Region
Dire Dawa
Indicator
Year
Value
Source
Rural
1994
5.2 CSA, Census 1994
Total
Urban
Rural
1994
1994
1994
55.0 CSA, Census 1994
74.6 CSA, Census 1994
2.9 CSA, Census 1994
4. Access to safe water, HHs (%)
Tigray
Total
Urban
Rural
1994
1994
1994
21.3 CSA, Census 1994
73.9 CSA, Census 1994
10.6 CSA, Census 1994
Affar
Total
Urban
Rural
1994
1994
1994
13.0 CSA, Census 1994
73.1 CSA, Census 1994
5.2 CSA, Census 1994
Amhara
Total
Urban
Rural
1994
1994
1994
21.4 CSA, Census 1994
80.0 CSA, Census 1994
15.2 CSA, Census 1994
Oromiya
Total
Urban
Rural
1994
1994
1994
22.4 CSA, Census 1994
76.3 CSA, Census 1994
15.8 CSA, Census 1994
Somali
Total
Urban
Rural
1994
1994
1994
15.0 CSA, Census 1994
47.9 CSA, Census 1994
9.0 CSA, Census 1994
Benishangul-G
Total
Urban
Rural
1994
1994
1994
18.2 CSA, Census 1994
55.0 CSA, Census 1994
14.8 CSA, Census 1994
SNNPR
Total
Urban
Rural
1994
1994
1994
19.2 CSA, Census 1994
71.0 CSA, Census 1994
15.5 CSA, Census 1994
Gambella
Total
Urban
Rural
1994
1994
1994
26.5 CSA, Census 1994
72.4 CSA, Census 1994
16.6 CSA, Census 1994
Harari
Total
Urban
Rural
1994
1994
1994
63.1 CSA, Census 1994
98.2 CSA, Census 1994
11.2 CSA, Census 1994
73
Region
Indicator
Year
Value
Source
Addis Ababa
Total
Urban
Rural
1994
1994
1994
97.50 CSA, Census 1994
98.43 CSA, Census 1994
35.60 CSA, Census 1994
Dire Dawa
Total
Urban
Rural
1994
1994
1994
77.70 CSA, Census 1994
98.11 CSA, Census 1994
23.60 CSA, Census 1994
5. Households with electricity (%)
Tigray
Affar
Amhara
Oromiya
Somali
Benishangul-G
SNNPR
Gambella
Harari
Addis Ababa
Dire Dawa
1994
1994
1994
1994
1994
1994
1994
1994
1994
1994
1994
48.4
53.0
55.2
61.8
20.2
38.8
48.8
26.2
95.3
95.5
87.9
CSA, Census 1994
CSA, Census 1994
CSA, Census 1994
CSA, Census 1994
CSA, Census 1994
CSA, Census 1994
CSA, Census 1994
CSA, Census 1994
CSA, Census 1994
CSA, Census 1994
CSA, Census 1994
6. Living Area (people per room)
Tigray
Total
Urban
Rural
1994
1994
1994
2.8 CSA, Census 1994
2.7 CSA, Census 1994
2.8 CSA, Census 1994
Affar
Total
Urban
Rural
1994
1994
1994
4.6 CSA, Census 1994
2.1 CSA, Census 1994
5.1 CSA, Census 1994
Amhara
Total
Urban
Rural
1994
1994
1994
3.3 CSA, Census 1994
2.3 CSA, Census 1994
3.4 CSA, Census 1994
Oromiya
Total
Urban
Rural
1994
1994
1994
3.1 CSA, Census 1994
2.2 CSA, Census 1994
3.3 CSA, Census 1994
Somali
Total
Urban
Rural
1994
1994
1994
5.8 CSA, Census 1994
4.4 CSA, Census 1994
6.1 CSA, Census 1994
74
Region
Indicator
Year
Value
Source
Benishangul-G
Total
Urban
Rural
1994
1994
1994
3.0 CSA, Census 1994
2.1 CSA, Census 1994
3.1 CSA, Census 1994
SNNPR
Total
Urban
Rural
1994
1994
1994
3.3 CSA, Census 1994
2.3 CSA, Census 1994
3.4 CSA, Census 1994
Gambella
Total
Urban
Rural
1994
1994
1994
3.5 CSA, Census 1994
2.8 CSA, Census 1994
3.7 CSA, Census 1994
Harari
Total
Urban
Rural
1994
1994
1994
2.7 CSA, Census 1994
2.3 CSA, Census 1994
3.5 CSA, Census 1994
Addis Ababa
Total
Urban
Rural
1994
1994
1994
2.1 CSA, Census 1994
2.1 CSA, Census 1994
3.0 CSA, Census 1994
Dire Dawa
Total
Urban
Rural
1994
1994
1994
3.5 CSA, Census 1994
3.0 CSA, Census 1994
5.3 CSA, Census 1994
7. Literacy rate (%)
Tigray
Total
Affar
Male
Female
Total
Female
Female
Amhara
Total
Oromiya
Somali
1994
1994
1994
1994
1994
1994
20.47
27.8
13.6
7.28
8.8
5.6
Male
Female
1994
1994
1994
17.79 CSA, Census 1994
23.5 CSA, Census 1994
12.1 CSA, Census 1994
Male
Female
1994
1994
1994
22.4 CSA, Census 1994
29.3 CSA, Census 1994
15.6 CSA, Census 1994
Male
Female
1994
1994
1994
7.96 CSA, Census 1994
10.9 CSA, Census 1994
4.7 CSA, Census 1994
Total
Total
CSA, Census 1994
CSA, Census 1994
CSA, Census 1994
CSA, Census 1994
CSA, Census 1994
CSA, Census 1994
75
Region
Benishangul-G
Indicator
Value
Source
Male
Female
1994
1994
1994
17.74 CSA, Census 1994
24.9 CSA, Census 1994
10.5 CSA, Census 1994
Male
Female
1994
1994
1994
24.44 CSA, Census 1994
33.9 CSA, Census 1994
15.2 CSA, Census 1994
Male
Female
1994
1994
1994
29.33 CSA, Census 1994
38.7 CSA, Census 1994
19.5 CSA, Census 1994
Male
Female
1994
1994
1994
54.54 CSA, Census 1994
59.8 CSA, Census 1994
49.4 CSA, Census 1994
Male
Female
1994
1994
1994
82.52 CSA, Census 1994
89.1 CSA, Census 1994
76.4 CSA, Census 1994
Male
Female
1994
1994
1994
51.53 CSA, Census 1994
57.4 CSA, Census 1994
45.7 CSA, Census 1994
8. Primary Gross enrollment (%)
Total
Male
Female
1994
1994
1994
52.6 CSA, Census 1994
60.6 CSA, Census 1994
44.3 CSA, Census 1994
Affar
Total
Male
Female
1994
1994
1994
7.0 CSA, Census 1994
7.3 CSA, Census 1994
7.0 CSA, Census 1994
Amhara
Total
Male
Female
1994
1994
1994
16.1 CSA, Census 1994
17.0 CSA, Census 1994
15.1 CSA, Census 1994
Male
Female
1994
1994
1994
21.7 CSA, Census 1994
25.8 CSA, Census 1994
17.4 CSA, Census 1994
Male
Female
1994
1994
1994
6.7 CSA, Census 1994
8.5 CSA, Census 1994
5.0 CSA, Census 1994
SNNPR
Gambella
Harari
Addis Ababa
Dire Dawa
Tigray
Oromiya
Somali
Total
Year
Total
Total
Total
Total
Total
Total
Total
76
Region
Benishangul-G
SNNPR
Gambella
Harari
Addis Ababa
Dire Dawa
Indicator
Total
Year
Value
Source
Male
Female
1994
1994
1994
25.5 CSA, Census 1994
33.8 CSA, Census 1994
16.6 CSA, Census 1994
Male
Female
1994
1994
1994
29.8 CSA, Census 1994
37.6 CSA, Census 1994
21.5 CSA, Census 1994
Male
Female
1994
1994
1994
51.2 CSA, Census 1994
58.8 CSA, Census 1994
42.5 CSA, Census 1994
Male
Female
1994
1994
1994
59.6 CSA, Census 1994
59.0 CSA, Census 1994
60.3 CSA, Census 1994
Male
Female
1994
1994
1994
110.5 CSA, Census 1994
108.3 CSA, Census 1994
112.7 CSA, Census 1994
Male
Female
1994
1994
1994
57.6 CSA, Census 1994
58.7 CSA, Census 1994
56.4 CSA, Census 1994
Total
Total
Total
Total
Total
C. Gender Equality, Women’s Advancement & Reproductive Behavior
1. Infant Mortality Rate
(per 1000 live births)
Tigray
1994
1995-‘00
1994
1995-‘00
123
116
118
112
Amhara
1994
1995-‘00
116 CSA, Census 1994
109 CSA, Census 1994
Oromiya
1994
1995-‘00
118 CSA, Census 1994
111 CSA, Census 1994
Somali
1994
1995-‘00
96 CSA, Census 1994
96 CSA, Census 1994
Benishangul-G
1994
1995-‘00
139 CSA, Census 1994
131 CSA, Census 1994
Affar
CSA, Census 1994
CSA, Census 1994
CSA, Census 1994
CSA, Census 1994
77
Region
Indicator
Year
Value
Source
SNNP
1994
1995-‘00
128 CSA, Census 1994
121 CSA, Census 1994
Gambella
1994
1995-‘00
99 CSA, Census 1994
92 CSA, Census 1994
Harari
1994
1995-‘00
113 CSA, Census 1994
106 CSA, Census 1994
Addis Ababa
1994
1995-‘00
78 CSA, Census 1994
72 CSA, Census 1994
Dire Dawa
1994
1995-‘00
115 CSA, Census 1994
107 CSA, Census 1994
Tigray
1994
1995-‘00
181 CSA, Census 1994
171 CSA, Census 1994
Affar
1994
1995-‘00
174 CSA, Census 1994
167 CSA, Census 1994
Amhara
1994
1995-‘00
170 CSA, Census 1994
159 CSA, Census 1994
Oromiya
1994
1995-‘00
173 CSA, Census 1994
163 CSA, Census 1994
Somali
1994
1995-‘00
137 CSA, Census 1994
139 CSA, Census 1994
Benishangul-G
1994
1995-‘00
206 CSA, Census 1994
196 CSA, Census 1994
SNNP
1994
1995-‘00
189 CSA, Census 1994
179 CSA, Census 1994
Gambella
1994
1995-‘00
142 CSA, Census 1994
132 CSA, Census 1994
Harari
1994
1995-‘00
166 CSA, Census 1994
156 CSA, Census 1994
2. Under Five Mortality Rate
(per 1000 live births)
78
Region
Indicator
Year
Value
Source
Addis Ababa
1994
1995-‘00
109 CSA, Census 1994
100 CSA, Census 1994
Dire Dawa
1994
1995-‘00
168 CSA, Census 1994
157 CSA, Census 1994
Tigray
1994
1995-‘00
6.95 CSA, Census 1994
6.72 CSA, Census 1994
Affar
1994
1995-‘00
6.39 CSA, Census 1994
6.20 CSA, Census 1994
Amhara
1994
1995-‘00
6.76 CSA, Census 1994
6.54 CSA, Census 1994
Oromiya
1994
1995-‘00
7.26 CSA, Census 1994
7.00 CSA, Census 1994
Somali
1994
1995-‘00
6.73 CSA, Census 1994
6.91 CSA, Census 1994
Benishangul-G
1994
1995-‘00
6.46 CSA, Census 1994
6.26 CSA, Census 1994
SNNP
1994
1995-‘00
7.16 CSA, Census 1994
6.91 CSA, Census 1994
Gambella
1994
1995-‘00
4.72 CSA, Census 1994
4.64 CSA, Census 1994
Harari
1994
1995-‘00
4.68 CSA, Census 1994
4.61 CSA, Census 1994
Addis Ababa
1994
1995-‘00
2.14 CSA, Census 1994
2.14 CSA, Census 1994
Dire Dawa
1994
1995-‘00
4.95 CSA, Census 1994
4.85 CSA, Census 1994
1994
46.8 CSA, Census 1994
3. Total Fertility Rate
(child per woman)
4. Employment (Labor Force)
Women (% of total LF)
Tigray
79
Region
Indicator
Affar
Amhara
Oromiya
Somali
Benishangul-G
SNNPR
Gambella
Harari
Addis Ababa
Dire Dawa
Year
Value
Source
1994
1994
1994
1994
1994
1994
1994
1994
1994
1994
35.0
45.4
44.7
34.9
35.3
40.0
41.3
40.1
41.0
41.7
CSA, Census 1994
CSA, Census 1994
CSA, Census 1994
CSA, Census 1994
CSA, Census 1994
CSA, Census 1994
CSA, Census 1994
CSA, Census 1994
CSA, Census 1994
CSA, Census 1994
1995
1995
1995
1995
1995
1995
1995
1995
1995
1995
1995
18.4
0.0
5.5
3.4
0.0
0.0
3.3
0.0
16.7
8.7
0.0
NEBE
NEBE
NEBE
NEBE
5. Politics
Local council seats, women (%)
Tigray
Affar
Amhara
Oromiya
Somali
Benishangul-G
SNNP
Gambella
Harari
Addis Ababa
Dire Dawa
NEBE
NEBE
NEBE
NEBE
NEBE
NEBE
6. Violence
Rapes/attempted rapes, no.
Tigray
1994/95
1995/96
36 FPPB
49 FPPB
Affar
1994/95
1995/96
1 FPPB
1 FPPB
Amhara
1994/95
1995/96
14 FPPB
31 FPPB
Oromiya
1994/95
1995/96
1994/95
1995/96
22
57
-
Somali
Benishangul-G
1994/95
FPPB
FPPB
FPPB
FPPB
1 FPPB
80
Region
Indicator
Year
Value
Source
1995/96
1 FPPB
SNNPR
1994/95
1995/96
29 FPPB
37 FPPB
Gambella
1994/95
1995/96
5 FPPB
1 FPPB
Harari
1994/95
1995/96
2 FPPB
2 FPPB
Addis Ababa
1994/95
1995/96
14 FPPB
44 FPPB
Dire Dawa
1994/95
1995/96
3 FPPB
- FPPB
D. HEALTH SERVICES AND LIFE EXPECTANCY
1.Physician(s), per 10,000 pop.
Tigray
Affar
Amhara
Oromiya
Somali
Benishangul-G
SNNP
Gambella
Harari
Addis Ababa
Dire Dawa
1996/97
1996/97
1996/97
1996/97
1996/97
1996/97
1996/97
1996/97
1996/97
1996/97
1996/97
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
3
1
1
MoH, Computations
MoH, Computations
MoH, Computations
MoH, Computations
MoH, Computations
MoH, Computations
MoH, Computations
MoH, Computations
MoH, Computations
MoH, Computations
MoH, Computations
1996/97
1996/97
1996/97
1996/97
1996/97
1996/97
1996/97
1996/97
1996/97
1
0
0
0
0
2
0
1
16
MoH, Computations
MoH, Computations
MoH, Computations
MoH, Computations
MoH, Computations
MoH, Computations
MoH, Computations
MoH, Computations
MoH, Computations
2. Hospital beds, per 10,000 pop.
Tigray
Affar
Amhara
Oromiya
Somali
Benishangul-G
SNNPR
Gambella
Harari
81
Region
Indicator
Addis Ababa
Dire Dawa
Year
Value
Source
1996/97
1996/97
3 MoH, Computations
3 MoH, Computations
1996/97
1996/97
1996/97
1996/97
1996/97
1996/97
1996/97
1996/97
1996/97
1996/97
1996/97
1
0
0
0
0
1
1
2
0
1
1
3. Health centers, per 100, 000 pop.
Tigray
Affar
Amhara
Oromiya
Somali
Benishangul-G
SNNPR
Gambella
Harari
Addis Ababa
Dire Dawa
MoH, Computations
MoH, Computations
MoH, Computations
MoH, Computations
MoH, Computations
MoH, Computations
MoH, Computations
MoH, Computations
MoH, Computations
MoH, Computations
MoH, Computations
4. Leading causes of morbidity in
hospitals (% cases)
Tigray
Affar
Acute upper respiratory infections 1997/98
All other infective parasitic diseases
“
Malaria
“
5.7 MoH
4.9 MoH
4.9 MoH
Acute upper respiratory infections 1997/98
All other infective parasitic diseases
“
Malaria
“
5.7 MoH
4.9 MoH
4.9 MoH
Acute upper respiratory infections 1997/98
Infections skin & subcutaneous tissue
“
Bronchopneumonia
“
7.3 MoH
3.7 MoH
3.7 MoH
Malaria 1997/98
Helminthiasis
“
Upper respiratory infections
“
18.9 MoH
9.9 MoH
6.4 MoH
Malaria 1997/98
Pneumonia
“
Upper respiratory infections
“
8.9 MoH
7.7 MoH
7.3 MoH
Oromiya
Benishangul-G
Harari
82
Region
Indicator
Year
Value
Source
Addis Ababa
All accidental causes 1997/98
Dental caries
“
Infective & parasitic disease
“
6.7 MoH
6.2 MoH
5.3 MoH
Tuberculosis 1997/98
Skin diseases
“
Acute respiratory infections
“
15.7 MoH
8.2 MoH
7.3 MoH
Dire Dawa
4. Life Expectancy
Tigray
1994
49.6 CSA, Census 1994
Male
Female
1994
1994
48.2 CSA, Census 1994
51.1 CSA, Census 1994
Affar
Total
Male
Female
1994
1994
1994
50.3 CSA, Census 1994
53.1 CSA, Census 1994
47.0 CSA, Census 1994
Amhara
Total
Male
Female
1994
1994
1994
50.8 CSA, Census 1994
49.6 CSA, Census 1994
52.2 CSA, Census 1994
Male
Female
1994
1994
1994
50.4 CSA, Census 1994
49.2 CSA, Census 1994
51.7 CSA, Census 1994
Male
Female
1994
1994
1994
54.8 CSA, Census 1994
56.2 CSA, Census 1994
52.9 CSA, Census 1994
Male
Female
1994
1994
1994
48.6 CSA, Census 1994
46.3 CSA, Census 1994
47.3 CSA, Census 1994
Male
Female
1994
1994
1994
48.6 CSA, Census 1994
47.6 CSA, Census 1994
49.7 CSA, Census 1994
Oromiya
Somali
Benishangul-G
SNNPR
Total
Total
Total
Total
Total
83
Region
Gambella
Harari
Addis Ababa
Dire Dawa
Indicator
Total
Year
Value
Source
Male
Female
1994
1994
1994
54.2 CSA, Census 1994
53.8 CSA, Census 1994
54.5 CSA, Census 1994
Male
Female
1994
1994
1994
51.4 CSA, Census 1994
51.4 CSA, Census 1994
51.8 CSA, Census 1994
Male
Female
1994
1994
1994
58.4 CSA, Census 1994
56.6 CSA, Census 1994
60.3 CSA, Census 1994
Male
Female
1994
1994
1994
51.1 CSA, Census 1994
50.3 CSA, Census 1994
52.0 CSA, Census 1994
Total
Total
Total
84
3.3. Acknowledgments
The production of the Common Country Assessment for Ethiopia has benefited
from several UN agencies, various Government institutions, non-governmental
organizations, the private sector and individuals, which shared their experiences,
databases and valuable information and comments to enrich the document. Special thanks
therefore go to the following.
Resident Coordinator: Samuel Nyambi
The CCA Team
Graham H. Chipande – UNDP
Neguest Mekonnen - UNDP
Workineh Kassie - UNICEF
Urgessa Badada –ILO/EAMAT
Eyerusalem Fasika – World Bank
Willem Thuring – IOM
Amare Esayas – CSA (Government)
Jelaludin Ahmed – CSA (Government)
UNDAF Technical Committee
Gladson K. Kayira - UNDP
Neguest Mekonnen - UNDP
Mesfin Kinfu - FAO
Urgessa Badada - ILO
Willem Thuring - IOM
Salvatore Minniti - UNAIDS
Gunther Cyrneck - UNESCO
Duah Owusu-Sarfo - UNFPA
Mulugeta Ersumo – UNFPA/CST
Rodney Phillips - UNICEF
Vincent Weirda - UNIDO
Stephen Anderson - WFP
Mulugeta Gebru - WHO
Hagos Araya – World BANK
Consultant
Berhanu Assefa
85
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