CHAPTER TWO:
ATTITUDES, VALUES, PERCEPTION
Prepared By;
Mdm. Junaida Hj Ismail
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LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
1.
Define Attitudes
2.
Contrast the THREE component of an attitude.
3.
Identify the role consistency plays in attitudes.
4.
Summarize the relationship between attitudes and behavior.
5.
Discuss similarities and differences between job satisfaction and the other
job attitudes discussed.
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INTRODUCTION
• Attitude:
– A psychological tendency expressed by evaluating an entity with
some degree of favor or disfavor, or
– The cluster of beliefs, assessed feelings & behavioral intentions
towards an object, or
– Evaluative statements or judgments concerning objects, people or
events.
• It starts from emotion that later affect attitude, as human feels the
emotion, and later think about attitudes.
– Emotion is brief whereas attitudes are more stable over times.
– E.g.: the joy you experience (emotion) about promotion may last a
few minutes, whereas your attitude towards promotion can last for
weeks, months or years.
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Attitudes
Attitudes
Cognitive component
Evaluative
statements or
judgments
concerning
objects, people,
or events.
Affective Component
The opinion or belief segment of
an attitude.
The emotional or feeling segment of an
attitude.
Behavioral Component
An intention to behave in a certain way
toward someone or something.
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ATTITUDES NATURE
•
In most research of OB, researchers focused on 3 types of
attitudes:
1.
Job satisfaction





It is one’s general attitude towards his job & work content.
Satisfied employees have a favorable evaluation of their job based on
their observations & emotional experiences.
E.g.: “to be honest, I love my job because of the people I work with”.
Workers can be satisfied with some work elements while
simultaneously dissatisfied with other elements of works.
Different types of job satisfaction will lead to different intention &
behavior.
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ATTITUDES NATURE
2.
Job involvement

It is a degree to which a person identifies with his
job, actively participates in it, & considers his
performance important to self-worth.

Workers with high level of job involvement
strongly can be identified & really care about the
kind of job of work they do.

High level of job involvement also resulted to
fewer absenteeism & turnover rates.
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ATTITUDES NATURE
3.
Organizational commitment

It is about a person’s emotional attachment to, identification
with, & involvement in a particular organization.

There are 3 kinds of organizational commitment: affective,
continuance & normative.

Affective commitment is an employee’s intention to remain in
an organization because of strong desire to do so. It is due to
several factors such as a belief in the organization’s value &
goal, a willingness to put forth effort on behalf of the
organization, & a desire to remain a member of the
organization. This commitment encompasses loyalty & deep
concern for organization’s welfare.
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ATTITUDES NATURE
 Continuance commitment is an employee’s tendency to
remain in an organization because the person cannot
afford to leave. Employees sometimes believe if they
leave they will lose a great deal of their investment in
time, effort & benefits & they cannot find any
replacement elsewhere.
 Normative commitment is a perceived obligation to
remain with the organization. Employees who
experience this commitment will stay with the
organization because they feel like they should.
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ATTITUDE MODEL
• There are 3 components in attitude model:
– Value
• Represent the positive or negative assessment of our emotional
experiences related to attitude object.
• E.g.: you may experienced frustration with troublesome customers, or
felt proud for being able to complete difficult tasks.
• These emotion will shape your assessment about your job, thus,
management should always try to instill fun in workplace so employees
have positive work attitudes.
– Belief
• It provides connections between attitudes & perception.
• E.g.: CEO of company tells that he appreciates creative ideas from
company’s employees, and this is describes the perceived characteristic
of company’s top management (attitude object).
• This belief develops over time through direct experience & from what
co-workers tell us.
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ATTITUDE MODEL
– Intention behavior
• It represents a motivation to engage in a particular behavior.
• E.g.: “I might want to look for a new job”.
• However, not all people will act on their behavioral intention
(not always people quit their job whenever they feel
dissatisfied), but they might act on other few choices of
behavioral intentions such as taking a sick leave.
• Behavioral intention predict the actual behavior, though it is
not always perfectly related to actual behavior as actual
behavior depends on one’s ability, role perception, &
situational contingencies.
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ATTITUDE MODEL
PERCEPTIONS
BELIEFS
ATTITUDES
VALUES
BEHAVIORAL
INTENTIONS
ACTUAL BEHAVIOR
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COGNITIVE DISSONANCE
•
•
•
It is a state of tension that is produced when an individual experiences
conflict between attitudes & behavior.
At rational level, individuals try to be consistent in everything they
believe in & do, as consistency (consonance) is important for attitudes
& behavior.
Anything that interrupt this consistency will cause tension
(dissonance) which motivate individuals to change either their
attitudes or behavior.
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COGNITIVE DISSONANCE
•
•
•
E.g.: salesman is require to sell damage product at a full price without
informing the customers about the damage. At the same time, he
aware that keep it secret from customers is unethical action. Thus, it
creates a conflict between his attitude (believing it is unethical to
conceal the info from customers) with his behavior (selling the
product without informing the customers about the damage).
Individuals who experience dissonance will try to resolve the conflict,
either by changing their behavior, or try to rationalize that the problem
(damage product) might be a small thing to think of.
Thus, management should understand that cognitive dissonance
because employees will find themselves in dilemma situations,
especially when there are employees who change drastically in their
behavior (as a result to reduce their dissonance).
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SOURCES OF ATTITUDE
• Religion
• Personal experiences
• Relatedness / association
• Interaction
• Mass media
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FUNCTIONS OF ATTITUDE
• Provide Source of References
• Reinforcement or Confirmation functions
• Expression of Values
• Ego & Dignity Protection
• Reconciliation & Contradiction
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Chapter Check-Up: Attitudes
In general, when we think of attitudes and organizations, we think of
1) Job Satisfaction
2) Happiness
3) Job Involvement
4) Mood at work
5) Organizational
Commitment
6) 1 and 2
7) 1, 3, and 5
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Closure;
Answer the question below;
1.
Define Attitudes ?
2.
Discuss the THREE (3) components of an attitudes?
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LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
1.
Define Values.
2.
Identify types of values.
3.
Define Perceptions.
4.
Discuss model of Perceptual Process.
5.
Discuss the Attribution Theory
6.
Identify the Perceptual Distortions
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Values
• Definition: Mode of conduct or end state is
personally or socially preferable (i.e., what is right
& good)
– Terminal Values
• Desirable End States
– Instrumental Values
• The ways/means for achieving one’s terminal values
• Value System: A hierarchy based on a ranking of
an individual’s values in terms of their intensity.
Note: Values Vary by Cohort
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Importance of Values
• Provide understanding of the attitudes,
motivation, and behaviors of individuals and
cultures.
• Influence our perception of the world around
us.
• Represent interpretations of “right” and
“wrong.”
• Imply that some behaviors or outcomes are
preferred over others.
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Types of Values –- Rokeach Value Survey
Terminal Values
Desirable end-states of existence;
the goals that a person would like to
achieve during his or her lifetime.
Instrumental Values
Preferable modes of behavior or
means of achieving one’s terminal
values.
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Values in the
Rokeach
Survey
Source: M. Rokeach, The Nature of Human
Values (New York: The Free Press, 1973).
E X H I B I T 4-3
E X H I B I T 4-3
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Values in the
Rokeach
Survey
(cont’d)
Source: M. Rokeach, The Nature of Human
Values (New York: The Free Press, 1973).
EE X
XH
H II BB II TT 4-3
4-3 (cont’d)
(cont’d)
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Mean Value Rankings of
Executives, Union Members,
and Activists
Source: Based on W. C. Frederick and J. Weber, “The Values of
Corporate Managers and Their Critics: An Empirical Description and
Normative Implications,” in W. C. Frederick and L. E. Preston (eds.)
Business Ethics: Research Issues and Empirical Studies (Greenwich,
CT: JAI Press, 1990), pp. 123–44.
EE X
XH
H II BB II TT 4-4
4-4
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Values, Loyalty, and Ethical Behavior
Ethical Values and
Behaviors of Leaders
Ethical Climate in
the Organization
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TYPES OF VALUES
• Another version of value types (by Allport), which include:
– Theoretical value: refers to importance in finding truth through critical
& rational methods.
– Economic value: refers to those who believe only to logic matters in
which they could search for wealth & something reality & able to be
practiced.
– Aesthetic value: it is for those who have interest in beauty &
magnificence, most of them are artiste.
– Social value: it is a social that emphasizes on humanitarian values.
– Politics value: for those who willing to do anything to gain power even
might bring bad consequences to others.
– Religion value: is based on religion on which can or cannot be done.
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Values across Cultures: Hofstede’s Framework
•
•
•
•
•
Power Distance
Individualism vs. Collectivism
Masculinity vs. Femininity
Uncertainty Avoidance
Long-term and Short-term orientation
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Hofstede’s Framework for Assessing Cultures
Power Distance
The extent to which a society accepts that power
in institutions and organizations is distributed
unequally.
Low distance: relatively equal power between
those with status/wealth and those without
status/wealth
High distance: extremely unequal power
distribution between those with status/wealth and
those without status/wealth
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Hofstede’s Framework (cont’d)
Individualism
Vs.
The degree to which
people prefer to act as
individuals rather than a
member of groups.
Collectivism
A tight social framework in
which people expect others
in groups of which they are a
part to look after them and
protect them.
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Hofstede’s Framework (cont’d)
Masculinity
Vs.
The extent to which the society
values work roles of achievement,
power, and control, and where
assertiveness and materialism are
also valued.
Femininity
The extent to which there is
little differentiation between
roles for men and women.
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Hofstede’s Framework (cont’d)
Uncertainty Avoidance
The extent to which a society feels threatened by
uncertain and ambiguous situations and tries to avoid
them.
•High Uncertainty Avoidance:
Society does not like ambiguous
situations & tries to avoid them.
Low Uncertainty Avoidance:
Society does not mind ambiguous
situations & embraces them.
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Hofstede’s Framework (cont’d)
Long-term Orientation
Short-term Orientation
Vs.
A national culture attribute that
emphasizes the future, thrift, and
persistence.
A national culture attribute that
emphasizes the present and the here
and now.
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WORK VALUES
• Work values have impact on how individuals behave
on their jobs in terms of right & wrong.
• 4 work values are:
– Achievement
 It is about the concern for advancement of one’s career.
 Such behaviors are working hard & seeking opportunities
to develop new skills.
– Concern for others
 It reflects for being caring, compassionate behaviors such
as encouraging or helping others to work on the difficult
tasks.
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WORK VALUES
– Honesty
 It is accurately provide information & refuse to mislead
others for personal gains.
– Fairness
 It emphasizes impartially & recognizes different points
of view.
• Though individuals have different personal values,
but if they share similar work values, the results
could be positive.
– When employees share their management’s values, they
tend to experience higher satisfaction with their job &
become more committed to organization.
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WORK ETHICS
•
•
Ethics is a study of moral principles or values that determine
whether actions are right or wrong and outcomes are good or
bad.
Many general ethical principles had be identifies, but it is
important to look into the basic 3 values, which are:
– Utilitarianism
 Is a moral principle stating that decision makers should seek
the greatest food for greatest number of people when
choosing among alternatives.
 It advises us to seek & choose option providing the highest
degree of satisfaction because it focuses on the
consequences of our actions, not on how we achieve those
consequences.
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WORK ETHICS
– Individual rights
 It is the belief that everyone has entitlement that let them act in
certain ways.
 Some believe in freedom of movement, physical security, freedom
of speech & fair trial.
 It is not limited to legal rights, as individuals entitle for personal
respect from others.
– Distribute justice
 It is the ethical values of fairness.
 It suggested that inequality is acceptable if:
 Everyone has equal access to more favored position in
society,
 The inequalities are ultimately in the best interest of least
well off in society (e.g.: some people can receive greater
rewards than others if this benefits those less well off
especially those who work in extreme risky jobs).
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Chapter Check-Up: Values
In Country J most of the top management team meets employees at the local
bar for a beer on Fridays, and there are no reserved parking spaces.
Everyone is on a first name basis with each other. Country J, according to
Hofstede’s Framework, is probably low on what dimension?
•
Collectivism
•
Long Term Orientation
•
Uncertainty Avoidance
•
Power Distance
How would a College or University in Country J differ from your
College or University? Identify 3 differences and discuss with your
partner.
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What Is Perception, and Why Is It Important?
Perception
A process by which
individuals organize and
interpret their sensory
impressions in order to
give meaning to their
environment.
••People
’s behavior
People’s
behaviorisis
based
basedon
ontheir
theirperception
perception
of
ofwhat
whatreality
realityis,
is,not
noton
on
reality
realityitself.
itself.
••The
Theworld
worldas
asititisis
perceived
perceivedisisthe
theworld
worldthat
that
isisbehaviorally
behaviorallyimportant.
important.
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PERCEPTION
• The process of receiving information about and
making sense of our environment, which includes
deciding which information to notice as well as how to
categorize & interpret it.
OR
• The process of creating an internal representation of
the external world by selecting, receiving, organizing
& interpreting the info from it.
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Factors That
Influence
Perception
E X H I B I T 5–1
E X H I B I T 5–1
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I. TARGET CHARACTERISTICS
• Target is the person, object, place or thing where the
perception is made on.
• The characteristics are:
–
–
–
–
–
–
Motion
 action, movement, signal.
Intensity  forceful of feeling or things.
Novelty  new, unusual.
Sound
 melody, things that can be heard.
Size
 how small or big of something.
Background  conditions that existed before
or something seen or heard
behind of other thing.
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(cont’d)
• Example:
“A red flash on nurse station console receives
attention because:
– It is bright (intensity)
– It is flashing (motion)
– it is a rare event (novelty)
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II. PERCEIVER CHARACTERISTICS
•
•
It is the person who is making the perception on the target.
The characteristics are:
– Attitudes  Ali likes small class so that he can ask questions, but
Ahmad prefer anonymity of a large class.
– Motives  unsatisfied needs encourage a person to fulfill it.
– Interest  engineer looks things from technical pt of view
compared to doctors.
– Past experience  things or events related to oneself.
– Expectations  expect to see what we want to see.
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III. SITUATION CHARACTERISTICS
• Elements in the surrounding environment.
• The characteristics are:
– Time
– Work setting
– Social setting
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Person Perception: Making Judgments About Others
Attribution Theory
When individuals observe
behavior, they attempt to
determine whether it is
internally or externally
caused.
Distinctiveness:
Distinctiveness: shows
shows different
different behaviors
behaviors in
in different
different situations.
situations.
Consensus:
Consensus: response
response is
is the
the same
same as
as others
others to
to same
same situation.
situation.
Consistency:
Consistency: responds
responds in
in the
the same
same way
way over
over time.
time.
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Attribution Theory
EE X
XH
H II BB II TT 5–2
5–2
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Errors and Biases in Attributions
Fundamental Attribution Error
The tendency to underestimate the
influence of external factors and
overestimate the influence of
internal factors when making
judgments about the behavior of
others.
In general, we tend
to blame the person
first, not the
situation.
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Errors and Biases in Attributions (cont’d)
Self-Serving Bias
The tendency for individuals to
attribute their own successes to
internal factors while putting the
blame for failures on external
factors.
Thought: When student
gets an “A” on an exam,
they often say they studied
hard. But when they don’t
do well, how does the self
serving bias come into
play?
Hint: Whose fault is it
usually when an exam is
“tough”?
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Frequently Used Shortcuts in Judging Others
Selective Perception
People selectively interpret what they see on the basis
of their interests, background, experience, and attitudes.
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Frequently Used Shortcuts in Judging Others
Halo Effect
Drawing a general impression
about an individual on the basis
of a single characteristic
Contrast Effects
Evaluation of a person’s characteristics that are
affected by comparisons with other people
recently encountered who rank higher or lower on
the same characteristics
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Frequently Used Shortcuts in Judging Others
Projection
Attributing one’s own
characteristics to other
people.
Stereotyping
Judging someone on the basis
of one’s perception of the
group to which that person
belongs.
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PERCEPTUAL DISTORTIONS
5.
Primacy Effect
–
–
–
It is also known as Expectancy.
It is where one quickly develop an opinion of people based on
the first info one receives about them.
Benefits:
i.
Many organization will take extra care to ensure customers have
1st impression.
ii. Company will also make sure that employees have good 1st
impression when they join the firm.
iii. Customers & employees are more likely tolerate & forget minor
conflict if they have already established a 1st good impression.
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PERCEPTUAL DISTORTIONS
(cont’d)
• E.g. if we first meet someone who avoids eyes
contact and speaks softly, we quickly conclude
that the person is bashful or shy.
• However, if inaccurate 1st impression
happened, it is difficult to change because
people pay less attention to the subsequent info
after the bad 1st impression had been formed.
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PERCEPTUAL DISTORTIONS
6. Recency effect
– It is an error in which the most recent info or event dominates
one’s perception about another person.
– The effect is stronger than primacy effect when there is a
long delay between the time when the 1st impression is
formed & the person is evaluated.
– In other words, the most recent info/event has the greater
influence on our perception of someone when 1st impression
has worn off with the time pass by.
– E.g. in performance appraisal, usually recent performance
info dominates & influence the evaluation because it is the
most easily recalled.
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MANAGING PERCEPTION PROCESS
•
Zalkind & Costello had identified who a killed manager deals
with perception process.
1. Have a high level of awareness
2. Seek info from various sources to confirm or disconfirm
personal impression of a decision situations.
3. Be empathetic.
4. Influence perception of others when they developing
incorrect or incomplete impressions.
5. Avoid common perceptual biases that distort our
opinions.
6. Avoid inappropriate attributions.
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Chapter Check-Up: Perception
If all of these perceptual shortcuts
happen unconsciously, how can we
keep the stereotypes we have from
interfering with the way we work in
group projects? Identify two specific
things you could do to help prevent
stereotypes from inhibiting effective
group relationships. Discuss with
your partner.
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Closure;
Answer the question below;
1.
Define Values
2.
Distinguish the terminal and instrumental Values.
3.
List any FOUR (4) Perceptual Distortions ?
4.
Discuss the Instrumental and Terminal Values?
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