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Chapter 1
Anatomy
Ana = to
tomy= cut
Ancient Greek science that concerns itself with structure:
how body is made up
how muscles are attached
how organs are arranged etc.
It is a static science, rarely are new muscles found ( last year an unknown muscle in the neck was discovered )
Anatomy
surface - outside structure, hair, skin, dermaglyphs, pila,...
gross - to be seen with the naked eye
systemic - CV, digestive, pulmonary,...
imaging techniques
pathological - abnormal point of view
all refer to form
Physiology
function - how things work
form affects function
form follows function
dynamic science, changes all the time
systemic - CV, pulmonary
cellular
subcellular
molecular level
lately things are getting back to the “whole”
Levels of organization ( pyramid )
most complex
most basic
organism
organ systems
organs
tissues
cellular
chemical
Organ Systems
Digestive
intestines, small and large
stomach
esophagus
mouth
salivary glands, etc.
function: aquires food, breaks it down, digests
Cardiovascular
heart
arteries
veins
capillaries etc.
function: transportation of : food, O2, CO2, waste products,
H2O, protection, heat, hormones
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Respiratory
lungs
trachea
bronchi
bronchioles
nose
alveoli etc.
function: take in air, exchange air, exchange O2/CO2, pH regulation
Nervous System
brain
Spinal cord
nerve
ganglia
receptors etc.
function: gather & process information, regulate effectors
All systems are interrelated, cannot be separated
They create an optimal internal environment called homeostasis.The optimum environment is within a certain range of
parameters that are maintained by oscillation about a mean.
Homeostasis = condition in which the internal environment of the body remains w/i physiological limits.
Homeostasis is regulated by the nervous and the endocrine systems
homeo=same, stasis = same ===> dynamic equilibrium
Stressors or stimuli move us away from optimal environment. They challenge the system into a response that brings it
back to homeostasis. Stress is any external or internal stimulus that creates an imbalance in the internal environment.
Stimulus is any stress that changes controlled condition
Most systems are based on Negative Feedback: the response to a challenge brings the parameter back toward normal.
3 components: 1. effector- receives information from control center and produces a response
2. control center- determines controlled condition
3. sensor or receptor - monitors changes and reports them to the control center
Positive feedback: the response to a challenge moves the parameter further away from normal until a dramatic event
takes place ( e.g.: L&D, massive blood loss )
QUIZ 1
neg/pos feedback
Video
MRI, CT, PET, Ultrasound, SPECT
BOOK
Life processes
metabolism
responsiveness
movement
growth
differentiation
reproduction
LAB
Chromatin = unwound DNA
Nucleolus = condensed DNA RNA- a cell can have more than 1
Ribosomes = sites of protein synthesis
1 sml and 1 lge subunit
Rough Endoplasmic reticulum
smooth endoplasmic reticulum - no protein synthesis here
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Osmosis and Diffusion
Diffusion is the movement of ions ( H2, Cl- ) or molecules from an area of greater concentration or percentage to an
area of lesser concentration or percentage.
Osmosis is the movement of water through a semipermeable membrane from an area of greater concentration or
percentage to an area of lesser concentration or percentage.
Hypo - less than
Iso - equal to
Hyper - greater than
tonic - pressure gradient
Solution= solute + solvent
Diffusion experiment
Horizontally mounted burette filled with DI H2O, salt crystals dropped into it.
After a while you could see the colored salt diffusing throughout the whole burette until the concentration was the same
throughout the entire burette.
Osmosis experiment
1. What will happen to semipermeable balloon filled with 30% sucrose and 70% H2O submerged in 15 % sucrose
solution and 85% H2O?
Water will flow into ballon - it will burst.( hemolysis )
2. What will happen to semipermeable balloon filled with 30% sucrose and 70% H2O submerged in 30 % sucrose
solution and 70% H2O?
H2O will not go anywhere - no change in balloon size.
3. What will happen to semipermeable balloon filled with 30% sucrose and 70% H2O submerged in 45 % sucrose
solution and 55% H2O?
H2O will flow out of balloon- shrink or level will go down ( crenation )
LECTURE
Directional terms:
proximal - distal
etc...
Think about them in terms of animals, too.
Looking at X
Human
Cat
Superior = cranial
superior = dorsal or cranial
Anterior = ventral
anterior = cranial
posterior = dorsal
posterior = caudal
pp18
looking at body there are 9 abdominopelvic regions
R hypochondriac
epigastric
R lumbar
umbilical
R iliac (inguinal )
hypogastric (pelvic )
9-2-98
L hypochondriac
L lumbar
L iliac
R hypochondriac - R lobe of liver, diaphragm, 1/4 of R kidney
epigastric - L lobe of liver, stomach, Duodenum, pancreas, adrenals, esophagus, part of kidneys
L hypochondriac - part of stomach, transverse colon, spleen, 1/2 of L kidney
R lumbar - gallbladder, ascending colon, 1/4 of R kidney
umbilical - small intestine, part of transverse colon, inf vena cava, abd. aorta, ureters
L lumbar - part of small intestine, descending colon small portion of L kidney
R iliac (inguinal ) - tip of ascending colon, cecum, appendix
hypogastric (pelvic ) - urinary bladder, internal reproductve organs, rectum
L iliac -
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Sections
way in which cuts are made:
saggital results in left / right halves
midsaggital results in equal l/r halves
parasggital results in unequal l/r sections
frontal / coronal results in front/ back
transverse / horizontal / cross results in top and bottom
oblique results in diagonal sections ( avoided - can be confusing )
BODY CAVITIES
Dorsal body cavity
cranial cavity
cranial bones
vertebral canal
Ventral body cavity - inferior to dorsal cavity - lined with viscera
thoracic cavity - superior aspect inferiorily to diaphragm
pleural cavities lined with pleura ( viscera - space - parietal )
- small fluid filled space between the lung cover and wall cover
mediastinum - mass of tissues:
heart
esophagus
trachea
thymus gland
many large and lymphatic vessels
pericardial cavity lined with pericardium ( viscera - space - parietal )
abdominopelvic cavity - superior aspect at diaphragm to inferior aspect at imaginary line from
ilium to ileum
-lined with peritoneum ( viscera - space - parietal )
abdominal cavity
stomach
spleen
liver
gallbladder
pancreas
small intestine
most of lg intestine
pelvic cavity
urinary bladder
portions of lg intestine
internal organs of reproduction
Linings are made of epithelial membranes - thin 2 or 3 layers with fluid filled space between them. They are serous
membranes
Viscera- adheres to organ
space - fluid filled
parietal - adheres to wall of cavity
The dorsal cavity is lined with
Meninges - it has 3 layers
Dura mater
cerebrospinal fluid
arachnoid
Pia mater
Exposed body cavities
nasal
mouth
vagina
anal
otic
optic
these have linings of 1 layer thick membranes: mucus membranes = sticky and moist
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Chapter 3
CELLS
cell = basic unit of life
virus is not a cell - it is unable to reproduce by itself
The fluid in a cell is called intracellular fluid (ICF). It is surrounded by a plasma membrane, and has extracellular fluid
(ECF ) around it.
1. organelles - specialized structures, semipermeable, membrane bound ( nucleus, ribos., ER, Golgi...)
2. cytosol - viscous, tansparent, gel like ICF . Cytoplasm inc. cytosol, organelles, inclusons , NOT nuc)
3. plasma membrane
4. nucleus- controls cellular activities, contains genes, surrounded by nuclear envelope
Mitochondria - self reproducing by fission
w/o mitochondria there would be only anaerobic glycolosis, a breakdown of glucose with low efficiency and low yield ( 2
ATP )
With mitochondria the cell gets energy through aerobic respiration, a breakdown of glucose with high yield of 36-38 ATP.
Membranes
Internal - Endoplasmic reticulum ER
divides cell into compartments
serves as attachment point
Ribosomes - the only site for protein assembly
Rough ER has ribosomes ( = separate organelles) attached to it. These attached ribosome produce proteins that are
needed in large amounts
Free ribosomes - produce proteins needed in small amounts
Smooth ER -
place of lipid synthesis
detoxification of poisons ( lots of smooth ER in liver )
hormone producing cells ( steroids - testicles )
Golgi apparatus or complex is a packaging center
It takes care of the raw export of a product, modifies this product by condensing it and chopping off extraneous materials,
packages it into vesicles.
Vescicles lysosomes ( to break / body ) - full of hydrolytic enzymes
Autophagy (self / eating ) - for known function
Autolysis - for unknown function
Peroxisome - smaller than lysosome
contains enzymes related to oxidation (uses H2O2 which kills bacteria )
1. catalase - neutralizes H2O2
2. peroxidase - neutralizes H2O2
Cytoskeleton - internal skeleton made of
1. microtubule - moves things from one side of the cell to another
- made of tubules
2. microfilaments - add to strength and flexibility
3. intermediate filaments
Centrosome -
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helps organize microtubules in non-dividing cells and forms mitotic spindle during cell division
2 centrioles - microtubules arranged in 9 triplets like a wagonwheel
- they are always at 90 degrees to each other
- play a role in the formation and regeneration of flagella and cilia
basal body
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Organelles of movement
1. flagella
long, extend from cells, made of microtubules arranged in doublets 9+2 structure
whipping motion
sperm is the only human cell with flagella
2. cilia
identical in structure but very small and numerous
in respiratory tract and female reproductive tract
move substances ( mucus ) across cell surface
( paralyzed by cigarette smoke )
Microvilli -
accordion area of membrane
increased surface area
called brush border
Nucleus - can be seen with light microscope
- one, none, or many in a cell
- required for reproduction
- nuclear envelope
pores
chromatin - made of DNA and histoproteins - chromosomes
1. heterochromatin - appears darker when stained
2. Euchromatin - less dark when stained
Histoproteins help chromatin pack and fold into compact structure
Chromosome looks like an X. Each leg is called a chromatid.
DNA is made of 1. acid-phosphate complex
2. nucleic bases adenine - thyamine ( complementary base pairing )
guanin - cytosine (
“
“
“
)
3. 5 carbon sugar
sugar - A ---T - sugar
I
I
phosph - T --- A - phosph
I
I
sugar - G --- C - sugar
I
I
phosp - C --- G - phosp
Each strand serves as a template for the other
3’-5’ ( 3prime 5 prime ) - sense strand
5’-3’ ( 5 prime 3 prime ) - non-sense strand
DNA is only found in the nucleus. It is made of protein. The information contained in it is like a library. It is It controls all
1. day to day activities
2. reproduction
Each gene is the amount of DNA necessary to produce a peptide ( protein )
One gene- one peptide
[ATA][GGA][GCT][ACT][CAT][GCG][TCA]............ = non-sense strand
[TAT][CCT][CGA][TGA][GTA][CGC][AGT]............ = sense strand
1 peptide + 1 protein makes an amino acid
There are 20 amino acids.
DNA is a huge library of 3 letter words
Reactions can be
1. anabolic
R1+R2 = P1
2. catabolic
R ---->P1 + P2
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To copy DNA it needs to be replicated
1. DNA splits
2. each strand is used as a template
This process needs the help of an enzyme: DNA polymerase, which
1. unzips strands
2. uses 3’-5’ to make 5’-3’ and 5’-3’ to make 3’-5’
3. proofreads
4. edits and corrects
Cell Life Cycle
Cycles: M, G1, S, and G2
G1, S, and G2 are all included in interphase - day to day activities, growth
M = all types of cell division:
Mitosis
Meiosis
G1 = growth 1- most of cells life
cell engages in growth, metabolism, and production of substances required for division
no chromosomal replication occurs
increase in surface area and volume
Volume grows faster than surface ( volume = cubically, surface = quadratically )
2
3
SA=6S
Vol=S
As a cell grows, the surface area becomes inadequate to support the volume. It can
at some point:
1. divide
2. stop growing ( ova is largest cell )
At this point G1 ends and S begins.
S = synthesis of new DNA or DNA replication and its associated proteins
2 exact copies of DNA
semiconservative replication
G2 = Growth 2- makes necessary equipment to do division
same as G1
stops
Cytokinesis
Cytoplasmic division - cleavage furrow forms around center of cell, progresses inward, and separates
cytoplasm into 2 separate and usually equal portions.
LECTURE
M-phase =
9-9-98
Mitosis – cellular reproduction results in 2 exactly alike cells, only smaller
Meiosis – organismal reproduction – 1 cell through sexual reproduction of 2 organisms reduces the
genetic material by ½ and the result is 4 cells, that are not alike, and not like the original cell.
MITOSIS
1. Prophase – the nuclear envelope dissolves, the chromatin forms chromosomes
2. Metaphase – the centrioles migrate to opposite sides of the cell and secrete spindle fibers
Chromosomes line up at the equatorial plate
3. Anaphase – spindle fibers attach to chromatids and pull apart towards opposite poles of the cell
4. Telophase – chromatids unfold, nuclear envelope reforms, centrioles divide, spindle fibers dissolve
Then comes Cytokinesis: the cells move apart, a new membrane forms (cleavage plate)
MEIOSIS
Purpose of meiosis is gamete production, that have only half the genetic material
Gametes are haploid and are found only in the gonads, whereas body cells are diploid.
Males produce 100,000,000 gametes q 24 hrs which results in 4 gametes through meisosis
Females 1 gamete every 28 days – each ovum develops into 1 gamete and 3 polar bodies
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Meiosis 1 –
1. Prophase 1 - longest phase, can be 40 years, since the female ovum is formed as a fetus, yet may not come to
ovulation until the woman is 40 years old! In the male this phase is very short, though. This phase is in
suspended animation, it has 10 stages.
1. chromatin folds – the chromosomes unite with their pairmates Aaaa, BBbb, CCcc,…
– tetrad formation
through chiasma ( crossing over ) genetic recombination occurs and the result is 4 unique cells.
Chiasma increases genetic variation
2.Metaphase 1 – tetrads line up at the equatorial plate
3. Anaphase 1 – spindle fibers attach to chromatids and pull apart towards opposite sides of the cell
4. Telophase 1 - Reduction division reduces genetic material by ½: 23 chromosomes 2 identical of each
AA, BB, bb, CC, aa,
5. Prophase 2 – the nuclear envelope dissolves, the chromatin forms chromosomes
6. Metaphase 2 – the centrioles migrate to opposite sides of the cell and secrete spindle fibers
Chromosomes line up at the equatorial plate
7. Anaphase 2 – spindle fibers attach to chromatids and pull apart towards opposite sides of the cell
8. Telophase 2 – chromatids unfold, nuclear envelope reforms, centrioles divide, spindle fibers dissolve.
Result: 4 cells
G1 and G2 are phases of growth. During these phases, 1 billion different molecules / cell form
1 gene is the code for 1 protein ( or peptide ) which makes an enzyme
Protein synthesis
Protein = less than 100 amino acids. More than 100 AA’s are 2 chains hooked together.
Depending on the ring structure’s ( R ) polarity, 2 adjacent R groups may attract or repel each other. This will determine
the shape of the protein , and shape determines function. The cell uses proteins to control all its activities.
1. structural
2. enzymes ( catalysts )
3. receptors
4. channels ( tubes )
TRANSCRIPTION – is the process by which the genetic information encoded in DNA is copied onto a strand of RNA
DNA – Deoxiribonucleic acid
RNA – has 1 less O2. In RNA Uracil replaces Thiamine, it behaves identical to Thiamine
3 types of RNA
1. messenger RNA – directs synthesis of a polypeptide chain
long straight chain of bases, message or blueprint that tells the order of AA’s for
a particular protein. Each triplet is called a codon and corresponds with one AA
2. ribosomal -RNA – comes together with ribosomal proteins to make up ribosomes
structural component of ribosomes. Ribosomes = RNA + protein
3. Transfer-RNA - binds to amino acid during translation
moves AA around to the ribosomes where they are assembled into proteins. It looks kind of like
a key with an anti-codon at the end.
RNA polymerase unzips DNA, uses sense strand as template and makes RNA
1 gene is enough to make 1 protein
r-RNA and T-RNA can be used over and over , so there is only one of each needed.
Protein synthesis is the transcription of DNA to RNA and the translation of RNA to proteins
There are 64 triplets. Some amino acids have more than 1 triplet that represents it. This is called the wobble effect. The
first base of different triplets for the same AA is generally the same. Some triplets mean start , some mean stop.
QUIZ 2
Transcription and translation
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Mutation
1. Point Mutation – changes 1 base
2. Frame shift mutations remove or add a base.
99.75% of mutations are innocuous, the rest are deleterious.
The plasma membrane is a dynamic organelle, a boundary. It gets to decide what can cross and what cannot. Structure:
1. Phospholipids
2. Proteins
3. Cholesterol
4. Carbohydrate s
The cell membrane is a phospholipid bilayer. It is arranged this way because of the charges of the individual
components.
Proteins make up 40% of the weight of the membrane
1. Peripheral proteins: receptors
enzymes both of these wash off with soap
2. Integral proteins are embedded in the surface
a. structural
b. enzymes
c. channels ( tunnels ) these are specific and only allow 1 type of ion through
1. leakage channels
2. gated channels
a. voltage gated
b. chemically gated
c. mechanically gated
d. light gated
Cholesterol is non-polar, it stabilizes the membrane. There is no cholesterol in plants because they have cellulose in cell
walls. The bacterium mycoplasm has cholesterol
Carbohydrates CnH2nOn act like sign posts. Glycocyl is a sugar coating on cells
Factors that affect permeability
1. Size – the larger the size , the lower the degree of permeability --- inverse relationship
2. Lipid solubility – the more lipid soluble, the higher the degree of permeability
3. Charge – the cell is very charged on the outside and may repel ions of like charges thereby not
permitting entry
4. Carrier or channel – If an ion has a carrier it is much more likely to get into a cell than if it does not.
Movement:
Passive – the cell has little control over it, but it uses no cellular energy either ( ATP)
The particles strive for equilibrium, until their kinetic energy is gone or absolute 0 ( -273 degrees Kelvin )
1. Diffusion
2. Facilitated diffusion
3. Osmosis
4. Filtration
Active – cell has lots of control but it also costs it ATP
PASSIVE MOVEMENT
1. Diffusion – as before
LECTURE
9/14/98
2. Facilitated diffusion – helped diffusion – occurs without a membrane. Cells provide a carrier, which is specific. Works
like a revolving door. No energy is required, it moves down a gradient. Although there is some movement of particles out
of the cell, the concentration gradient is into the cell.
3.Osmosis – special type of diffusion: it is the diffusion of WATER from an area of high concentration to an area of low
concentration. 3 conditions: a) there has to be a semi-permeable membrane b) there has to be a concentration gradient ( concentration of a solute )
c) solute must NOT be able to cross the membrane
The solute pulls the solvent. The osmotic pressure ( of a solution ) = concentration of the solvent
Water will stop moving when the hydrostatic pressure equals the osmotic pressure of the solution.
The type of particle does not matter, but the # of particles does.
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QUIZ 3 – 6 ½ points
Beaker of water with membrane in middle, .2mol NaCl in H2O on one side(A), .2mol glucose in H2O on the other (B).
When NaCl dissolves in H2O, it makes .2mol Na+ and .2mol Cl- , but glucose doesn’t fall apart. So there is a higher
concentration of water on the right ( B ) and net movement of water will be from B to A..
12 slides shown for identification: 11 correct
Tonicity refers to the strength of a solution.
Hemolysis, Crenation.
Isotonic – osmotic pressure is the same inside and outside of the cell
Hypertonic – the osmotic pressure is higher on the inside of the cell, water will move out of the cell, = Crenation
Hypotonic – the osmotic pressure is higher on the outside of the cell, water will move into the cell = plasmolysis (
hemolysis )
4.Filtration – the forcing of fluid and its dissolved substances through a membrane.
The size of the holes in the membrane determines what passes through
For filtration to occur you have to have a) fluid
b) membrane
c) force
examples: kidneys or capillaries a) blood
b) filtration membrane
c) blood pressure
In the kidneys the GFR ( glomerular filtration rate ) is affected by each component
ACTIVE MOVEMENT
Active movement
can go in either direction
Involves ions, AA’s, sugars
Allows movement of substances against the gradient
It implies
1. Control
2. work – moving matter
It requires energy.
2 goups:
1. Primary or direct- a) carrier grabs substance and pushes it across the membrane
b) uses ATP
In the body we have several pumps, the sodium potassium pump ( ATPase), calcium
magnesium,…
NaK pump: Na is pumped out, K is pumped into the cell at a 3 to 2 ratio. Then there is diffusion
of Na back into the cell, and K back out until they reach a steady state, where the amount of
ions going out is the same as coming in.
2. Secondary or indirect – In this case a needed substance is attached to the Na and the energy of the concentration
gradient drags it in and out.
Secondary movement uses primary movement for energy
a) Symport - same direction
b) Antiport - opposite direction
BULK TRANSPORT – create a hole in the membrane
1. Exocytosis – to get something out
2. Endocytosis – to get something inside
a) Phagocytosis – solids
b) Pinocytosis – liquid
c) Receptor mediated endocytosis – has to have a receptor
LAB
9/9/989
17-19 slides on microscopy/ histology
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MICROSCOPE
Ocular 10x
magnification
scanning 4x
=
40x
Low 10x
=
100x
High dry 40x
=
400x
Oil immersion =
1000x
This is the largest magnification that the eye can still 2 points as separate
The lab microscopes are
Parfocal - you only need to fine adjust when you change to a different objective
Parcentral - what is in the middle stays in the middle when you change objectives
Objective
Manual page 27
Know the generalized function of the organelles
1. organelles - specialized structures, semipermeable, membrane bound ( nucleus, ribos., ER, Golgi...)
2. cytosol - viscous, tansparent, gel like ICF . Cytoplasm inc. cytosol, organelles, inclusons , NOT nuc)
3. plasma membrane
4. nucleus- controls cellular activities, contains genes, surrounded by nuclear envelope
Mitochondria - self reproducing by fission
Rod shaped body with double membrane wall, inner membrane in folds is called cristae, M contain enzymes that oxidize
food to produce ATP (aerobic respiration )
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) – membranous system of tubules that extends throughout the cytoplasm
Rough ER has ribosomes ( = separate organelles) attached to it. Tubules of the rough ER provide storage and transport
of proteins made on the ribosomes
Smooth ER - no protein synthesis
place of lipid synthesis
detoxification of poisons ( lots of smooth ER in liver )
hormone producing cells ( steroids - testicles )
These attached ribosomes produce proteins that are needed in large amounts.
Free ribosomes - produce proteins needed in small amounts
Ribosomes – composed of RNA and protein
the only site for protein assembly
free or attached to ER
Golgi apparatus or complex is a packaging center, found close to nucleus.
It takes care of the raw export of a product, modifies this product by condensing it and chopping off extraneous materials,
packages it into vesicles.
Vescicles lysosomes ( to break / body ) - full of hydrolytic enzymes
Autophagy (self / eating ) - for known function
Autolysis - for unknown function
Peroxisome - smaller than lysosome
contains enzymes related to oxidation (uses H2O2 which kills bacteria )
1. catalase - neutralizes H2O2
2. peroxidase - neutralizes H2O2
Cytoskeleton - internal skeleton made of
1. microtubule - moves things from one side of the cell to another
- made of tubules
2. microfilaments - add to strength and flexibility
3. intermediate filaments help with mobility
Centrosome or centriole - helps org. microtubules in non-dividing cells and forms mitotic spindle during
cell division
Flagella
long, extend from cells, made of microtubules arranged in doublets 9+2 structure
whipping motion
sperm is the only human cell with flagella
Cilia
identical in structure but very small and numerous
in respiratory tract and female reproductive tract
move substances ( mucus ) across cell surface
( paralyzed by cigarette smoke )
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Microvilli -
accordion area of membrane
increased surface area
called brush border
Nucleus - can be seen with light microscope
- one, none, or many in a cell
- required for reproduction
- nuclear envelope
pores
chromatin - made of DNA and histoproteins - chromosomes
1. heterochromatin - appears darker when stained
2. Euchromatin - less dark when stained
Histoproteins help chromatin pack and fold into compact structure
Tonicity is based on the solute, but the water is what moves
Phagocytosis – cell eating – parts of the plasma membrane and cytoplasm expand and flow around the particle to be
engulfed. The phagosome that is formed then fuses with a lysosome and the contents are digested.
Pinocytosis – cell drinking – the cell membrane sinks beneath the material to form a vescile which then pinches off into
the cell exterior. Most common for taking in liquids containing protein or fat.
TISSUES- a group of cells of similar origin, performing a common function
4 kinds of tissues:
1. Epithelium
2. Connective
3. Muscle
4. Nervous
All come from 3 different Primary tissues ( Zygote to morula to blastocyst to innercell mass + trophoblast to archenteron
to 2 different tissues to 3 different primary tissues )
a) Ectoderm – Epithelial and nervous tissue
b) Mesoderm – epithelial, connective, and muscle tissue
c) Endoderm - epithelial
Epithelial tissue – it protects, absorbs, liters, excretes, secretes, receives sensory stimuli. Depend on diffusion of
nutrients from the underlying connective tissue.
2 categories
1. covering and lining – covers surfaces and lines cavities: mucus membranes and serous membranes.
2. Glandular epithelia- composes various endocrine ( hormone producing ) and exocrine glands
sweat gland, lacrimal gland, thyroid gland : the secreting portion of a gland but not the duct ( it is
covering epith.)
Characteristics- 1. high degree of cellularity
2. apical pole and basal pole
3. basement membrane – basal lamina
reticular lamina
4. very highly mitotic/ regenerative
5. avascular
Names based on the shape of the cell:
1. Squamous ( scalelike ) – flat and wide cells
2. Cuboidal ( cubelike )
3. Columnar ( column shaped )
4. Transitional ( mixture ) allows for stretching - changes
Names based on the number of layers:
1.Simple = single layer
2. Stratified = more than 1 layer
3. Pseudostratified – looks stacked, columnar cells on basal membrane
false stratification. It is actually a SIMPLE columnar epithelium, but because the
cells extend varied distances from the basement membrane, it gives the false
appearance of being stratified. It is often ciliated.
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ALWAYS LOO AT OUTER LAYER OF CELLS TO IDENTIFY A TISSUE
SQUAMOUS
Simple Squamous Epithelium -1 layer of flat cells, look like eggs in a frying pan
Good for diffusion , osmosis, and filtration
FOUND IN alveoli, kidney: Bowman’s capsule, glomeruli, lining of heart, blood and
lymphatic vessels, lining of ventral body cavity- intestines, alveoli
LOCATE: nucleus and cell membrane
**************************************************************
Stratified Squamous Epithelium – lots of layers
Function is to protect – these tissues are subject to abrasion
1. non-keratinized – “wet” - FOUND IN lining of esophagus, mouth, vagina
LOCATE: nuceus, basement membrane
2. keratinized ( H2O proof ) – “dry” - FOUND IN epidermis
LOCATE no nucleus in outer cell rows, they are dead because no
nutrients can get to them due to keratinization, basement membrane
ALWAYS LOOK AT OUTER LAYER OF CELLS TO IDENTIFY A TISSUE
**************************************************************
CUBOIDAL
Simple Cuboidal Epithelium- 1 layer of cubeshaped cells
large centrally located, spherical nucleus
FOUND IN kidney tubules, ducts of small glands, ovary surface, capsule of lens of eye,
thyroid
LOCATE: large round nucleus
**************************************************************
Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium – very few rows, generally only 2 or 3 rows
rare tissue – not in many places of the body, function is protection
FOUND IN large ducts of sweat glands, mammary, salivary glands, short portion of male
urethra
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COLUMNAR
Simple Columnar Epithelium- generally have goblet cells that make mucus
Nuclei near basal pole
1. non-ciliated simple columnar– can have brush border of microvilli, secretion and
absorption
FOUND IN lining of digestive tract, gall bladder, ducts of glands ( tear, sweat ..)
2. ciliated simple columnar– moves material like mucus across a surface
FOUND IN lining of small bronchi, uterine tubules, uterus, gallbladder, linings of
hollow spaces: brain and spinal cord
Stratified Columnar Epithelium - few rows, only 4-5 rows generally
rare tissue
FOUND IN small amounts in male urethra, conjunctiva of the eye, anal mucosa, some
ducts of some glands
ALWAYS LOOK AT OUTER LAYER OF CELLS TO IDENTIFY A TISSUE
**************************************************************
Pseudostratified columnar Epithelium
one layer, but it fools you into believing there are more than one
odd shaped cells, nuclei are at all levels of the cell, have goblet cells
all cells touch the basement membrane, but not all reach the outside
non-ciliated – in urethra and large gland ducts
ciliated – bronchi, female reproductive tract
LOCATE: cilia (y/n) nucleus, basement membrane with cells extending
various lenghts from it
FOUND IN trachea, upper respiratory tract and tubes
**************************************************************
Transitional Epithelium -can change – it is in transit, Function is to allow for stretch. Stratification is implied in the
name – don’t have to say it. Rather peculiar stratified squamous epithelium formed of rounded
plump cells with the ability to slide over one another to allow the organ to be stretched. Has
dome shaped outer cells, that have indentions between them. Unstretched the basal cells look
like cuboidal or columnar cells, and the surface cells dome-shaped. Stretched the surface cells
look like squamous epithelium.
Stratified squamous with cuboidal or columnar cells.
FOUND IN ureters, bladder, and parts of urethra
LOCATE: basal cuboidal or columnar cells, dome shaped or squamous outer cells
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LAB
9/14/98
tissues ( continued ) page 58 lab manual
TISSUES
The study of tissues is called histology.
Tissue - 1. cells
2. Extracellular matrix – encloses cells
a) fluid
b) minerals
c) gelatinous
Matrix is made of fibers
1. Collagen fiber - thick fiber made of protein (collagen ), stains pink
generally seen in bundles, parallel or irregular
strong protein – gives tissue strength and support
in waves – has some give, is flexible, but cannot be streched, is non-resiliant
2. Elastin fiber thinner than collagen, also a protein (elastin )
high elasticity – tissue has recoil ( looks like a spiral ), is freely branching
yellow in body, stains very dark, almost black
2. Reticular fiber reticular means “network”
Branched – forms internal skeleton, provides strength and support
Inside organs => stroma
Glycoprotein – has sugars attached to it – collagen with sugars
Whitish in body, stains dark , but not as dark as elastin
Fibroblast – “fiber-former” – produces fibers, hyaluronic acid
Macrophage – large cell specialized in phagocytosis
Mast cells – develop from basophils, produce heparin, histamine, serotonin
Melanocytes – color in hair, eyes, skin, lips.
Plasma cells – produce antibodies for immunity
Matrix also cotains ground substance
1. thick water
2.proteins ( adhesion proteins like fibromectin and lamina , amorphus proteins that have no shape, deramtin sulfate, and
chondroitin sulfate )
3. Water
4. Minerals
CONNECTIVE TISSUES – most abundant
Generally well vascularized
Non-cellular, non living material ( matrix) between cells
LOOSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE
1. Loose or areolar connective tissue–lamina propria of mucous membranes
FOUND surrounding capillaries, between muscle and skin, packages organs, under epithelial
tisssue
( LOCATE: fibroblast nucleus, mast cells, fibers: collagen and elastin )
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2. Adipose connective tissue - cell type where fat is stored: adipocyte
FOUND everywhere
( LOCATE: nuclei, vacuole )
**************************************************************
3. Reticular connective tissue – in liver, spleen, lymphnodes, bone marrow
( LOCATE: reticular fibers, cells)
**************************************************************
DENSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE
1. Dense regular 1connective tissue – tendons ( connect muscle to bone ) and ligaments ( connects bone to bone )
( LOCATE: collagen fibers, nuclei of fibroblast )
**************************************************************
2. Irregular dense connective tissue NO SLIDE AVAILABLE – capsules of organs, joints
**************************************************************
3. Elastic connective tissue NO SLIDE AVAILABLE- walls of aorta , vocal cords
**************************************************************
FLUID CONNECTIVE TISSUE
1. Blood – ( LOCATE: Eurythrocytes are anucleated pink spheres, Leukocytes are cells with purple stained nucleus. )
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SUPPORTING CONNECTIVE TISSUE
CARTILAGE
1. Hyaline cartilage: contains clear, virtually invisible collagen fibers, covers ends of long bones, contains
chondrocytes
FOUND WHERE? costal cartilage of ribs, nose, trachea, larynx
( LOCATE: chondrocytes ( typ. 2 cells connected, looks like a pair of eyes )
**************************************************************
2. Elastic cartilage : this fiber has more elastic fibers that Hyaline cart..
FOUND WHERE? external ear, epiglottis, tip of nose
( LOCATE: chondrocytes, cottony looking delicate fibers )
Fibrocartilage – contains collagen fibers, smaller chondrocytes
FOUND WHERE? Intervertebral discs, meniscus pad of knee joint, pubic symphesis
( LOCATE: chondrocytes, thick collagen fibers )
**************************************************************
BONE
1. Bone – ( LOCATE: osteocytes in lacunae, Haversian canal in the center, cannaliculi ( passageways outward
H.C ))
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MUSCLE TISSUES
Muscle is a powerful contractile tissue, its cells contain organelles and properties distinct from other cells. Its cytoplasm is
called sarcoplasm, the cell membrane sarcolemma.
1. Smooth muscle – can regenerate, without striations = Nonstriated involuntary muscle, under autonomic control
( LOCATE: elongated nuclei ( may be diamond shaped depending on section ) )
FOUND IN urinary bladder, around blood vessels, hollow organs,around the respiratory,
circulatory, digestive and reproductive tracts, iris of the eye, around bronchioles.
**************************************************************
2. Skeletal muscle – attached to bone, cells are long and slender, multinucleated, with striations that look like tire
tracks. Skeletal muscle is called striated, voluntary muscle
( LOCATE: nuclei, striations )
FOUND WHERE? Attached to bone
3.
**************************************************************
Cardiac muscle, cannot regenerate, has striations, branched tissue gives it more forceful contractions, intercalated
discs:
junctions btwn 2 cells where membranes have fused. Cardiac muscle is called striated
involuntary
muscle since pacemaker cells establish rate and rhythm.
( LOCATE: nucleus, intercalated discs , softer striations than skeletal muscle )
FOUND only in heart walls
**************************************************************
NERVOUS TISSUE
1. Neural tissue - It is star shaped, has supporting cells called neuroglia or glial cells. The cell body or some has various
branches extending from it, called dendrites ( receives info ) and 1 axon ( carries info to
other cells )
( LOCATE: cell body, cell process, neuroglia )
FOUND WHERE? brain, spinal cord, nerves
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LECTURE (cont.)
Cells can touch at cell junctions or be widely spaced
Junctions:
1. Tight junctions – no space inbetween the cell membranes
2. Anchoring junction – spot connections between a narrow space
a) desmosomes – fibers in both connections
b) hemidesmosomes – fiber only in 1 direction
5. Gap junctions – in the heart – like little tunnels that conduct information
9/14/98
LAB/ LECTURE
9/16/98 // 9/21/98
Mesenchyme: non-differentiated tissue, has smeary look to it on slide
Mucous connective tissue or Morton’s jelly – embryonic tissue only found in umbilical cord, prevents kinking in utero
WBC’s: Mast cells or basophils: contain Ige
Macsrophages: large
Leukocyte
Neutrophils: weird, sausage like nucleus
Eosiniphils: horseshoe-shaped nucleus
INTEGUMENT
Functions:
1. Protection from
1. Dehydration
2. Chemical damage, abrasion, mechanical damage
3. Thermal damage through 2 layers of vascularization: 1 above and 1 below adipose tissue
4. Bacterial and viral damage: skin is keratinized, tough
5. UV radiation
2. Prevention of water loss- keratin
3. Regulation of heat loss - sweat
4. Excretion of urea, salt, water, toxins
5. Synthesis of vitamin D – ( Vit D is really a hormone, w/o which one develops rickets )
6. Immunity – Langerhans cells
7. Blood reservoir for about 8-10% of all blood is here
Contains cutaneous sense organs: Meissners’ and Paccinian Corpuscles
Structure:
1. EPIDERMIS – stratified squamous keratinized epithelium
deep to superficial layers:
Stratum germinativum or basale – large cells, well defined, highly mitotic, all other layers come from
this layer, it is closest to the blood vessels, therefore most healthy and most active.
Melanocytes- melanin
Stratum spinosum – spiny laye: cells are pointy or spiny, 8-10 rows, weakly mitotic, fairly healthy, very
active cells
Stratum granulosum – grainy layer, 3-5 rows, full of keratohyalin, non-mitotic, cells are starving/ dying
=> nnucleus degenerates, cells are not very healthy
Stratum lucidum – clear layer because protein found here, Eleidin, does not stain, cells are completely
dead, this layer is only present in thick skin: palms and soles. 3-5 rows
Stratum corneum – 25 –50 cell layers, horny layer, Eleidin has been converted to keratin, accounts for
bulk of epidermal thickness, cells are dead and fully keratinized
CELLS - most are the same
1. Keratinocutes – start in the basale and move up – then they produce keratin
2. Melanocytes- active, make melanin, poke holes into walls of other cells and pump them full, black and white skin
has the same number of melanocytes, but their activity level varies greatly. M. cause cancer because
they loose contact inhibition, so they invade other cells and the cancer cells become immortal.
3. Merkel cells – always associated with neurons, transducers associated with touch.
4. Langerhans cells – are WBC’s, intimately involved in immunity: they procees and present antigen’s to other immune
cells.
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Epidermal derivative structures
Associated Structures –
1. Hair – epidermal derivative
Outer to innermost layers:
a) cuticle
b) cortex
c) medulla
2. Arrector pilli muscle ( pilli = hair ) – makes hair stand on end when
1. cold – increases dead air space for more insulation
2. afraid, angry – makes animal look bigger
Sebaceuos gland – coats hair and makes it water proof
Structure of gland is compound acinar ( compound = more than 1, acinar = flask-shaped )
3. Neurons
4. Nails – also made of keratin
Eponychium – cuticle
Lanula – thickened nail matrix ( white half moon)
Hyponychium – white nail fold
5.Dermaglyphs – fingerprints, ridges of palms and feet
Increase the ability to grip
Sebaceous glands in every ridge are what create fingerprints
2. DERMIS
Is true skin , thicker than epidermis
1. Papillary layer – outermost 20%
a) blood vessles
b) Meissner’s corpuscles – touch receptors
c) Free nerve endings – pain
dermal papilla – increase the amount of epidermis that is close to blood supply
keeps epidermis attached
mostly areolar connective tissue
abundant capillary network
2.Reticular layer – deepest layer, contains arteries, veins, sweat and sebacious glands, pressure receptors
Regulates body heat by dilatation or restriction of arteries supplying capillaries. This layer makes leather,
it is tough and strong. Made of dense irregular connective tissue, collagen.
Variable thickness. Thin – eyelid, glans penis – non-existent
Thickest: dorsally and medially
Thinnest: ventrally and down the center
Lymphatic vessels
a) Paccinian corpuscles- pressure receptor
b) Sweat glands – sudoiferous ( coiled – tubular )
c) Blood vessles
d) Nerves
3.HYPODERMIS or SUBCUTANEOUS LAYER is not really part of the integument
Adipose tissue – can be very thick – 3-4 feet in wales
Layer of blood vessels above and below it help with thermoregulation
Skin color
depends on the amount of
1. Melanin – yellow to black
( UV light connects 2 Thiamines together and makes a thiamine dimer. Most of the time this mistake is aoutomatially
correted, but to protect itself against this, the skin tans to prevent UV from entering. However, some UV rays are
necessary for Vit D synthesis. It is a tight balance between Vit D deficiency(=rickets) and skin cancer. Eskimos are
dark skinned, yet live in areas where light skin would be more prevalent for survival: they get their Vit D from cod liver
oil
2. Carotene – yellow to orange
3. Hemoglobin - red to pink
Jaundice – yellowed tissue due to liver disease
Bronzing – adrenal cortex is hypoactive – Addison’s disease
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GLANDS
Sebaceous glands –
everywhere except palms and soles
1. antibacterial due to low pH
2. secrete sebum – oily lubricant made of fat, cholesterol, protein, and salt
Blackheads = dirt + dried sebum
Acne = active infection of gland
3. repels water ( preening in birds is spreading of sebum)
Compound acinarholocrine – whole cell is secreted, duct can get clogged causes acne
apocrine – point – only top of cell pinches off and secretes ( milk glands )
merocrine – no part of the cell is lost - exocytosis
Sudoiferous or Sweat gland – openings are skin pores, removes heat, salt, urea, digestive products, wastes.
Eccrine ( merocrine ) gland – secrets clear perspiration
present and active at birth
Appocrine – milky protein based perspiration or pheromones
Located in hairy areas of body: axilla and genital areas, beard
Become active at puberty
Cermunous gland – modified sweat gland
Makes cerumen- waxy substance to protect and keep ear canal dry.
***************************************************************************************************************************************
***************************************************************************************************************************************
Possible test questions for test 1
1. Define homeostasis. Identify components of a typical feedback loop and describe the role of each
Homeostasis is the condition in which the internal environment of the body remains w/i physiological limits.
The optimum environment is within a certain range of parameters that are maintained by oscillation about a mean.
Homeostasis is regulated by the nervous and the endocrine systems
homeo=same, stasis = same ===> dynamic equilibrium
Stressors or stimuli move us away from optimal environment. They challenge the system into a response that brings it
back to homeostasis. Stress is any external or internal stimulus that creates an imbalance in the internal environment.
Stimulus is any stress that changes controlled condition
Most systems are based on Negative Feedback: the response to a challenge brings the parameter back toward normal.
3 components: 1. control center- determines controlled condition
2. sensor or receptor - monitors changes and reports them to the control center
3. effector- receives information from control center and produces a response
Positive feedback: the response to a challenge moves the parameter further away from normal until a dramatic event
takes place ( e.g.: L&D, massive blood loss )
2. Tuition example , see quiz 1
3. Consider the following situation………
The type of particle does not matter, but the # of particles does.
A. Hypertonic, because in relationship to the ICF, the ECF now has more particles
B.
C. Osmosis will toward the ECF, causing crenation of the cell
4. Name each of the 4 principal types of human body tissues, briefly describe the function of each.
Epithelial tissue- Epithelial tissue combines with nervous tissue to make up special sense organs for smell, hearing,
vision, and touch
1.covering and lining
Forms the superficial layer of the skin and some internal organs
Forms inner lining of blood vessels, ducts, cavities, and the interiors of the digestive, urinary and
reproductive systems
2. glandular
Constitutes the secreting portions of glands (sweat, thyroid)
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Connective tissue – most widely distributed in the body.
Binds together
Supports
strengthens other body tissues
insulates internal organs
compartmentalizes structures such as skeletal muscles
blood is major transport system in the body
adipose tissue is major site of stored energy reserves
Muscle tissue- consists of fibers constructed to generate force for contraction
Provides motion
Maintains posture
Generates heat
Skeletal – voluntary
Smooth- involuntary
Cardiac- involuntary
Nervous tissue- consists of only 2 types of cells
1. neurons – convert stimuli into nerve impulses and conduct them on to other neurons, muscle
tissue, tissue or glands
2. neuroglia – do not generate or conduct nerve impulses
5. How does the arrangement of collagen fibers affect the nature of the support and strength a
connective tissue provides? Give examples to support your answer.
The more organized the structure of the fibers in the matrix of the connective tissue, the higher the degree of its
strength.
Areolar connective tissue: loose fibers going every which way – tissue is found between muscle and skin, holds the
two layers together.
Fibrocartilage: with collagen fibers arranged in loose bundles, this tissue is located in areas where support and
fusion of bones are needed, like in the trachea, and the bronchi, where a little more give is needed with easy recoil.
Dense connective tissue: collagen fibers are alligned parallel to each other, aligned in bundles. Found in tendons
and ligaments, it provides strong attachment between various structures.
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Frontal bone (1)
Supraorbital margins
Supraorbital notches
Glabella
Coronal suture
Parietal bone (2)
Parietal foramen
Temporal bone (2)
Squamosal suture
Mastoid process
Squamous portion
Zygomatic process
External auditory meatus
Mandibular fossa
Styloid process
Stylomatoid foramen
Jugular foramen
Carotid canal
Petrous portion of temporal bone
Internal auditory meatus
Occipital bone (1)
Lambdoidal suture
External occipital protuberance
Superior nuchal line
Inferior nuchal line
Foramen magnum
Occipital condyles
Internal occipital protuberance
Internal occipital crest
Fossa for cerebrum
Fossa for cerebellum
External occipital crest
Hypoglossal canal
Sphenoid bone (1)
Body (gr. wings + outer portion)
Greater wings
Lesser wings
Sella tursica
Tuberculum sellae
Hyppophyseal fossa
Dorsum sellae
Posterior clinoid process
Anterior clinoid processes
Otpic foramen
Superior orbital fissure
Inferior orbital fissure
Foramen lacerum
Foramen rotundum
Foramen ovale
Foramen spinosum
Pterygoid processes
Lateral taragoid plate
Medial taragoid plate
Ethmoid bone (1)
Crista galli
Cribiform plate
Perpendicaular plate
Lateral masses
Ethmoid sinus
Superior nasal concha
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Middle nasal concha
Olefactory foramina
Mandible (1)
Body
Mental foramen
Angle
Ramus
Mandibular foramen
Mandibular condyle
Mandibular notch
Coronoid process
Alveolar processes or margins
Nasal bone (2)
Lacrimal bone (2)
Vomer (1)
Inferior nasal conchae (2)
Zygomatic bone (2)
Zygomatic foramen
Palatine bone (1)
Horizontal plate of palantine bone
Greater palatine foramen
Lesser palatine foramen
Maxillary bone (1)
Maxillary sinus
Incisive foramen
Palatine process or plate
Alveolar processes
Anterior nasal spine
Infraorbital foramen
Malleus (1)
Incus (1)
Stapes (1)
Hyoid bone (1)
Transverse body
Greater cornu
Lesser cornu
Vertebrae (26)
Body
Vertebral arch
Vertebral foramen
Pedicle
Lamina
Intervertebral foramen
Transverse processes
Superior articular facets
Inferior articular facets
Spinous process
Superior demifacets
Inferior demifacets
Cervical vertebrae (7)
Atlas
Axis
Odontoid process
Thoracic vertebrae (12)
Lumbar vertebrae (5)
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Sacrum (1)
Sacral canal
Sacral promontory
Median sacral crest
Lateral sacral crest
Ala
Body or base
Transverse lines
Superior articular surface
Anterior or ventral foramina
Posterior or dorsal foramina
Coccyx (1)
Sternum (1)
Manubrium
Gladiolus or body
Xiphoid process
Ribs (24)
Head
Neck
Shaft
Tubercle
Costal cartilage (!)
Clavicle (2)
Sternal end
Acromial end
Coinoid tubercle
Scapula (2)
Body
Superior border
Spine
Acromial process
Coracoid process
Glenoid cavity or fossa
Superior angle
Inferior angle
Axillary or lateral border
Vertebral or medial border
Supraspinous fossa( post )
Infraspinous fossa (post )
Subscapular fossa
Scapular notch
Humerus (2)
Head
Anatomical neck
Greater tubercle
Lesser tubercle
Intertubercular groove
Surgical neck
Deltoid tuberosity
Medial epicondyle
Lateral epicondyle
Capitulum
Trochlea
Olecranon fossa
Coronoid fossa
Radial fossa
Ulna (2)
Olecranon process
Coronoid process
Semilunar notch
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Styloid process
Trochlear notch
Radius (2)
Radial head
Radial neck
Radial tuberosity
Styloid process
Ulnar notch
Carpals (8)
Scaphoid
Lunar
Triquetrium
Pisiform
Trapezium
Trapezoid
Capitulum
Hamate
Metacarpals (5)
Phalanges of hand (14)
Proximal (5)
Medial (4)
Distal (5)
Coxal bone (2)
Ilium
Iliac crest
Anterior superior iliac spine
Anterior inferior iliac spine
Posterior superior iliac spine
Posterior inferior iliac spine
Greater sciatic notch
Iliac fossa
Ischium
Ischial tuberosity
Ischial spine
Ischial ramus
Superior ramus of ischium
Inferior ramus of ischium
Pubis
Superior ramus of pubis
Inferior ramus of pubis
Pubic symphysis
Pubic tubercle
Obturator foramen
Pubic crest
Pelvis
Pelvic girdle
Pelvic brim
True pelvis
False pelvis
Pubic arch
Acetabulum
Femur (2)
Head
Neck
Fovia capitis
Lesser trochanter
Lesser trochanter
Linea aspera
Trochanteric crest ( post )
Intertrochanteric line (ant )
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Femur (continued)
Medial epiconcyle
Lateral epicondyle
Popliteal surface
Gluteal tubercle ( lat )
Medial condyle
Lateral condyle
Adductor tubercle ( med)
Patellar surface
Interconylar notch
Patella (2)
Tibia (2)
Tibial tuberosity
Lateral condyle
Medial condyle
Intercondylar eminence
Popliteal line
Medial malleolus
Anterior crest
Fibular notch
Fibula (2)
Head
Lateral malleolus
Tarsals (7)
Calcaneous
Talus
Navicular
Cuboid
Medial cuneiform
Intermediate cuneiform
Lateral cuneiform
Metatarsals (5)
Phalanges of foot (14)
Proximal
Medial
Distal
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LECTURE
9/16/98
Chapter 7/8
SKELETON
AXIAL SKELETON
Skull
Vertebral column
Rib cage
Appendicular skeleton
Girdles 1. Pectoral
2. pelvic
arms and hands
legs and feet
Skull – 22 bones
Cranial 8 – enclosure for brain and vault, hollow area
1. Frontal 1
2. Parietal 2
3. Occipital 1
4. Temporal 2
5. Sphenoid 1
6. Ethmoid 1 looks like chinese letter
Facial bones – 14
1. Mandible 1 heaviest, strongest of skull
2. Maxilla 2
3. Zygomatic 2
4. Lacrima’ 2
5. Nasal 2
6. Inferior nasal conchae 2
7. Vomer 1
8. Palatine 2
Joints in the skull are called suture lines, they are inter-digitated. Sutural bones are also called Wormian bones, a person
may have none, 1 or multiple Wormian bones.
Fontanels
1. anterior
2. posterior
3. anteriolateral
4. posteriolateral
Eye orbit
Sinuses – hollow, air-filled, spaces in the bone
Mostly para-nasal:
1. Frontal sinus
2. Ethmoidal sinus
3 .Sphenoidal sinus
4. Maxillary sinus
Function:
a. lighten the skull
b. speech resonation – sound resonates here
Vertebral column
1. Cervical region
2. Thoracic
3. Lumbar
4. Sacral
curvatures
inward
outward
inward
outward
developmental importance
crawling
present at birth
walking
present at birth
Exaggerated lumbar curvature – Lordosis – ( pregnancy )
Exaggerated thoracic curvature - Kyphosis – ( hump )
Scoliosis – anterior/ posterior plane curvature
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Vertebrae
Cervical 7 - C1-C7
These are the only vertebrae with a tranverse foramen in each transverse process
C1 = atlas
C2= axis - has Dens or Odontoid process on it, which goes through the atlas.
Thoracic 12 – T1-T12
Hard to differentiate, but rib facets can tell which is which
Facet: 1 rib attaches
Demifacet: 1 rib attaches between 2 vertebrae on a demifacet, uses ½ facet on 2 vertebrae.
Spinous process is at 45 degree downward angle
Lumbar 5 L1-L5
Larger than the rest of the vertebrae.
Processes are not flat, but curved out.
Curved superior and inferior articulating processes.
Sacral vertebrae S1-S5 are fused into Sacrum 1 in the adult. In an infant they are 5 separate vertebrae.
Coccyx 1 Co1-Co4
These are vestigal, again fused into one vertebrae in the adult.
Vertebrae in the adult
7
12
5
5
4
total
33
vs
child
7
12
5
1
1
26
cervical
thoracic
lumbar
sacral
coccyx
vertebrae
Ribcage
1. sternum
a. manubrium – note jugular and clavicular notch
b. body or gladiolus – note cosal notches
c. xiphoid process – made of hyaline cartilage in kids
diaphragm attaches here
2. ribs – 12 pairs
a. vertebrosternal ribs 1-7 – attach to sternum
b. vertebrochondral 8-10 – attach via cartilage to sternum/other ribs
c. vertebral (floating ) 11, 12 – not attached to anything
Dull edge of rib is the suerior side, the inferior is sharp, inbetween is the costal groove for arteries and nerves.
The Hyoid bone is the only disarticulated bone in the body
Consists of greater and lesser cornu with transverse body in the middle.
APPENDICULAR SKELETON ( multiply number of bones by 2 for L and R )
Pectoral girdle – consists of
1. Clavicles 1 – brace – these are the last bones to stop growing
2. Scapula 1 – angles
Upper arm 2 – Humerus 1
Lower arm 2
1. Radius 1 – lateral, on thumb side
2. Ulna 1 – medial ( on umbilical side ) – note trochlear or semilunar notch
Hands
Carpals 8- (mnemonic: from proximal to distal row , thumb to pinky ( lateral to medial ):
Steve Left The Party To Take Cathy Home )
1. Scaphoid
2. Lunate
3. Triquetrum
4. Pisiform
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5. Trapezium
6. Trapezoid
7. Capitate
8. Hamate
Metacarpals 5 – medial to lateral 1-5
Phalanges 14 – Proximal phalanges 5
Middle phalanges 4
Distal phalanges 5
Pelvic girdle – consists of left and right
1. Coxal bones 1 or Os coxa
The pelvis consists of both coxal bones AND the sacrum
Coxal bone in children
adults consists of
Ilium
all three fused into one
Ischium
Pubis
The Greater or False pelvis lies superior to the pelvic brim.
The Lesser or True Pelvis lies inferior to the pelvic brim.
The superior opening of the True pelvis is called the pelvic inlet, the inferior opening is called the pelvic outlet.
Upper legs
Femur 1 – longest bone in the body – ¼ of person’s height
Fovia capitis artery and ligament attach here
If hip is disarticulated – head of femur may die
Lower leg
1. Tibia 1 – medial - bigger, weight bearing
2. Fibula 1 - for support only
Foot
Tarsals 7 –
1. Calcaneus
2. Talus
3. Navicular
4. Cuboid
5. Lateral cuneiform
6. Intermediate cuneiform
7. Medial cuneiform
Metatarsals 5
Phalanges 14
1. Proximal 5
2. medial 4
3. distal 5
Patella 1 – sesamoid bone-
bone shaped like sesame seed, located inside tendon or ligament
Floating bone between femur and tibia
LECTURE
9/28/98
Chapter 9
Articulation – point of contact between
bone and bone
bone and cartilage
bone and teeth
Joints can be
Tight – decreased flexibility with increased stability ( hip – stable, rare dislocation )
Loose- increased flexibility with decreased stability ( shoulder more flexible, more commonly dislocated )
Arthrology- study of joint
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Classification of joints
This classification is based on the presence or absence of a space between the articulating bones that is called a
synovial (joint) cavity and the type of connective tissue that binds the bones together.
Structural classifications:
1. Fibrous joint –
no synovial cavity
bones are held together by by fibrous (collagenous) connective tissue
skull has fibrous membranes made of collagen
2. Cartilagenous joint -no synovial cavity
bones are held together by cartilage
catilage juses bones together
3. Synovial joint –
there is a synovial cavity and the bones forming the joint are united by a surrounding articular
capsule and frequently by accessory ligaments.
bones are not directly touching.
Functional classifications:
1. Synarthrosis – ( joint together ) welded together, immovable joints
a. Synostosis( bone together ) bony joint
suture from childhood is replaced with synostosis during adulthood
b. Synchondrosis – hyaline cartilage fuses joints together
Ribs, long bones ( epiphyseal plate = temporary joint, will be replaced with synostosis or
symphesis )
b. Gomphosis – ( to bolt together ) ( think of gums )
Fibrous joint that connects teeth in their sockets
2. Amphiarthrosis – slightly movable joints
a. Syndesmosis – (band or ligament)
Interosseous membrane or sheath
More connective tissue than suture
Tib-fib, radius-ulna
b. symphesis - (growing together ) fibrocartilage pad fuses bones together
pubic sypmhysis, intervertebral discs
3. Diarthrosis – freely movable joints
all synovial joints
characteristics a. joint cavity
b. articular cartilage made of hyaline cartilage (osteoarthr. = degeneration of hyal.cart)
c. joint capsule – 2 layers
1. Outer fibrous layer – dense irregular tissue - tough
2. inner synovial membrane – simple squamous epi., produces
synovial fluid, mostly ICF with hyaluronic acid
d. ligaments – dense regular tissue, like ropes, binds bones together
1. Extracapsular ligament
2. Intracapsular ligament
e. bursae – bursa = sac of synovial fluid, reduces friction, acts like ball bearing
f. meniscus – fibrocartilage pad – cartilage not attached, absorbs shock , in knee
Picture 9.7 page 227
Cartilage is avascular, so healing is very slow.
TYPES of joints
1. Gliding joint - or plane joint or arthrodial joint – side to side and back and forth gliding only
Heads and tubercles of ribs, clavicle
2. Hinge joint- or ginglymus (=hinge) joint a convex surface fits into concave surface – swings in one plane
Elbow, knee, ankle, interphalangeal joints
3. Pivot joint- or trochloid (=wheel) joint, rotational joint that rotates or spins
Atlas and axis, radius and radial notch
4. Ellipsoidal joint- or condyloid (=knuckle) joint, an oval shaped condyle of one bone fits into elliptical cavity of another
allows movement in 2 planes (flexion/extension, ab-/adduction) side to side and back and forth
between radius and carpals
5.Saddle joint- or sellaris (=saddle) joint
Side to side and back and forth movement
Only one in body: between metacarpal of thumb and trapezius of carpals
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6. Ball and socket joint- or spheroid (=shaped like a sphere) joint
greatest range of motion of any joint allow ROM in 3 planes (flexion/extension, ab-/adduction, rotation)
hip and shoulder.
Movements:
1. angular movements
a. flexion – decreases angle of joint
b. extension – increases angle of joint
c. abduction – moves appendage away from large mass of body
d. adduction – moves appendage towards large mass of body
2. circular movements
a. rotation – bone spins on its own axis ( head “no”)
b. circumduction - cone shaped – moves distal appendage around a proximal one
3. special movements
a. elevation/depression – open mouth – d.; shrug shoulder –e.
b. protraction/ retraction – jut chin out
c. supanation/pronation – hand palm up, palm down
d. inversion/eversion- sole of foot in, sole of foot out ( only one)
e. dorsiflexion/plantar flexion – foot up, foot down ( only one )
f. hyperextension- extend greater than 180 degree angle
Joint diseases
Osteoarthritis – degenerative dz, wear and tear of hyaline cartilage, causes development of bone spurs
Rheumatoid arthritis – body begins to attacking and tearing down of joints, causes malformation
Gouty arthritis- uric acid deposits in joints ( breakdown product of DNA and RNA ), commonly in great toe, dz of the rich
Lime disease – characteristic bulls eye rash at first, leads to joint problems
Ankelosing spondelytis- typically young men between 20-30, sacroiliac joint is the first one to be affected. Joints of
Vertebrae fuse from bottom upward. Most common cause of kyphosis in men.
Chapter 6
Bone formation
Ossification
Types of bones
1. Shape
a. long bones – longer than they are wide
b. short bones – cube shaped – carpals, cuneiforms
c. flat bones – plate like – scapula, skull
d. irregular bones –
e. special or other bones – sesamoid bones – patella
form inside tendons – overuse of tendon can cause sesame like bones to be deposited
inside the tendon
f. Wormian - sutural bone
Structure of long bones
Hollow but not empty medullary canal in center of long bones is filled with yellow bone marrow. This is surrounded by a
collar that has tunnels for blood vessels in their Haversian systems, in the Haversian canal. Adult compact bone has a
concentric ring structure, spongy bone appears like a irregular lattice work
Pp146 in book
Spongy bone does not contain true osteons, it has trabeculae: lamellae arranged in an irregular latticework of thin plates
of bone. Spongy bone is the only place of red bone marrow storage and therefore hemopoiesis in the adult.
Metaphysis –
Periosteum-
Endosteum -
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where epiphysis and diaphysis meet.
Cartilage in growing bone – bone in adult
membrane around bone
1. Outer fibrous layer – dense irregular tissue fibrous layer, white, Sharpey’s fibers
2. Osteogenic layer – can build bone – bone can be laid around itself to increase bone diameter: this
happens when the bone is stressed (exercise): bone density increases
lines the inside of bones: 1 layer
1. Osteogenic layer – same as aboce
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Cells in bone
1. Osteoprogenitor – undifferentiated – next step after mesenchyme
2. Osteoblast – (=bone producer) forms bone tissue from osteoprogenitor
3. Osteocytes – maintains bone tissue
4. Osteoclast – functions In resorbtion, the destruction of bone matrix, this is a type of WBC. Dissolves bone by
secreting organic acid that disolves Ca++’s, then the proteins.
Short bones
Thin layer of compact bone around spongy bone
Irregular bone
Again, compact bone surrounds spongy bone
Flat bones
2 thin layers of compact bone encase spongy bone
Sesamoid
Spongy inside layer of compact bone
Bone is very dynamic, it constantly changes or remodels. Bone remodeling
1. meets the physical needs of the body
2. allows access to minerals stored in bone
a. Blood calcium levels are tightly regulated, between 9-11mg/100ml. When Calcium levels in the blood rise, the
thyroid gland secretes calcitonin, which stimulates the bone to take up calcium ( store it ), therefore increasing
osteoblast activity to use calcium from blood and thereby decrease blood calcium levels.
b. When blood calcium levels fall, the parathyroid gland ( more powerful than thryoid gland!) releases PTH, which
stimulates osteoclasts, and bone is broken down to release Ca++ into the blood stream.
Calcium, Magnesium, Vitamin A, Vitamin D(=Calcitriol), Vitamin C are all needed to build bone.
Ossification
1. Intermembraneous – 1. flat, irregular fibrous membrane in the general shape of the bone is laid down.
2. Mesenchyme cells migrate to the membrane for seeding.
3. Mesenchyme develops into osteoblasts, thenthe plates of dense bones
2. Endochondral ossification- ong bones , template of hyaline cartilage
Primary ossification center
Hormones
1. growth hormone – hi levels will cause a person to be taller, produced by anterior pituitary
2. Giantism – Hypersecretion of growth homone
3. Dwarfism – hyposecretion of growth hormone
Sex hormones
Testosterone and estrogen released at puberty cause growth spurt. They speed up cartilage growth somewhat, but even
more so ossification of bone. Castration of an animal will slow growth down, but it will grow for a longer time than the
non-castrated animal, and therefore become bigger.
Fractures
Reducing a fracture is setting a fracture
Types
1. open
2. comminuted
3. green stick
4. impacted
5. Pott’s
6. Colle’s
Diseases of the bone
Osteosarcome
Osteomalacia
Rickets
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POSSIBLE QUESTIONS FOR TEST 2
1. Pt X HAS A TUMOR OF THE PARATHYROID GLANDS THAT CAUSES HYPERSECRETION FROM THESE
GLANDS. PREDICT THE EFFECT ON THE SKELETAL SYSTEM AND ON THE SECRETION OF CALCITONIN.
Pituitary hormone levels would be very high resulting in increased osteoclast activity, an increased intestinal
absorbtion rate, and decreased calcium excretion at the kidneys. This would increase blood calcium levels greatly,
and would result in increased calcitonin release from the thyroid gland in order to inhibit osteoclast activity and
increase excretion of calcium.
2. HOW MIGHT PROLONGED SUNLIGHT DEPRIVATION AFFECT THE SKELETAL SYSTEM? Vitamin D levels
would be low, resulting in soft, flexible bones. A person might begin to develop a bowlegged appearance from the
weight of the body resting on thigh and leg.
3. GREATLY ENLARGED DELTOID TUBEROSITIES IN HUMERUS FOUND. WHAT MIGHT ARCHAEOLOGISTS
INFER FROM THIS FINDING ABOUT THE LIFE OF THESE PEOPLE AND WHY? That they used their arms a lot
and therefore had developed large deltoid muscles.
4. DESCRIBE THE FUNCTION OF THE ORBIT AND GIVE THE NAMES AND LOCATIONS OF THE BONES OF THE
ORBIT. The orbital complex surrounds and protects the eye
7 bones:
frontal bone
roof
maxiallary
most of floor
orbital rim
medial wall
lacrimal bone
orbital rim
medial rim
lateral mass of ethmoid orbital rim
medial rim
sphenoid bone
posterior wall
palatine bone
zygomatic bone
lateral wall
5. DESCRIBE THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE MALE AND THE FEMALE PELVIS
Male pelvis
female pelvis
Narrow
broad
Heavy
light
Rough
smooth
Heart shaped
oval to round
Deep
relatively shallow
Pubic sumph angle <=90
>=100 degrees
Larger pelvic outlet
Wider inlet
6. NAME AND DEFINE THE TYPES OF ANGULAR MOVEMENTS POSSIBLE AT SYNOVIAL JOINTS
7. Joints to know: shoulder, knee, hip. Know the bones, ligaments, tendons, classification and categorization, and
movements possible
Shoulder
Knee
Hip
Bones
clavicle- Glenoid cavity
patella
os coxa
Head of humerus
femur
femur
Tibia
Functional classification diarthrosis
diarthrosis
diarthrosis
Structural classification synovial
synovial
synovial
Triaxial
monoaxial
triaxial
Type of joint
ball & socket
hinge joint
ball & socket
Ligaments
Glenohumeral
patellar ligament
ileofemoral ligament
Coracohumeral
popliteal ligaments
pobofemoral ligament
Coracoacromial
anterior cruciate lig.
Ischeofemoral ligament
Coracoclavicular
posterior cruciate lig.
transverse acetabular ligament
Acromioclavicular
tibial collateral lig.
Ligament of the femoral head
Fibular colateral lig.
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Movements possible
flexion/extension
adduction/abduction
circumduction
rotation
elevation/depression
protract/retract
flexion/extension
Very limited rotation
flexion/extension
adduction/abduction
circumduction
rotation
Bones
AXIAL SKELETON
Skull
8 cranial
14 facial
6 auditory ossicles
1 hyoid bone
Thoracic cage
1 sternum
24 ribs
Vertebral column
24 vertebrae
1 sacrum ( 5 in child )
1 coccyx ( 4 in child )
APPENDICULAR SKELETON
4 pectoral girdle
60 upper appendages
2 pelvic girdle ( 6 in child )
60 lower appendages
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TOTAL: 80 bones in an adult, 87 in child
TOTAL: 126 bones in an adult
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LAB
10/05/98
Test 2
NERVOUS SYSTEM
Nervous tissue
Neurons – functional / structural unit of the nervous system
Cell body – found in collection: called nuclei in CNS
Neurofibrils are cytoskeletal elements
Nissl body – rough ER
Dendrites – there is generally one or more
Axon – there is only one, conducts electrical current away from the cell body
Neuroglia
1. astrocytes
2. oligodendrites – myelinate cell axons in brain
3. microglia – give structure to tissue
4. ependymal cells – form fluids
Neuron process
Axon and dendrite= white matter in CNS and PNS
Axon – myelin sheath around it is jelly roll type sheath formed by Schwann Cells
Page 176
Neurolemma –
Node of Ranvier – area of axon not covered by myelin
Synaptic end bulbs with neurotransmitters inside are found in the axon
Synaptic cleft between synaptic end bulb and muscle gland for eg. The receptor binds to the neurotransmitter.
Once formed, neurons do not divide or regenerate
LECTURE
10/06/98
All nervous tissue comes from ectoderm
A. NEUROGLIA
1. Astrocytes – wrap around capillaries and spinal cord
Form the blood /brain barrier that is difficult for a lot of things to cross
These are support cells, that provide nutrition for the neurons
2. Microglia – a type of WBC, a monocyte that becomes a WBC in residence, which then differentiates into microglia.
These are phagocytic, protect from toxins etc.
3. Ependymal cells – epithelial cells: ciliated simple columnar epi. Cells, that line hollow spaces in brain and spinal cord.
Cilia circulate CSF
Myelin producing cells – myelin = phospholipid ( non-polar, lipid like, white ), insulates cells electrically.
Oligodendrocytes – ( tree with few branches )
only in the brain and the spinal cord ( inside CNS ), wrap around neurons and thereby insulate electrically
free areas are called neurofibral nodes (Nodes of Ranvier)
Schwann cells – also wrap themselves around neurons but outside of the CNS , but more like taffy or
electrical tape
Also leaves neurofibral areas
Satellite cells – are found outside of the CNS, they surround the cell body of neurons
NEURONS
These are the functional units of the nervous system. The are specialized, long cells, with processes. Their membranes
have a potential or electrical charge. Neurons send electrical impulses. They are excitable and send a message.
Types:
Multipolar neurons
Cell body (cyton ) with axon and dendrites, Nissl body ( ER) wear and tear granules ( lipofucion bodies, undigestable ),
axon hillock ( trigger zone – most sensitive part, all impulses originate here ), split axon results in axon collaterals. Myelin
sheath insulates axon, synaptic telodendrions ( dendron=tree) with end bulbs are full of chemicals: neurotransmitters.
Axoplasmic flow.
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Multipolar neurons are mostly found in the CNS. They are all motor neurons, they drive something to do something.
Bipolar neurons
All dendrites come together to make one dendrite. Only the axon is myelinated. These are found in the PNS, are sensory
neurons, which pick up stimuli and send them to the brain/CNS
Special senses: eyes, nasal, tongue only.
Unipolar neurons or pseudopolar neurons
Dendrites connect directly to the axon, sensory neurons found in PNS. ( touch, itch, tickle, pain, pressure, vibration )
Nervous system – 2 branches
CNS
PNS
Brain
nerves, nerve endings, ganglia
Spinal cord
I
I
Somatic NS
Visceral NS
(conscious, voluntary)
(unconscious, involuntary)
/
I
I
\
Afferent
Efferent
Afferent
Visceral Efferent
branch
branch
branch
branch or Autonomic NS
(sensory )
(motor)
I
I
muscle, conscious
I
unconscious
unipolar, bipolar
multipolar
unipolar
multipolar
/
\
Sympathetic
Parasympathetic
White matter is myelinated, that is where it gets its white color from.
Gray matter is non-myelinated, so it appears gray in color.
The spinal cord has white matter on the outside and gray matter on the inside, the brain has gray matter on the outside
and white matter on the inside.
Neurophysiology
Neurolemma
1. Phospholipid bilayer
2. Proteins
a. integral
b. peripheral
3. Channels
a. leakage
b. voltage gated: Na+
K+
ClNa is high in the ICF, K is high in the ECF, the NaK pump pumps them in/out of the cell at a 3:2 ratio ( 3 Na in for every 2
K in. This makes the outside more positive in charge compared to the inside, and a membrane potential develops. This
membrane potential is measured in volts and ranges between –40mV to –90mV, with an average of –70mV (or .07V).
This measurement of potential is the potential inside relative to the outside.
The resting potential (or steady state ) of a cell is –70mV. There are 2 contributing factors:1. The NaK pump
2. leaking ions
Resting potential (RP)= -70mV
Threshold potential = - 55mV
Action potential or impulse = a sequence of rapidly occurring events that decrease and eventually reverse the membrane
potential (depolarization) and then restore it to the resting state (repolarization)
Voltage is created by the difference in ions.
Nernst Equation: Voltage(EMF) = -.058 log [Na+]inside/[Na+]outside + [K+] inside/ [K+] outside
A stimulus is anything that causes a change in those concentrations, anything that affects the pump or leakage. A
stimulus changes the membrane permeability to any of these ions:
1. Na+
excitable
2. K+
inhibitory
3. Clinhibitory
Any stimulus that moves the resting potential toward 0 is an excitatory stimulus (Na+).
Any stimulus that moves the resting potential further away from 0 is an inhibitory stimulus (K+, Cl-). Inhibitory stimulus
makes it less likely that an action potential will occur ( e.g. hyperpolarization, see below )
Threshold potential = ~ -55mV, at this point all voltage gates for Na+ open, at +30mV these gates close and the K+
channels open, so at the end all the K is ouside the cell and all the Na is inside the cell, and the NaK pump gets it back
to resting potential. The refractory period is the time during which the cell is incensitive to stimuli.
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Absolute refractory period = no action potential (AP) can be initiated even with a very strong stimulus.
Relative refractory period = an AP can be illicited, but only with a suprathreshold stimulus (per book)
( Toilet flushing analogy )
Action potentials are
1. All or none
2. All are the same size
3. Independent of stimulus strength as long as threshold is reached.
4. Subthreshold stimulus – no AP is initiated, membrane returns to RP
5. All occur on an axon (not on the dendrites or the cell bodies )
6. All begin at the axon hillock
7. Very local event – occurs on tiny portion of the membrane
8. Propagate along the entire surface of the membrane ( open channels  Na rushes in, then diffusion occurs between
the inside of that cell and the next cell, which causes that cell to reach threshold and that initiates an AP). If you can
cause an interuption at this point with a local anesthetic, this propagation does not occur and the pain stimulus is not
transmitted to the brain and you do not feel that you have pain.
There is no loss of information from one end of the membrane to the other, the stimulus does not “peter out”. Electrical
wire, however, is resistant to flow (measured in Ohms) and information is lost down the electrical wire.
Depolarization – resting potential moves toward 0
Repolarization – potential moves away from 0
Hyperpolarization – potential moves past resting potential
Orthodronic conduction: the AP goes in the right/normal direction
Antidronic conduction – the AP goes in the wrong direction
The refractory period keeps the AP from going backwards ( in the wrong direction ), i.e. the membrane cannot depolarize.
Summation = stimuli added together
1. can be done by repeating the stimulus over and over temporal summation ( 1 structure over time – 1 finger
poking you over and over )
2. spatial summation – different stimuli ( more than 1 stimulus at the same time – 2 fingers poking you)
Dendrites and body
1. no voltage gated channels
2. no AP’s
3. Receptor potential a. graded
b. depends on strength of stimulus
c. decreases in intensity with distance from stimulus site
d. create AP’s when they get to hillock
rods and cones in the eye have light gated channels. Meissner’s corpuscles
mechanically gated channels open
graded potential  no threshold, no AP
loss of information depending on how far it has to go.
Synaptic telodendrion
Synapse - Axon comes in close with another structure
1. axomuscular
2. axoglandular
3. axodendritic
4. axocytonic
5. axoaxonal
There is a presynaptic and postsynaptic structure, a synapse, the synaptic cleft, chemically gated channels in the cleft,
voltage gated channels right on the side, a neurotransmitter (NT), and there are enzymes in the cleft that destroy the NT.
Events in synaptic transmission
1. AP on axon
2. Opens Ca++ channels – this is a co-factor
3. Ca++ triggers movement of vesicles filled with NT towards the cleft
4. Vescicle fuses to membrane and by exocytosis the NT is released into the cleft.
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5. NT diffuses across the cleft, then combines with the receptors on the postsynaptic structure
6. Channels on the postsynaptic structure open
Chemically gated channels
1. Na+
2. K+
3. ClGraded potential
Excitatory postsynaptic potential – Na+
Inhibitory postsynaptic potential – K+, CLCircuits allow impulses to get bigger
Diverging
Reverberating
Converging
Parallel after discharge circuit
Neurotransmitters
1. Acetylcholine – found in somatic efferent (SE) between neurons and muscles and visceral efferent (VE)
AcHe - Acetylcholinesterase degrades it.
2. Norepinephrine – VE
MAO – monoamine oxidase degrades it and
COMT – catechole-o-methyl-esterase
Types of Action Potential
1. continuous conduction – in non-myelinated axons the entire membrane is depolarized
2. saltatory conduction – occurs along myelinated fibers the impulse jumps from neurofibral node to neurofibral node.
Saltatory conduction is not only faster but also more energy efficient.
Impulses travel from 5m/s to 120m/s. This propagation speed is not related to stimulus strength, but rather by the fiber
diameter (larger=faster), presence or absence of myelin sheath (present=faster), and temperature of fiber
(warmer=faster)
LECTURE
10/7/98
Fertilization  zygote  morula  blastocyst 1. Inner cell mass embryo
2.trophoblast  membranes  1. Ectoderm  epithelial,nervous tissue
2. Mesoderm  epi.,muscle,connective
3. endoderm  epithelial cells
Nervous tissue comes from ectoderm.
Neural plate  neural groove  neural tube with neural crest cells ( these are not part of the tube ) head develops
from one end ( the archenteron (gut) releases a chemical that determines which end of the neural tube develops into the
head)  Primary brain vescicles
Primary brain vescicles
Secondary brain vescicles
Adult brain
1. Prosencephalon
1. Telencephalon
Cerebrum
2. Diencephalon
Thalamus
Hypothalamus
Epithalamus
2. Mesencephalon
3. Mesencephalon
Midbrain
3. Rhombencephalon
4. Metencephalon
Cerebellum
Pons
5. Myelencephalon
Medulla oblongata
Central canal of spinal cord (SC)
Ventricles 1, 2, 3, 4
1 and 2 are the lateral ( they are not called the 1st and 2nd) – these are the largest, separated by the septum pallucidum
connected by the interventricular foramen ( F.of Monro)
3rd and 4th ventricle are connected by the cerebral aqueduct, the 4th is connected to the central canal
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???flexures- separate cerebellum from cerebrum laterally and transverse???
Spinal cord cross section:
Ventral portion - round cell connects to skeletal muscle, develops processes = bands of axons growing towards
muscles ( multipolar cells – all motor neurons ) and we end up with a spinal cord that is not round any more
Dorsal portion – crest cells devolp into unipolar cells, grow toward muscles and into the spinal cord – these are all
sensory neurons
Medial portion – forms connections between sensory and motor neuron and are therefore called interneurons or
association neurons
Reflex Arc – is the simplest connection / form of neural integration ( thinking )  reflex
Components:
Receptor
Afferent neuron
Central region
Efferent neuron
Effector
Example of frog with head cut off: still hops around, swims, but does not perceive pain – there is no connection to the
brain and ergo nothing to interpret the signals coming in.
White matter = myelinated axons, made of
( think of telephone lines )
1. ascending tracts – sensory – send info to the brain
Ascending tracts are named from where they come to where they are going to. They are all sensory.
Most start with “spino” and then some part of the brain:
Spinothalamic – ascending tract from spinal cord to thalamus
Exception: Dorsal columns:
a. Fasciculus cunneatis – lateral
b. Fasciculus gracilis - medial
2. descending tracts – motor – send info to body/ muscles
Descending tracts are all motor neurons, and are named the same way Ascending tracts are ( from – to )
Cortico-spinal – descending tract from cortex to spinal cord
Rubrospinal tract – from red area in brain to spinal cord
A tract is a group of axons bundles/ travelling together inside the CNS
Nerves are bundles of axons travelling together outside the CNS in the PNS
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Gray matter = cell body, dendrites, synapses
( think of telephone switchboard )
Nerves
Spinal nerves – exit from the spinal column
Nerves are efferent and afferent fibers – all afferent / sencory nerves come into the dorsal root
all efferent / motor nerves come from the ventral root
Ganglion – nerve cell bodies outside the CNS
Nucleus – nerve cell bodies inside the CNS
Dorsal root ganglion –
Ventral root ganglion –
Epineurium – dense irr. CT covering the nerves
Perineurium – dense irr. CT covering the fascicles
Endoneurium – dense irr. CT covering the axons
( imagine large cable = nerve, inside are fascicles ( wires?) and inside these fascicles are axons )
see page 376 Tortora
Familiarize with tracts: names and modalities
Cross section spinal cord
Central gray matter
Dorsal horn
Ventral horn
Lateral horn
Dorsal root
Ventral root ganglion
Dorsal root ganglion
Spinal cord is held in place by denticulate ligaments
Dorsal ramus – branching of spinal nerves shortly after going through intervertebral foramen goes behind spinal cord
Ventral ramus – goes in front of spinal cord – bigger because there are more structures ventrally
The spinal cord is about 16” long, goes to about L1 or L2. After that the spinal nerves hang down in Cauda Equina.
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Spinal nerves are named for the region at which they exit.
1. Cervical nerves - C1-C8 – exit above vertebra they are named for, C8 between C7 and T1
2. Thoracic nerves – intercostal nerves
3. Lumbar
4. Sacral
5. Coccygeal
2. –5. Exit below the vertebra they are named for.
Plexus
1. Cervical plexus – C1 – C5
Nerves jumbles up like highway interchanges
a. Phrenic nerve – leads to diaphragm
( C3-C5 can save you life )
2. Brachial plexus C4 – T2 – shoulder and arm
nerves to trunks to cords to nerves
a. Axillary nerve
b. Median nerve
c. Musculocutaneous nerve
d. Radial nerve
e. Ulnar nerve
3. Lumbar plexus L1-L5 – to abdominal wall, genital area, upper parts of legs
a. femoral nerve
b. obturator nerve
4. Sacral plexus – L4-S4 (S5)
a. sciatic nerve – largest nerve in the body – pinky finger size
1. tibial
2. peroneal
Dermatomes – the area of skin that provides sensory input to one pair of spinal nerves or to cranial nerve 5
Myotomes – all muscles innervated by the motor neurons in a single spinal segment. They roughly underly the
corresponding dermatome.
( see chapters 13 Tortora pp361-386)
BRAIN
Myeloencephalon  medulla oblongata – hind most part of the brain and also most basic
Gray matter in the medulla = cell bodies, synapses, dendrites, integration, nuclei
1. two respiratory nuclei
a. inspiratory center – establishes rate and depth of respirations.
b. Expiratory center – establishes respiratory patterns through reverberating circuit
2. Vasomotor nuclei
3. Cardiac nuclei
Olives – have to do with equilibrium, very fine motor movement
Cranial nerves 9,10,11,12 have their origin in the medulla
9- glossopharyngeal
10 Vagus
11 Accessory
12 Hypoglossal
White matter of medulla – axon, tracts, wires
a. pyramidal tracts – descending corticospinal
decussation – crossing over – most of it happens in the medulla, but not all. 
right side of the brain controls the left side of the body, and the left side of the brain controls the
right side of the body
b. extrapyramidal – lots of sensory nerves
Brainstem = pons + medulla + midbrain
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Metencephalon = pons and cerebellum
Pons, gray matter, nuclei
1. two respiratoy nuclei
a. apneustic center b. pneumotaxic center
these modify the breathing patterns
Cranial nerves 5, 6, and 7 originate here
5 trigeminal
6 abducens
7 facial
between medulla and pons the 8th cranial nerve come off
8 vestibulochochlear
Pons white matter – tracts
1. longitudinal tracts – up and down.
2. transverse tracts – from middle cerebellum to pons
a. middle cerebellar peduncle (= foot)
Cerebellum = little brain
Autonomous- mainly involved in muscle coordination
Fairly large – 2 hemispheres, L and R side
Anterior and posterior
Flocculonodular lobes – Vermis ( = worm)
Folia ( = leaves of cerebellum
Gray matter surrounds white matter in cerebellum
Arbor vitae = tree of life = white matter
Denticulate nuclei = gray matter
3 tracts in cerebellum:
1. Superior cerebellar peduncle – comes from midbrain
2. Middle cerebellar peduncle – comes from pons
3. Inferior ceerebellar peduncle – comes from medulla
These tracts are mainly for
1. Coordination
2. balance
3. posture
4. initiation  action – it relates actual movements with intended movements
Mesencephalon = midbrain
Small – about 1” long, some gray matter
Red nucleus is involved in coordinating gross movements ( standing , shifting weight from 1 foot to the other )
Cranial nerves 3 and 4
3 – Oculomotor
4 – Trochlear
white matter – tracts
cerebral peduncle
4 “bumps” – Corpora quadrigemina ( 4 bodies )
2 superior calliculi – visual reflexes
2 inferior calliculi – auditory reflexes
Diencephalon
1. Thalamus = hidden room –
makes up the 3rd ventricle’s walls
is in the middle of things, all neurons go through here.
A sensory relay center for everything EXCEPT olefaction
IPSP’s and EPSP’s allow for decisions
Editing center – filters info out and decides what is important
LSD inhibits the editing – everything gets into the consciousness
2. Hypothalamus
It is the floor of the 3rd ventricle
This is an endocrine organ that controls the pituitary
The posterior pituitary is the primary endocrine organ of the body
The hypothalamus makes ADH, oxitocin, releasing and inhibiting hormones to control the pituitary
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Gray matter of the hypothalamus has lots of nuclei – they are named for their location
The function of the nuclei is to control: sleep waking cycles
Appetite
Water balance
Agression
Fear
Sexual feelings and patterns
HR, BP, R
Maxillary bodies relay olefactory information
QUIZ 8 points:
WHY IS OLEFACTION NOT EDITED OUT? Bring answer to class on Monday
3. Epithalamus – roof of the 3rd ventricle
1.Choroid plexus – jumble of capillaries – leak CSF
2.Pineal gland =pine cone – makes melatonin – a hormone involved in sleep wake cycle – it is only
secreted in the dark, shine light in someone’s eyes, and release is inhibited. Melatonin is also antireproductive , it sets the yearly rhythm for animals, so that their offspring is born at a time it can survive.
Familiarize with tracts: names and modalities
A tract is a group of axons bundles/ travelling together in side the CNS
White matter = myelinated axons, made of
ascending tracts – sensory – send info to the brain
Ascending tracts are named from where they come to where they are going to. They are all sensory.
Most start with “spino” and then some part of the brain:
Spinothalamic – ascending tract from spinal cord to thalamus
Exception: Dorsal columns:
a. Fasciculus cunneatis – lateral
b. Fasciculus gracilis - medial
3. descending tracts – motor – send info to body/ muscles
Descending tracts are all motor neurons, and are named the same way Ascending tracts are ( from – to )
Cortico-spinal – descending tract from cortex to spinal cord
Rubrospinal tract – from red area in brain to spinal cord
3 CEREBELLAR TRACTS
4. Superior cerebellar peduncle – comes from midbrain
5. Middle cerebellar peduncle – comes from pons
6. Inferior ceerebellar peduncle – comes from medulla
These tracts are mainly for
1. Coordination
2. balance
3. posture
4. initiation  action – it relates actual movements with intended movements
PONS TRACTS
3. longitudinal tracts – up and down.
4. transverse tracts – from middle cerebellum to pons
b. middle cerebellar peduncle (= foot)
MEDULLARY TRACTS
c. pyramidal tracts – descending corticospinal
decussation – crossing over – most of it happens in the medulla, but not all. 
right side of the brain controls the left side of the body, and the left side of the brain controls the
right side of the body
d. extrapyramidal – lots of sensory nerves
POSSIBLE QUESTIONS FOR TEST 3
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1. DRAW AND LABEL THE CROSS-SECTIONAL ANATOMY OF THE SPINAL CORD
2. IDENTIFY THE COMPONENTS OF A SPINAL REFLEX ARC, AND DESCRIBE THE FUNCTION OF EACH.
Sensory receptor – muscle spindle, sensitive to chemical or physical changes in body or environment
Afferent neuron - stimulation leads to action potentials down this axon, sends info to spinal cord via dorsal root
Central region – information processing takes place here through neurotransmitter release at the interneuron.
Efferent neuron – motor axons carry AP’s to the periphery to give orders to muscle ( the same one as above )
Effector – muscle responds to orders
3. LIST AND BRIEFLY DESCRIBE THE FUNCTIONS OF THE HYPOTHALAMUS.
This is an endocrine organ that controls the pituitary (primary endocrine organ of the body)
The hypothalamus makes ADH, oxitocin, releasing and inhibiting hormones to control the pituitary
Gray matter of the hypothalamus has lots of nuclei – they are named for their location
The function of the nuclei is to control: sleep waking cycles
Appetite
Water balance
Agression
Fear
Sexual feelings and patterns
HR, BP, R
4. DESCRIBE THE FORMATION AND ROUTE OF CIRCULATION OF CSF.
Secreted by ependymal cells in the choroid plexuses in all 4 of the ventricles. From the lateral ventricles, CSF flows
through the interventricular foramina into the 3rd ventricle, where more CSF is added. It then continues on through the
cerebral aqueduct into the 4th ventricle, where even more CSF is added
CSF enters the subarachnoid space through 2 lateral and 1 median aperture in the roof of the 4 th. It then circulates in
the central canal, and in the subarachnoid space around the surface of the brain and spinal cord and cauda equina.
In the superior saggital sinus CSF is absorbed into the venous circulation through arachnoid villi.
5. COMPARE ACETYLCHOLINE AND NOREPINEPHRINE WITH REGARDS TO THEIR ANS SOURCES AND THEIR
EFFECTS ON POSTSYNAPTIC CELLS.
Acetylcholine is released by cholinergic neurons, is quickly inactivated by Ache
Cholinergic neurons include 1. all sympathetic and parasympathetic pre- and postganglionic neruons
2. a few sympathetic postganglionic neurons
Norepinehrine is released by adrenergic neurons, lingers a while before it is inactivated by MAO or COMT.
Adrenergic neurons are most postganglionic axons
Test 3 Thursday through Monday, chapters 12-14.
Final: Thursday 22nd through Saturday , chapters 10 and 17
Skip chapter 15
Telencephalon
1. cerebral hemispheres – largest part of the brain
a. cortex
b. cerebral nuclei
c. white matter
left and right hemisphere.
Naturally separated by the longitudinal fissure. If separated each hemisphere can operate autonomously
Surface is very convoluted to increase the surface area
Gyri – bumps
Sulci – grooves
Lobes:
1. Frontal lobes – anterior: central sulcus
2. Parietal lobes – parietoccipital sulcus
3. Occipital lobes
4. temporal lobes
5. Insula – inside lateral sulcus folds make up this area, ocated deep of the temporal and parietal lobes
Gray matter – not myelinated, no axons, all cell bodies, synapses
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Area of neural integration
1. Cortex – 1/16th of an inch thick, it makes up 40% of the weight
The more cortex, the more integration ( frog’s brain is virtually smooth)
The consciousness, reasoning ability, logic, self awareness, personality are located here.
All of the following areas are fairly localized.
Know the basics of this information and what lobe the center is located on.
a. Motor area
skeletal movement- conscious, deliberate
1. Primary motor area – very localized, on precentral gyrus
Homunculus – area of gyrus is proportional to the degree of movement
Left hemisphere controls the right side of the body and vv. due to decussation
2. Broca’s area – speech center, motor, ability to talk
Unique in that it is only on one side: the left in 90% of people
Left sided stroke speech difficulty plus right sided weakness
Right sided stroke left sided weakness
b. Sensory areas
1. Primary somatosensory area – located on postcentral gyrus
Homunculus – area of gyrus is proportional to the degree of sensory perception
2. Primary visual area – occipital
If you get hit in the back of the head, you see lights and colors
3. Primary auditory area
4. Primary olefactory area
c. Association area – this is the area where integration with the sensory areas takes place. Here the AP’s of
the sensory areas are interpreted, compared it with experiences and a mental image is produced. ( Example
of something being put in your hand while you have your eyes closed: even if it is something unknown to
you, you can make a guess from previous experiences )
These areas are always located right next to the corresponding motor or sensory areas.
1. Visual association area
2. Auditory association area – Wernicke’s area – again, only on one side, again, in 90% of people it is on
the left. It is always on the same side as Broca’s area. Her, language is interpreted: images are turned
into words. ( a word is only a sound that we have assigned to something. Images are connected with
sounds. Wernicke’s area helps you comprehend written and spoken language.
3. Somatosensory association area
Premotor cortex – association area for facilitation: it stores patterns of muscular movements ( muscular memory )
Example of typing or playing the piano.
Gnostic area – parietal lobe – complex memory storage – Association area pulls from here. If this area is damaged, you
loose the ability to figure things out, to think, deduce. ( Example of eating apple pie every day , and every day its like
you’re eating apple pie for the first time )
Short term memory is electrical, long term memory is chemical.
Tortora page 412
Cerebral cortex
The sides are similar, but not identical. There is a lot of lateralization
Left side: “cold”, analytical, mathematical, logical
Right side: “warm”, creative, musical, color, patterns, 3dimensional and spatial, more emotional
Males: more left brained
Females: co-brained
Homosexuals: have a corpus callosum more like females (see commissures below)
1. Commissures – connect the hemispheres, allows them to talk
a. corpus callosum – most important, a huge tract full of axons
b. anterior commissure
c. intermediate mass of the thalamus
2. Association fibers form connections from one gyrus to another w/I one hemisphere, allows them to talk
3. Projection fibers – connect the cerebrum with the lower parts of the brain
a. corona radiator – cerebrum to thalamus
b. internal capsule – thalamus to everything else
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Callosectomy – cutting of corpus callosum for Grand Mal seizure control. ( Whisper in person’s left ear, and they can’t
say what they just heard  no connection )
Gray matter
Cerebral nuclei ( formerly: Basal ganglia – but this is a wrong term, because ganglia are outside the CNS )
Islands of gray matter w/i white matter
Gross muscular movements
Subconsious, posture
Corpus striatum
1. Lenticular nucleus
a. Globus pallidus
b. Putamen
2. Caudate nucleus
3. Amygdaloid nucleus
These are all responsible for posture, tone, automatic movements
Limbic system – network, subconscius, memory storage and emotional behavior. Memory associated with survival: pain,
pleasure, sexual feelings, docility, affection.
Includes the fornix, mammilary bodies, olefactory bulbs, amygdaloid body…
Cranial nerves
1 Olefactory
2 Optic
Spinal nerves are all mixed afferent and efferent nerves
Cranial nerves are all motor, all sensory, or mixed.
NAME
ORIGIN
Olefactory
cerebrum
Optic
cerebrum
Oculomotor
midbrain
Trochlear
midbrain
Trigeminal
pons
a. opthalmic
b. maxillary
c. mandibular
Abducens
pons
Facial
pons
a. opthalmic
b. zygomatic
c. buccal
d. mandibular
e. cervical
Vestibulocochlear btwn.
a. vestibular
pons &
b. cochlear
medulla
Glossopharyngeal medulla
Vagus (longest CN) medulla
Accessory
medulla
Hypoglossal medulla
ROUTE
olefactory foramen
optic foramen/sphenoid
supraorbital fissure
supraorbital fissure
TYPE
sensory
sensory
sensory
motor
mixed
ORGAN
nasal epithelium
retina of eye
eye muscles
eye muscles
fascial muscles, skin
EFFECT
carries sense of smell
carries sight
eye ball movement
eye ball movement
chewing, touch
motor
mixed
eye muscle
facial muscles
eye ball movement
skin movement &
sensations of face
internal auditory meatus sensory
inner ear
hearing and equilibrium
jugular foramen
jugular foramen
jugular foramen
hypoglossal canals
tongue
ht, lung, gut
muscles of neck
tongue
supraorbital fissure
foramen rotundum
foramen ovale
supraorbital fissure
stylomastoid foramen
mixed
mixed
motor
motor
carries taste,moves tongue
mostly autonomic fctn
swallowing, head movemnt
speech & swallowing
Oculomotor, Facial , Glossopharyngeal, and Vagus nerve also have parasympathetic fibers/components.
Meninges
1. Dura mater – d I C.T., thick, white, strong, protective, collagen covering
2 layers
a. periosteal layer – same as internal periosteum
b. meningeal layer
venous sinuses between the periosteal and meningeal layer collects blood.
2. Arachnoid – spider web – subarachnoid space – avascular, filled with CSF ( surrounds brain and spinal cord
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3. Pia mater – vascular, tightly adhered, gives brain its shiny appearance
All 3 layers fuse together into anchoring spots
1. Falx ceribrii
2. Tentorium cerebelli – lateral sulcus
3. Falx cerebelli – tranvers fissure
Circulation of CSF
1. made of blood in choroid plexuses
2. fills ventricles
3. subarachnoid space
4. arachnoid villus
5. venous sinuses – rejoins blood
Read about strokes, TIA’s, cancers, Alzheimer’s, CP, Parkinsonism
Know the basics about these.
LECTURE
10-19-98
NEUROTRANSMITTERS
The chemical found in the synaptic telodendrion that gets released as result of AP’s.
Any neuron that releases Acetylcholine (AcH) is called a cholinergic neuron
Any receptor that accepts AcH is a cholinergic receptor.
Example of key/lock: Master key: submaster, individual key.
AcH is the master key, can activate ANY cholinergic receptor
Types of cholinergic receptors
1. Nicotinic receptors – poison from plant – will activate some cholinergic receptors
a. N1receptors
b. N2 receptors – curare – poison that blocks N2 receptors
2. Muscarinic receptors – mushroom poison – activated by muscarine
a. M1 – excitatory
b. M2 – inhibitory
Norepinephrine (NE) / Epinephrine (Epi) ( formerly Adrenalin )
NE is released from neurons, Epi is released directly in to the blood stream from the adrenal medulla
Adrenergic neurons release NE and Epi
Adrenergic receptors are activated by NE and Epi
Types of adrenergic receptors:
1. Alphas
a. alpha 1 – excitatory – all over body except in the heart
b. alpha 2 – inhibitory – only in the gut
2. Beta’s
a. beta 1 – excitatory – only in the heart
b. beta 2 – inhibitory - all over body except in the heart
Aorta has a lot of alpha1 receptors and some beta 2’s. Alpha 1 increases HR, BP, Beta 2 will slow HR and drop BP. If
you inject a lot of Epi, all the alpha 1 receptors will be taken up and then beta 2’s will be activated and slow the heart and
drop the BP.
You can manipulate the system by
1. increasing or decreasing the release rate of the NT
2. blocking the receptors
3. increasing or decreasing the synthesis of the NT
4. Enzymes: increasing or decreasing the AcHe, MAO, or COMT
Review: Somatic efferent NS
1 neuron system, 1 synapse, 1 NT: AcH, 1 receptor: N2
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page 495, pic 17.3
AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM – Visceral efferent NS
1. Sympathetic NS
2 neuron system
synapse in ganglia
1st neuron myelinated, 2nd is not ( C-type)
short pre-ganglionic, long post-ganglionic neuron
pre/post synapse: AcH, N1
post/effector: NE, alpha1 or alpha 2
2. Parasympathetic NS
2 neuron system
synapse in ganglia
1st neuron myelinated, 2nd is not ( C-type)
long pre-ganglionic, short post-ganglionic neuron
pre/post synapse: AcH, N1
post/effector: AcH, Muscarinic 1 and 2
1 exception for the 2 neuron system in the ANS: CNS to adrenal medulla is only a pre-ganglionic neuron, but the adrenal
medulla is a modified post-ganglionic neuron it releases Epi and NE when stimulated but directly into the bloodstream.
Sympathetic NS = Fight Fright Flight NS = Thoracolumbar NS
Physiologic emergency system – mass discharge system
Liver is very active during a response to release all the glucagon needed for conversion of glucose
Sweatglands – active
Blood vessels – dilated to muscles, lung, and heart – but shut down to cerebrum  reflexive action –“crime of passion”
Page 491
Anatomy of ANS is tight: between T1 and L2 – confined in lateral horns
intermediolateral nucleus is where the Sympathetic NS begins. Its all motor neurons
Sympathetic or paravertebral chain ganglia
White ramus communicans – preganglionic neurons
Gray ramus communicans contains all the post-ganglionic neurons
Sympathetic chain – neurons are ascending and descending here.
A few ganglia are not in the chain but in collateral ganglia
1. Celiac collateral ganglia
2. Superior mesenteric collateral ganglia
3. Inferior mesenteric collateral ganglia
4. Hypogastric collateral ganglia
Parasymathetic NS = Rest Repose Repast NS = Sleep Relaxing Eating NS
Not a mass discharge system, individually controlled
Synapse occurs in the wall of the effector organ and in discrete ganglia
1. Celiary discrete ganglia
2. Otic discrete ganglia
3. Submandibular discrete ganglia
4. Pterygopalatine discrete ganglia
Cranial nerves 3, 7, 9, and 10 also have parasympathetic component
Sacral nerves 2,3, and 4
You always have dual innervation in the sympathetic NS except in the sweat glands, blood vessels, and tear ducts
The 2 branches of the ANS have
1. Opposing effects
2. Cooperative effects
a. male reproductive system –
erection – parasympathetic NS
ejaculation – sympathetic NS
3. Identical effects: urinary bladder
MUSCLE
Skeletal muscle
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Multinucleated
Myofibrils made of sarcomeres of actin and myosin
Striations are overlapping of these actin and myosin filaments
Myofibrils surround the endomysium to form muscle cells
Muscle cells surrounded by perimysium to form facsicles or fasciculus
Fascicles surrounded by epineurium to form muscle
Epimysium continues and attaches muscle to bone as a tendon or skeletal aponeurosis.
Attachments
Insertion – moveable attachment – see the action here
Origin – immovable attachment
Action - movement elevation/ depression
Flexion/ extension
Abduction/ adduction/ pronate/ supinate
Shortening of sarcomeres upon contraction
LECTURE
10/21/98
Chapter 10/11
Skeletal muscle
Naming: 1. Location
2. Relative size
3. Position
4. Number or origins
5. Actions
Muscle and bone act like a lever system
1. First class lever EFR- fulcrum is between force/effort and resistance ( Force – FULCRUM – Resistance )
2. Second class lever FRE– resistance is between fulcrum and effort ( FULCRUM – Resistance – Effort )
3. Third class lever FER– effort is between fulcrum and resistance ( FULRUM – Effort – Resistance )
Attachments – see above
Muscle Physiology
1. Epimysium – DICT turns into tendon at the end of a muscle = DRCT
2. Perimysium surrounds bundles of muscle fibers ( fascicles )
3. Endomysium – surrounds individual muscle fibers/cells – extends from one end to the other
Tendons turn into DICT again when they meet periosteum. A tendon is more likely to break a bone than to pull away from
the bone itself.
Muscle cells are each electrically isolated by DICT, their non-conductive covering. They are therefore discrete, and do
not communicate with each other. They are multinucleated.
Synstitium – large cells made from smaller ones
Striated muscle – voluntary
Cells are muscle fibers, contain myofibrils, rods or fibers made of protein
They are parallel to each other, this makes the cells look striped.
Sarco = muscle, mere = cell
Picture 10.4
I bands = isotropic, light bands
A band = anisotropic dark bands
M lines = central portion, helps stabilize thick filaments
H zone = heterotropic zone, sometimes wide – when relaxed; narrow when contracted
Zone of overlap of thin and thick filaments. In this zone there are 6 thin filaments around every thick one, and 3
thick filaments around every thin one. There is a 1:6 ratio of thick to thin filaments.
Z line = marks the boundary between adjacent sarcomeres, consists of proteins called connectins
Filaments
Thick – found in A band only
Thin – found in I and A bands
( Elastic ) – are connectors
I band – thin only
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A band – thin and thick
H band – thick only
Thin - protein – you never find just one, you’ll find a string –
1. F-actin – looks like a helix made of G-actin = it looks globular – 2 same sized globs
Has binding site for myosin, that under resting conditions are covered up by troponin-tropomyosin
complex
2. Troponin – also globular – 2 small and large glob
sits on the actin, regularly spaced along the helix
Has calcium binding sites, which in resting conditions are empty, because the [Ca++] are low.
3. Tropomyosin – long, skinny, filamentous, covers the binding sites and prevent actin myosin interaction
hooked on troponin
has no binding sites
Troponin-myosin sheath covers up myosin binding sites on actin, therefore the myosin binding sites are unavailable
for binding
Thick – protein
1. myosin –
light – meromyosin
dark – meromyosin
head is heavy –
2 binding sites
1. actin binding site
2. ATP binding site
Thick filaments have a head, a neck which is also called hinge region, and a tail.
The head is spring loaded, meaning it has potential energy. The filaments are laid with all the heads together toward 1
side, all the tails together, then there is another bunch of heads that are laid out towards the other side. The tail zone in
the middle is also called the bare zone. The heads are connected to the Z lines by the protein Titin (=connection)
ER in muscle cells is called sarcoplasmic reticulum. It is a hollow network of membranes called cysternae, that is laid
out around the cells.
The walls contain the Ca++ pump, a very powerful pump that pumps Ca++ away from the myofibril and stores it in the
cysternae.
Sarcolemma is similar to the membrane on a neuron, it is excitable. The resting potential of this membrane is –90mV.
Once an AP is generated it is conducted along the surface of the whole membrane. Transverse tubules (T-tubules)
conduct the AP into the cell.
A triad contains 2 terminal cisternae and 1 tubule.
Sliding filament mechanism
When skeletal muscle contracts
1. H bands and I bands get smaller
2. Zones of overlap get larger
3. Z lines move closer together
4. Width of A bands remains constant throughout contraction
5. The contraction ends when the I bands are pushed all the way into the A bands
Skeletal muscle is voluntary muscle, it must be told to contract. The decision is made in the CNS.
1. contraction starts in the CNS
2. message is sent via AP on a somatic efferent neuron and saltatory conduction
3. AcH is released and then bound at the motor end plate
4. An end plate potential ( EPSP) is created – graded
5. If the stimulus is big enoughan AP is generated
6. The AP spreads over the sarcolemma down the T-tubules, pass by the sarcoplasmic reticulum
7. Voltage gated channels in SR – opens gates
8. Ca++ enters the myofibril (myosin, actin, troponin, tropomyosin )
9. Troponin has Ca++ binding site, Ca++ binds to it and makes the troponin twist which then tugs on the tropomyosin
and pulls off the myosin binding sites on actin ( it uncovers the myosin sites on actin )
10. Myosin-actin cross-bridges are formed
11. The myosin head is cocked, when actin and myosin bind it triggers the myosin head  it rotates in a power stroke &
12. Pulls the actin with it – toward the center of the sarcomere  the sarcomere shortens 
13. The muscle contracts and thin filaments slide over thick ones. This is called the sliding filament mechanism.
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14. The myosin head splits ATP  the energy is used to break the bond between myosin and actin to recock the head.
15. This process repeats until the CNS ends the AP’s and the
16. Voltage gated channels close, the Ca++ gets reabsorbed
17. The Ca++ leaves the troponin and it regains its shape
18. T/T sheath covers up the binding sites and the contraction ends.
Using muscles requires ATP to RELAX! The energy is used to break the bond between actin and myosin and thereby
end the contraction.
Latent period – electrical events
Contraction – mechanical event
Lots of Ca++, lots of ATP normal contraction/relaxation cycles
Lots of Ca++, little ATP Fatigue, the muscle can contract, but after a while it will take it longer to relax
No Ca++, lots of ATP no contraction
Lots of Ca++, no ATP  only contraction, relaxation not possible
Wave summation – has to do with Ca++
During an AP more Ca++ coming in from a new stimulus causes more binding sites to be uncovered, which in turn
causes a stronger contraction, this can happen time and again until maximum contraction  this means all binding sites
are used up.
Treppe effect –
If AP’s come so fast that the binding sites are always open it causes tetanus – complete contraction
Muscle fibers are identified by
1. color
2. diameter
3. ATP production
Anaerobic glycolosis – fast!
Glucose is broken down into 2 pyruvates and 2 ATP’s
Anaerobic respiration – slow – Krebs cycle + ETS ( electron transport system )
Glucose yields 34-36 additional ATP’s
Muscle fibers
1. fast whites – glycolytics – arms, chest
thick fibers, fast to contract, use energy from glycolosis, fatigue prone, tire easily
2. slow red – oxidatives – postural muscles
thin red ( red from myoglobin – stores O2 = very red ), fatigue resistant, can make lots of ATP
3. Intermediate reds – oxidative glycolytics
pink, has some myoglobin, but not much, fast, prefers oxidative glycolosis, but it will switch if O2 is low.
Most muscle fibers fall into this group
Proportional one to the other
Cardiac muscle
1. SR is much less developed
2. T-tubules line up with the Z discs
3. Intercalated disc allow for communication with each other, they are linked electrically
4. No real resting potential
5. Automatic – go through AP’s all by themselves contract all by themselves
6. Many mitochondria
7. Very oxidative
Smooth muscle – every hollow organ except heart
1. visceral – single unit – more fibers per neuron
2. multiunit – less fibers per unit
3. no sarcomeres, no stripes
4. no Troponin but Calmodulin instead – acts the same way Troponin does
5. ratio of 1:16 thick to thin fibers
6. intermediate filaments
7. dense bodies
8. very, very fatigue resistant – can stay contracted for hours
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QUESTIONS FOR FINAL
1. EXPLAIN HOW/WHY RIGOR MORTIS DEVELOPS
After death nutrients and O2 are not circulating any longer and w/I a few hours the skeletal muscle fibers have run
out of ATP. Without circulation the sarcolemma is also unable to pump Ca++ out and Ca++ is actually diffusing in
from the SR, triggering a sustained contraction. The muscles become locked in this contracted state since there is no
ATP available to detach the cross bridges from the binding sites. This state lasts until the lysosomal enzymes
released by autolysis break down the microfilaments about 15-25 hours later.
2. OUTLINE THE STEPS OF SKELETAL MUSCLE CONTRACTION
1. Contraction starts in the CNS sends message via AP
2. AcH is released and then bound at the motor end plate
3. A graded end plate potential ( EPSP) is created - if big enough an AP is generated
4. AP spreads over the sarcolemma down the T-tubules, pass by the sarcoplasmic reticulumvoltage gated channels
open
5. Ca++ enters the myofibril
6. Troponin binds Ca++  makes the troponin twist  tugs on the tropomyosin  uncovers the myosin sites on actin
7. Myosin-actin cross-bridges are formed
8. This triggers the cocked myosin head  it rotates in a power stroke  pulls the actin with it
9. Sarcomere shortens  thin filaments slide over thick ones muscle contracts
The myosin head splits ATP  the energy is used to break the bond between myosin and actin to recock the head.
This process repeats until the CNS ends the AP’s and the voltage gated channels close, the Ca++ gets reabsorbed
The Ca++ leaves the troponin and it regains its shapeT/T sheath covers up the binding sites and the contraction ends.
3. COMPARE AND CONTRAST THE STRUCTURAL FEATURES OF THE TWO TYPES OF STRIATED MUSCLE
TISSUE
Striated voluntary muscle or Skeletal muscle – attached to bone, cells are long and slender, multinucleated, with
striations that look like tire tracks. It is made of fast white and intermediate red muscle fibers that are laid out parallel to
each other, which give it the appearance of being striped
Striated involuntary muscle or Cardiac muscle, cannot regenerate, has striations, branched tissue gives it more
forceful contractions, intercalated discs: junctions between 2 cells where membranes have fused allow for electrical
communication between cells. Has pacemaker cells that establish rate and rhythm. Very oxidative, it has many
mitochondria, no real resting potential, a much less developed SR, automatically goes through AP’s and contractions, Ttubules line up with the Z discs.
4. DESCRIBE THE ROLE OF MUSCLE TISSUE IN THERMAL HOMEOSTASIS
A by-product of skeletal muscle contraction is heat, about 85% of all body heat is generated this way. Much of this
heat is released by the muscle to maintain normal body temperature. Shivering are involuntary contractions by
skeletal muscle to increase thermogenesis to counteract low external temperatures, or to fight off bacterium.
Stimulus disrupts homeostatic body temp. receptors alert thermoreceptors in control center hypothalamus oders
are given to increase skeletal muscle tone for “by-product” heat body returns to homeostasis when temp back to
normal due to response of skeletal muscle.
5. STATE THE ALL OR NONE PRINCIPLE AS IT APPLIES TO SKELETAL MUSCLE TISSUE. DESCRIBE THE
FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE AMOUNT OF TENSION/FORCE GENERATED DURING A MUSCLE
CONTRACTION.
A contraction is said to be all or none because individual muscle fibers will contract to their fullest extent, they cannot
contract partially. The force of their contraction can only vary slightly
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