Introduction to Flight
Fifth Edition
John D. Anderson, Jr.
Curator for Aerodynamics, National Air and Space Museum
Smithsonian Institution
Professor Emeritus
University of Maryland
Me
Graw
Higher Education
Boston Burr Ridge, IL Dubuque, IA Madison, Wl New York San Francisco St. Louis
Bangkok Bogota Caracas Kuala Lumpur Lisbon London Madrid Mexico City
Milan Montreal New Delhi Santiago Seoul Singapore Sydney Taipei Toronto
l_
CONTENTS
About the Author v
2.1.2 Density 57
2.1:3 Temperature 58
2.1.4 Flow Velocity and
Streamlines 59
Preface to the Fifth Edition xv
Preface to the First Edition xvii
Chapter 1
The First Aeronautical Engineers
1
2.2 The Source of All Aerodynamic
Forces 61
2.3 Equation of State for a
Perfect Gas 63
2.4 Discussion of Units 65
2.5 Specific Volume 70
2.6 Anatomy of the Airplane 76
2.7 Anatomy of a Space Vehicle 87
2.8 Historical Note: The NACA
and NASA 95
2.9 Summary 98
Bibliography 98
Problems 98
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Very Early Developments 4
1.3 Sir George Cayley (1773-1857)—The
True Inventor of the Airplane 6
1.4 The Interregnum—From 1853 to 1891 13
1.5 Otto Lilienthal (1848-1896)—The Glider
Man 17
1.6 Percy Pilcher (1867-1899)—Extending
the Glider Tradition 20
1.7 Aeronautics Comes to America 21
1.8 Wilbur (1867-1912) and Orville
(1871-1948) Wright—Inventors of the
Chapter 3
First Practical Airplane 27
The Standard Atmosphere 101
1.9 The Aeronautical Triangle—Langley, the
3.1 Definition of Altitude 103
Wrights, and Glenn Curtiss 36
3.2 Hydrostatic Equation 104
1.10 The Problem of Propulsion 45
3.3 Relation Between Geopotential and
1.11 Faster and Higher 46
Geometric Altitudes 106
1.12 Summary 49
3.4
Definition of the Standard
Bibliography 50
Atmosphere 107
3.5 Pressure, Temperature, and Density
Altitudes 114
Chapter 2
3.6 Historical Note: The Standard
Fundamental Thoughts 52
Atmosphere 117
3.7 Summary 119
2.1 Fundamental Physical Quantities of a
Bibliography 120
Flowing Gas 56
2.1.1 Pressure 56
Problems 120
ix
Contents
Chapter 4
Basic Aerodynamics
4.26 Historical Note: Prandtl and the
Development of the Boundary Layer
Concept 239
4.27 Summary 242
Bibliography 244
Problems 245
122
4.1 Continuity Equation 126
4.2 Incompressible and Compressible
Flow 127
4.3 Momentum Equation 130
4.4 A Comment 134
4.5 Elementary Thermodynamics 141
4.6 Isentropic Flow 147
4.7 Energy Equation 152
4.8 Summary of Equations 155
4.9 Speed of Sound 156
4.10 Low-Speed Subsonic Wind Tunnels
4.11 Measurement of Airspeed 168
Chapter 5
Airfoils, Wings, and Other
Aerodynamic Shapes 251
162
4.11.1 Incompressible Flow 171
4.11.2 Subsonic Compressible Flow 174
4.11.3 Supersonic Flow 178
4.11.4 Summary 182
4.12 Some Additional Considerations
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
5.8
183
4.12.1 More on Compressible Flow 183
4.12.2 More on Equivalent Airspeed 185
4.13 Supersonic Wind Tunnels and Rocket
Engines 187
4.14 Discussion of Compressibility 195
4.15 Introduction to Viscous Flow 196
4.16 Results for a Laminar Boundary
Layer 205
4.17 Results for a Turbulent Boundary
Layer 210
4.18 Compressibility Effects on Skin
Friction 213
4.19 Transition 216
4.20 Flow Separation 219
4.21 Summary of Viscous Effects on Drag 224
4.22 Historical Note: Bernoulli and Euler 225
4.23 Historical Note: The Pitot Tube 226
4.24 Historical Note: The First Wind
Tunnels 229
4.25 Historical Note: Osborne Reynolds and
- ' His Number 235
5.9
5.10
5.11
5.12
5.13
5.14
5.15
5.16
5.17
5.18
5.19
5.20
Introduction 251
Airfoil Nomenclature 253
Lift, Drag, and Moment Coefficients 257
Airfoil Data 263
Infinite Versus Finite Wings 271
Pressure Coefficient, 273
Obtaining Lift Coefficient from Cp 278
Compressibility Correction for Lift
Coefficient 282
Critical Mach Number and Critical
Pressure Coefficient 283
Drag-Divergence Mach Number 294
Wave Drag (at Supersonic Speeds) 302
Summary of Airfoil Drag 310
Finite Wings 312
Calculation of Induced Drag 315
Change in the Lift Slope 321
Swept Wings 329
Flaps—A Mechanism for High Lift 342
Aerodynamics of Cylinders and
Spheres 348
How Lift Is Produced—Some Alternate
Explanations 352
Historical Note: Airfoils and Wings 362
5.20.1 The Wright Brothers 363
5.20.2 British and U.S. Airfoils
(1910 to 1920) 363
5.20.3 1920 to 1930 364
5.20.4 Early NACA Four-Digit
Airfoils 364
Contents
5.21
5.22
5.23
5.24
5.20.5 LaterNACA Airfoils 365
5.20.6 Modern Airfoil Work 366
5.20.7 Finite Wings 366
Historical Note: Ernst Mach
and His Number 369
Historical Note: The First Manned
Supersonic Flight 372
Historical Note: The X-15—First Manned
Hypersonic Airplane and Stepping-Stone
to the Space Shuttle 376
Summary 379
Bibliography 380
Problems 380
Chapter 6
Elements of Airplane Performance
6.1
6.2
6.3
385
Introduction: The Drag Polar 385
Equations of Motion 392
Thrust Required for Level, Unaccelerated
Flight 394
6.4 Thrust Available and Maximum
Velocity 402
6.5 Power Required for Level, Unaccelerated
Flight 405
6.6 Power Available and Maximum
Velocity 410
6.6.7 Reciprocating Engine-Propeller
Combination 410
6.6.2 Jet Engine 413
6.7 Altitude Effects on Power Required
and Available 414
6.8 Rate of Climb 419
6.9 Gliding Flight 428
6.10 Absolute and Service Ceilings 432
6.11 Time to Climb 435
6.12 Range and Endurance—Propeller-Driven
Airplane 436
6.12.1 Physical Considerations 437
6.12.2 Quantitative Formulation 438
6.12.3 Breguet Formulas (Propeller-Driven
Airplane) 440
6.13 Range and Endurance—Jet Airplane 444
6.13.1 Physical Considerations 445
6.13.2 Quantitative Formulation 446
6.14 Relations Between CD>0 and CDi 450
6.15 Takeoff Performance 458
6.16 Landing Performance 464
6.17 Turning Flight and the V-n Diagram 467
6.18 Accelerated Rate of Climb (Energy
Method) 474
6.19 Special Considerations for Supersonic
Airplanes 481
6.20 Uninhabited Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) 485
6.21 A Comment, and More on the Aspect
Ratio 494
6.22 Historical Note: Drag Reduction—The
NACA Cowling and the Fillet 494
6.23 Historical Note: Early Predictions of
Airplane Performance 499
6.24 Historical Note: Breguet and the Range
Formula 500
6.25 Historical Note: Aircraft Design—
Evolution and Revolution 501
6.26 Summary 507
Bibliography 509
Problems 510
Chapter 7
Principles of Stability and Control
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
513
Introduction 513
Definition of Stability and Control 519
7.2.1 Static Stability 520
7.2.2 Dynamic Stability 521
7.2.3 Control 523
7.2.4 Partial Derivative 523
Moments on the Airplane 524
Absolute Angle of Attack 525
Criteria for Longitudinal Static
Stability 527
Quantitative Discussion: Contribution of
the Wing to Mcg 532
xii
7.7
7.8
7.9
7.10
7.11
7.12
7.13
7.14
7.15
7.16
7.17
7.18
7.19
7.20
7.21
7.22
7.23
Contents
Contribution of the Tail to Mcg 536
Total Pitching Moment About the Center
of Gravity 539
Equations for Longitudinal Static
Stability 541
Neutral Point 543
Static Margin 544
Concept of Static Longitudinal
Control 548
Calculation of Elevator Angle to
Trim 553
Stick-Fixed Versus Stick-Free Static
Stability 555
Elevator Hinge Moment 556
Stick-Free Longitudinal Static
Stability 558
Directional Static Stability 562
Lateral Static Stability 563
A Comment 565
Historical Note: The Wright Brothers
Versus the European Philosophy on
Stability and Control 566
Historical Note: The Development of
Flight Controls 567
Historical Note: The "Tuck-Under"
Problem 569
Summary 570
Bibliography 571
Problems 571
Chapter 8
Space Flight (Astronautics)
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
573
Introduction 573
Differential Equations 580
Lagrange's Equation 581
Orbit Equation 584
8.4.1 Force and Energy 584
8.4.2 Equation of Motion 586
. 8.5 Space Vehicle Trajectories—Some Basic
. '• Aspects 590
8.6
8.7
8.8
8.9
8.10
8.11
8.12
8.13
8.14
8.15
8.16
'
8.17
8.18
Kepler's Laws 597
Introduction to Earth and Planetary
Entry 601
Exponential Atmosphere 604
General Equations of Motion for
Atmospheric Entry 604
Application to Ballistic Entry 608
Entry Heating 614
Lifting Entry, with Application to the
Space Shuttle 621
Historical Note: Kepler 625
Historical Note: Newton and the Law
of Gravitation 627
Historical Note: Lagrange 629
Historical Note: Unmanned Space
Flight 629
Historical Note: Manned Space
Flight 634
Summary 636
Bibliography 637
Problems 637
Chapter 9
Propulsion
9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4
639
Introduction 639
Propeller 642
Reciprocating Engine 650
Jet Propulsion—The Thrust
Equation 660
9.5 Turbojet Engine 663
9.6 Turbofan Engine 668
9.7 Ramjet Engine 670
9.8 Rocket Engine 674
9.9 Rocket Propellants—Some
Considerations 681
9.9.1 Liquid Propellants 681
9.9.2 Solid Propellants 684
9.9.3 A Comment 686
9.10 Rocket Equation 687
9.11 Rocket Staging 688
Contents
9.12 Electric Propulsion
692
10.6 Some Comments 729
Bibliography 729
Problems 730
9.12.1 Electron-Ion Thruster 693
9.12.2 Magnetoplasmadynamic
Thruster 694
9.12.3 Arc-Jet Thruster 694
9.12.4 A Comment 694
9.13 Historical Note: Early Propeller
Development 695
9.14 Historical Note: Early Development of the
Internal Combustion Engine
for Aviation 698
9.15 Historical Note: Inventors of Early Jet
Engines 700
9.16 Historical Note: Early History of Rocket
Engines 703
9.17 Summary 709
Bibliography 710
Problems 710
Chapter 10
Flight Vehicle Structrures
and Materials 713
10.1 Introduction 713
10.2 Some Physics of Solid Materials
10.2.1
10.2.2
10.2.3
10.2.4
Stress 714
Strain 716
Other Cases 717
Stress-Strain Diagram 718
10.3 Some Elements of an Aircraft
Structure 721
10.4 Materials 724
10.5 Fatigue 728
xiii
714
Chapter 11
Hypersonic Vehicles
11.1
11.2
731
Introduction 731
Physical Aspects of Hypersonic
Flow 735
11.2.1 Thin Shock Layers 735
11.2.2 Entropy Layer 736
11.2.3 Viscous Interaction 737
11.2.4 High-Temperature Effects 738
11.2.5 Low-Density Flow 739
11.2.6 Recapitulation 743
11.3 Newtonian Law for Hypersonic
Flow 743
11.4 Some Comments on Hypersonic
Airplanes 749
11.5 Summary 758
Bibliography 758
Problems 758
Appendix A Standard Atmosphere,
SI Units 760
Appendix B Standard Atmosphere, English
Engineering Units 770
Appendix C Symbols and Conversion
Factors 778
Appendix D Airfoil Data
Index
808
779