BLOOPERS AND SUPER BLOOPERS
Zero-Tolerance Errors in Formal Written English
(Handout prepared by Tom Burton)
Error
Code
Missing, misplaced, or superfluous apostrophe
Ap
Incomplete sentence (sentence fragment)
SF
Run-on sentences without punctuation or with only
a comma
RS or CS
False agreement (subject–verb or noun–pronoun)
FA
False parallelism
FP
Hanging/ Dangling/ Unattached/ Wrongly attached
participle or phrase
HP
Pronoun error
PE
Misspelling of a common word
Sp
Wrong
• Yesterday.
• Because it was wet.
• The rain having stopped.
• Although it was raining.
• We stayed indoors; because it was wet.
• The rain having stopped; we went outside.
• Although it was raining; we went outside.
SF
SF
SF
SF
SF
SF
SF
Right
• I arrived yesterday.
• We stayed indoors.
• We went outside.
• We stayed indoors, because it was wet.
• The rain having stopped, we went outside.
• Although it was raining, we went outside.
Subordinate clauses (like ―although it was raining‖) are not complete sentences: they
cannot stand alone between full stops or between a full stop and a semi-colon.
Verbless sentences (such as ―Yesterday‖ in answer to the question ―When did you
arrive?‖ or ―Great!‖ in answer to ―What did you think of it?‖ or ―OK?‖ meaning
―Do you agree?‖) are acceptable in speech and in informal writing, but must be
avoided in formal writing.
2.
Run-on sentences and comma splices
Complete sentences cannot be joined without either a conjunction or a
punctuation mark stronger than a comma. A comma used to join independent
sentences is called a comma splice and is unacceptable in formal writing.
Wrong
EXAMPLES
1.
Incomplete sentences (or “sentence fragments”)
A sentence that does not make sense on its own is incomplete.
• It was raining we stayed indoors.
• It was raining we still went out.
• It was raining, we still went out.
• It was raining, however, we still went out.
• It was raining, therefore we stayed indoors.
RS
RS
CS
CS
CS
• If motorists are lost, they should ask for directions.
Right
• It was raining; we stayed indoors.
• It was raining and we stayed indoors.
• It was raining but we still went out.
• It was raining; however, we still went out.
• It was raining; therefore we stayed indoors.
The singular they (as in ―If a motorist is lost, they ...‖) is becoming increasingly
accepted in speech and informal writing, because it avoids both the sexist he (―If a
motorist is lost, he ...‖) and the awkward he or she (―If a motorist is lost, he or she ...‖).
It is not yet acceptable in formal writing, where the only safe solution is to make both
noun and pronoun plural.
Warning: Be especially careful with “however”.
There is no fixed way to punctuate with ―however‖: the punctuation depends on the
word’s function and placement in the sentence.
Wrong:
Right:
3.





I can’t afford to go to the theatre; although I’d love to.
I want to go to the theatre however, I can’t afford it.
I want to go to the theatre, however, I can’t afford it.
I want to go to the theatre, I can’t afford it, however.
However difficult it may seem; you’ll succeed in the end.






I want to go to the theatre. However, I can’t afford it.
I want to go to the theatre; however, I can’t afford it.
I want to go to the theatre; I can’t afford it, however.
I want to go to the theatre. I can’t afford it, however.
I want to go to the theatre; unfortunately, however, I can’t afford it.
However much I want to go to the theatre, I can’t afford it.
4.
SF
RS
CS
CS
SF
Wrong
• Our aims are as follows: to eliminate errors, to improve our style, and an
increase in confidence.
FP
• I have four problems: ill temper, impatience, exhaustion, and I’m bored.
FP
Right
• Our aims are as follows: to eliminate errors, to improve our style, and to
increase our confidence.
• I have four problems: ill temper, impatience, exhaustion, and boredom.
5.
False agreement between subject and verb or between noun and pronoun
A plural subject requires a plural verb; a singular subject requires a singular
verb.
A plural noun requires a plural pronoun; a singular noun requires a singular
pronoun.
Hanging Participles (or “dangling modifiers”)
A participle is the part of the verb that ends in ―-ing‖ in the present (as in ―It’s
raining‖) or that follows ―have‖ in the past (as in ―I have finished‖ or ―They
have gone‖). A ―hanging participle‖ creates temporary ambiguity by appearing
to be attached to the wrong noun; so does a ―hanging phrase‖. Even good
writers make errors with participles, as the examples show. (The last example
shows a sentence beginning with two hanging phrases.)
Wrong
• Walking down the road, a coconut fell on Mary’s head.
HP
(Who was walking down the road?)
• Clad only in underpants, progress was made to a line of basins in the middle
of the room (from A. N. Wilson’s Scandal, describing the dormitory
routine in a boys’ boarding school—but what kind of progress wears
underpants?).
HP
• Arriving home on my bike at sunset ..., my father would say, ―Good on ya,
mate!‖ (from Susan Mitchell’s, Hot Shots, describing the heroine’s
return home after a tennis tournament—but who was riding the
bike?).
HP
Wrong
• Her list of achievements are remarkable.
• The increase in taxes are intolerable.
• Each of them are happy.
• If a motorist is lost, they should ask for directions.
False Parallelism
The same grammatical construction must be maintained throughout a series.
False parallelism (the failure to make all items in a series grammatically
equivalent) is particularly common in lists of numbered items or dot points.
FA
FA
FA
FA
Right
• Her achievements are remarkable.
• Her list of achievements is remarkable.
• The taxes are intolerable.
• The increase in taxes is intolerable.
• Each of them is happy.
2
• Although reviled by millions for her role in the failure of Charles and Diana’s
marriage, few members of the public have heard or seen Mrs Parker
Bowles speak (Advertiser 8 July 1997: 9, reprinted from a British
newspaper—but who is or are reviled?).
HP
 In a hat, and a smart pink coat, he took a moment to recognize her (from
A. N. Wilson’s Scandal, describing a man’s unexpected meeting with his
mother-in-law—but who was wearing the hat and the smart pink coat?)
HP
6.
• Walking down the road, Mary was hit on the head by a falling coconut.
• Clad only in underpants, the boys progressed to a line of basins in the middle
of the room.
• Arriving home on my bike at sunset ..., I would be greeted by my father with,
―Good on ya, mate!‖
• Although reviled by millions for her role in the failure of Charles and Diana’s
marriage, Mrs Parker Bowles....
 In a hat and a smart pink coat, she was unrecognisable for a moment.
Note: The object form is used for both direct and indirect object, and after a preposition.
Pronoun errors. These are the correct forms:
Subject:
I
[thou]
he
she
it
we
you
they
Object:
me
[thee]
him
her
it
us
you
them
his
his
her
hers
its
its
our your
ours yours
Possessive: my [thy]
mine [thine]
their
theirs
Right
Wrong
• It was a difficult time for my husband and I.
• Jane and me are good friends.
• Him and his mates are a dangerous group.
PE
PE
PE
Right
• It was a difficult time for my husband and me.
• Jane and I are good friends.
• He and his mates are a dangerous group.
Rule: When you begin with a participle (or other descriptive word or phrase), the first
word (or phrase) in the next clause must be the subject to which the participle is
attached.
3
7.
Missing, misplaced, and superfluous apostrophes: see below.
8.
Spelling mistakes: see below.
APOSTROPHES
(Handout prepared by Tom Burton)
FOR POSSESSION
FOR CONTRACTIONS
SINGULAR NOUNS
• Normally add an apostrophe + s: the dog’s tail, the horse’s hoof, the
horse’s hooves (one horse), the bird’s wings (one bird), a
sheep’s eye, the bee’s knees, an hour’s time, a week’s work,
child’s play.
• If the noun ends in -s, still add an apostrophe + s: James’s sister,
Dickens’s novels, Keats’s poems. (Some publishers prefer s’:
James’ sister, Dickens’ novels, Keats’ poems. This is a matter
of house style.)
• With biblical and classical names ending in -s add only an apostrophe
after the -s: Jesus’ wounds, Euripides’ plays, Xerxes’ army.
• For the sake of euphony (ease of pronunciation) add only an
apostrophe in for goodness’ sake and for convenience’ sake.
• Put an apostrophe in place of the missing letter(s): can’t (= cannot),
isn’t (= is not), could’ve (= could have), couldn’t’ve (= could
not have), it’s (= it is or it has), who’s (= who is), we’ll (= we
shall or we will), I’m (= I am), they’d (= they would). (NB
Could’ve is short for could have: could of is a gross error.)
• Do not confuse it’s (= it is) with its (= belonging to it), or they’re (=
they are) with their (= belonging to them), or there’s (= there
is) with theirs (= belonging to them), or who’s (= who is) with
whose (= belonging to whom).
• Remember: It’s a dog’s life (with apostrophes) but the dog wagged its
tail (without one); who’s there? (with an apostrophe) but whose
is this? (without one); they’re delightful people (with an
apostrophe) but their children are not (without one); there’s a
hole in my bucket (with an apostrophe) but not in theirs
(without one).
PLURAL NOUNS
• If the noun forms the plural by adding -s, add an apostrophe after the
-s: the dogs’ tails, the horses’ hooves (more than one horse), the
birds’ wings (more than one bird), two hours’ time, three
weeks’ work.
• If the noun forms the plural without -s, add an apostrophe + s (as for
the singular): children’s games, sheep’s eyes, women’s studies.
APOSTROPHES ARE NEVER USED TO INDICATE A SIMPLE PLURAL
This applies after names, numerals and abbreviations as well as after normal
nouns.
• One cow, two goats, three birds, four gorillas, a hundred tigers, many
snakes, some apostrophes, not enough videos.
• 1980, the 1980s, he is in his fifties (or 50s), hundreds of protesters.
• Three Janets, four Johns, a dearth of Daphnes, a shower of Shanes.
• One CD, five CDs, few LPs, too many MLCs, a posse of PMs.
PRONOUNS
• Possessive pronouns do NOT take apostrophes: his, hers, its, ours,
yours, theirs, whose.
JOINT AND SEPARATE POSSESSION
• For joint possession add an apostrophe only to the second noun: the
king and queen’s palace, Gilbert and Sullivan’s operas, my aunt
and uncle’s house.
• For separate possession add an apostrophe to both nouns: Jane
Austen’s and George Eliot’s novels, Roberta’s and Richard’s
results.
AN ANOMALY: Apostrophes are occasionally used neither for possession nor
for a contraction but to prevent confusion: do’s and don’ts, dot the i’s and cross
the t’s, mind your p’s and q’s.
4
Words frequently misspelled (Handout prepared by Tom Burton)
accede = yield
exceed = surpass
accommodation
accurate, accuracy
achieve, achievement
acquaintance
acquiesce, acquiescence
acoustics
acre, acreage
address
aisle (in church)
isle = island
altar (in church)
alter = change
advice (noun)
advise (verb)
adviser (noun)
advisory (adj.)
affect (verb = influence)
effect (noun = result)
effect (verb = cause)
aged, ageing
all right (two words)
already = before now
all ready = all prepared
altogether = completely
all together = in unison
allude = refer to
elude = escape from
allusion = reference
illusion = deception
amateur
analyse, analysis
annihilate
anonymous, anonymity
approximately
artefact
assess, assessment
assassinate
bachelor
ballot, balloted
begin, beginning
benefit, benefited
biannual = twice yearly
biennial = two-yearly
bias, biased
Britain (place)
Briton (person)
bureaucracy, bureaucrat
canvas (noun = cloth)
canvass (verb = ask for)
CD-ROM
cede = give up
seed (of a plant)
cemetery
column
commercial
commit, committed
committee
comparative
competent
complement
(noun = full number)
(verb = make complete, go well
together)
compliment
(noun = praising remark)
(verb = make a praising remark)
condemn, condemnation
conscience, conscientious
conscious
consensus
council, councillor
(in local politics)
counsel, counsellor
(= advice, adviser)
criticism
deceit, deceive
defence (noun)
defensive (adj.)
definite, definitely
defuse = calm down
diffuse (verb = disperse; adj. =
widely dispersed; verbose)
democracy, democratic
dependant (noun)
dependent (adj.)
desperate
contrast separate
desert
(verb = abandon)
(noun = expanse of sand; thing
deserved)
dessert = food
deteriorate
develop, developed
dialogue
die, dying, died (death)
dye, dyeing, dyed (colour)
disappear, disappearance
disappoint, disappointment
disaster, disastrous
discipline, disciplinary
discreet = prudent
discrete = separate
dispel, dispelled
earnest
eccentric
ecstasy, ecstatic
eighth
elicit (verb = draw out)
illicit (adj. = illegal)
email (one word)
embarrass
ensure (= make certain)
insure (= take out insurance)
environment
exaggerate
exceed = surpass
excel, excelled, excellent
existence, existent
fascinate, fascination
February
fire, fiery
forfeit
forward (direction)
foreword (in a book)
fourteen, forty
fulfil, fulfilled, fulfilment
government
grammar
grief, grievous
handkerchief
harass, harassment
height
hinder, hindrance
humour, humorous
hypocrisy, hypocrite,
hypocritical = faking
hypercritical = too critical
idiosyncrasy, idiosyncratic
immediately
imply = suggest
infer = deduce
indispensable
initiate, initiative
innocent, innocence
innocuous
interment = burial
internment = detention
interrupt, interruption
irresistible
its (= belonging to it)
it’s (= it is)
jealous, jealousy
jeopardy
labour (noun & verb)
Labor (in ALP)
leisure
length
liable
library
licence (noun)
license (verb)
lie, lying, lied (tell lies)
lie, lying, lay (lie down)
lay, laying, laid
(put down; lay an egg; lay the
table; sleep with)
literature
lose (verb)
loose (adj.)
maintain, maintenance
management, manageable
mischievous
misspell, misspelled
monastery
mortgage
muscle (of the body)
mussel (seafood)
mystery, mysterious
necessary, necessity
neighbour
nuclear
nuisance
occasion, occasionally
occur, occurred, occurrence
offer, offered
omission (thing left out)
emission (gas)
omit, omitted
opposite, opposition
oppress, oppressor
panic, panicky
parallel
paralyse, paralysis
parasite
parliament
pastime
pay, paid
personal (adj.)
personnel (noun = people)
persuade, persuasion
pigeon
potato, potatoes
practice (noun)
practise (verb)
precede (go before)
proceed (go on)
precipice
prejudice, prejudicial
pretentious
prevalent
principal (adj. = chief)
principle (noun = rule)
privilege
professional
proofread (one word)
prophecy (noun)
prophesy (verb)
psychiatry, psychiatrist
psychology, psychologist
pursue, pursuit
quarrel, quarrelled
questionnaire
quiet (adj. = silent)
quite (adv. = completely, fairly)
raise = lift up
raze = cut down
receive, receipt
recipe
refer, referred
referee
remedy, remedial
reminisce, reminiscence
resistance
restaurant (place)
restaurateur (person)
rhyme
rhythm
sacrifice
sacrilege, sacrilegious
satellite
scene (view; in a play)
sceptre
schedule
scythe
separate
contrast desperate
sergeant
siege
simultaneous
ski, skiing
solemn, solemnity
souvenir
speak
speech
stationary (motionless)
stationery (paper, etc.)
straight (not crooked)
strait (geographical)
stratagem
6
strategy
strength
stupefy, stupefied
subtle, subtlety
succeed, success
summary
supplement
syllable
target, targeted
technique
tenant, tenancy
their (belonging to them)
there (in that place)
they’re (they are)
thorough, thoroughly
through
travel, traveller
treacherous
twelfth
typeface (one word)
tyranny
unanimous
unconscious
until
usage
vacuum
valuable
veto, vetoes
vigilance
vigour, vigorous
vulnerable
weird
weather (climate)
wether (neutered sheep)
whether (if)
whole, wholly
NOTES
Use en dashes between inclusive page numbers, for a range of dates, or
wherever the meaning is approximately ―to‖: 13–22; 1839–1901; the
Adelaide–Darwin railway.
Compound adjectives
Note the difference between the following pairs of sentences:
―Dickens was a writer who lived in the nineteenth century.‖
―Dickens’s novels are well known.‖
Use em dashes—like this pair—for parenthetic comments (in the same way as
you use brackets). A single em dash can have a variety of functions—
usually involving emphasis.
No hyphen is needed: ―nineteenth‖ is an adjective qualifying the noun
―century‖; ―well‖ is an adverb qualifying ―known‖; the concepts are separate.
Defining and non-defining clauses
―Dickens was a nineteenth-century writer.‖
―Dickens is a well-known novelist.‖
A defining (or restrictive) clause tells you which one of a set is being
considered.
A hyphen is required because ―nineteenth-century‖ has become a compound
adjective qualifying the word ―writer‖ and ―well-known‖ has become a
compound adjective qualifying ―novelist‖.
A non-defining (or non-restrictive) clause gives additional (but inessential)
information about the object under consideration. The information is
parenthetical: it can be put in parentheses, or between a pair of em
dashes, or between a pair of commas.
A compound adjective is an adjective originally consisting of two separate
words, now joined by a hyphen to form a single concept. In the second pair of
sentences ―nineteenth-century‖ and ―well-known‖ are each equivalent in
function to a single word, e.g., ―good‖ or ―popular‖ or ―prolific‖: ―Dickens was
a prolific writer‖; ―Dickens is a popular novelist‖; ―Dickens is a well-known
novelist‖.
Compare the following examples:
―The cat, which was small and fluffy, jumped out of the window.‖
―The cat (which was small and fluffy) jumped out of the window.‖
―The cat—which was small and fluffy—jumped out of the window.‖
Dashes and hyphens
–
—
In these sentences there is only one cat in question, and it happens to be small
and fluffy. The words ―which was small and fluffy‖ constitute a nondefining clause: they give additional information about the cat, but this
information is not essential to the basic meaning, that it jumped out of
the window.
is a hyphen [next to the zero on most keyboards]
is an en dash [Ctrl + minus sign on the numeric key pad in Word]
is an em dash [Ctrl + Alt + minus sign on the numeric key pad in Word]
Use hyphens for joining compound words (like the compound adjectives
above), separable prefixes (note the difference between recovering
from an illness and re-covering a chair), double-barrelled surnames,
etc.
―The cat which was small and fluffy jumped out of the window.‖
―The cat that was small and fluffy jumped out of the window.‖
7
and which are acceptable; the crucial factor is the absence of commas
(or dashes or parentheses). Rule of thumb: if the which-clause (or thatclause) answers the question ―which one?‖, it must be a defining
clause—because it defines which one of two or more similar things is
meant. (If you use a grammar check on your computer, and it asks you
whether you want to change to that whenever you use which, you can
be sure the program was written by an American. What the question is
asking you to decide is, ―Is this a defining or a non-defining clause?‖)
In these sentences the words ―which was small and fluffy‖ and ―that was small
and fluffy‖ constitute defining clauses. The absence of punctuation
shows that there’s more than one cat in question, and that one of them
jumped out of the window. Which one?—The one that was small and
fluffy (or, the one which was small and fluffy).
Some American style guides insist on the use of that rather than which in
defining clauses like these. In British and Australian English, both that
8