Biology 3201
1. Unit 1- Maintaining Dynamic Equilibrium II
Ch. 12 – The Nervous System (pp. 390-419)
12.1 – Structure of the Nervous System
nervous system: a high-speed communication system which delivers information to and from the
brain and spinal cord and all over the body.
In any nervous system, there are 4 main components:
(1) sensors: gather information from the external environment (sense organs)
(2) conductors: carry information from sensors to modulators or from modulators to effectors
(nerves)
(3) modulators: interpret sensory information and send information to effectors (brain, spinal
cord)
(4) effectors: part of the body that responds because of information from a modulator (muscles,
glands)
The Human Nervous System
Two main components of the human nervous system:
(1) central nervous system (CNS): the brain and spinal cord
(2) peripheral nervous system (PNS): the nerves that enter and leave the brain and spinal cord
CNS
6 receives sensory information and initiates control
6 protected by several things:
(1) skull – hard casing that protects the brain
(2) vertebrae – protects spinal cord
(3) meninges – three protective membranes surrounding the brain and spinal cord. They are filled
with cerebrospinal fluid to help cushion.
(4) Ventricles (cavities) in the brain which are filled with cerebrospinal fluid
6 grey matter: brownish-grey nerve tissue consisting of mainly cell bodies within the brain and
spinal cord
6 white matter: the white nerve tissue of the brain and spinal cord, consisting of mostly
myelinated neurons.
PNS
6 two parts:
(1) autonomic nervous system: the part of the nervous system that relays information to the
internal organs that are not under the conscious control of the individual. This system is made up
of the sympathetic and the parasympathetic nervous systems.
- sympathetic: speeds up muscle activity and activates in times of stress; “fight or flight
response”
ex. Increases heart rate, breathing rate, nervousness
- parasympathetic: the network of nerves that counteract the sympathetic nervous system to slow
down heart rate and relax muscles
(2) somatic nervous system: the part of the nervous system that relays information to and from
skin and skeletal muscles that are under conscious control of the individual
The Brain
Parts of the Brain (see Fig. 12.11, p. 399)
1. Cerebrum
6 largest part of the brain; cerebral cortex folded to increase surface area
6 responsible for complex behavior and intelligence; also interprets sensory inputs and initiates
motor response
6 cerebral cortex divided into 4 lobes:
(1) frontal lobe – contains primary motor area, premotor area, Bronca’s area (motor speech), and
pre-frontal area (association)
(2) temporal lobe – located at sides of head
- contains auditory association area, primary auditory area, and sensory speech (Wernche’s area)
(3) parietal lobe – located near top of brain
- contains primary somatosensory area, somatosensory association area and primary taste area
(4) occipital lobe – located at back of cerebrum
- contains primary visual area and visual association area
6 cerebral cortex divided into two hemispheres, right and left. The cortex consists of grey matter
and the two hemispheres are connected by a structure called the corpus callosum, a layer of white
matter which transmits between the two hemispheres really quickly.
2. Cerebellum
6 the part of brain that is responsible for muscle coordination
6 contains 50% of the brain’s neurons but only takes up 10% of the space
3. Midbrain
6 a short segment of the brainstem (midbrain, pons and medulla oblongata) between the
cerebellum and pons; particularly involved in sight and hearing
4. Pons
6 contains bundles of axons traveling between the cerebellum and the rest of the CNS
6 functions with the medulla oblongata to regulate breathing rate and has reflex centers involved
in head movement
5. Medulla Oblongata
6 attaches to the spinal cord at the base of the brain
6 involved in several important processes:
- controlling heart rate - vomiting
- adjusting blood pressure - hiccupping
- controlling breathing - swallowing
6. Thalamus
6 sensory relay center of the brain that governs the flow of information from all other parts of the
nervous system
7. Hypothalamus
6 The part of the brain that acts as the main control centre for the autonomic nervous system,
reestablishes homeostasis, and controls the endocrine hormone system
12.2 How the Neuron Works
neuron: nerve cell.
Neurons can survive over 100 years, and most do not undergo cell division after adolescence (but
some can be repaired). All neurons utilize aerobic cellular respiration (requires oxygen) to
produce ATP for cell processes and for the sodium/ potassium pump (Na+/K+ pump).
Classes of neurons
(1) sensory neurons – take information from a receptor (such as pain or light) to the CNS via
interneurons
(2) interneurons – connect sensory neurons to the CNS and the CNS to the motor neurons
(3) motor neurons – receive information from the CNS (via interneurons) and carries it to an
effector (muscle or gland)
(see fig. 12.7, p. 396 Reflex arc)
Reflex responses involve all three types of neurons, but no brain involvement. They go through
the spinal cord. The impulses travel directly to the spinal cord from the affected body part,
crosses a small interneuron, and then moves to a motor neuron that transmits the impulse to a
muscle, which contracts.
Parts of a typical neuron
1. dendrite
6 sites on nerve cells that receive signals from other neurons
2. cell body
6 the main part of a neuron, containing the nucleus and other organelles (mitochondria, Golgi
apparatus, lysosomes, etc.)
3. axon
6 long cylindrical extension of a neuron’s cell body that can range from 1 mm to 1 m in length. It
transmits impulses along its length towards the next neuron
4. terminal branches (axon terminal)
6 the end of the axon that branches off and comes in close contact with the dendrites of
neighboring neurons (does not touch them). Spaces between neurons are synapses. Axon
terminals contain synaptic vesicles which hold neurotransmitters
5. Schwann cells
6 insulating cells around the axons of some nerve cells in the PNS (in the CNS,
oligiodendrocytes replace Schwann cells). Schwann cells make up a myelin sheath (fatty layer
around the axon). Myelin speeds up nervous transmission
unmyelinated neurons (and cell bodies/dendrites) – grey matter
myelinated neurons – white matter
6. node of Ranvier
6 the gap between Schwann cells around the axon of a nerve cell. The membrane of the axon is
exposed and nerve impulses jump from one node of Ranvier to the next.
The All or None Response
The impulse which travels down a neuron is electrical, and it has to be stimulated or started
somehow. If a neuron is given a mild stimulus, there is a brief and small change in the charge of
the cell membrane in the area of the stimulus but this does not continue down the length of the
neuron. However, a larger stimulus will cause the impulse to travel the length of the axon.
All or none principle: if an axon is stimulated sufficiently (above the threshold), the axon will
trigger an impulse down the length of the axon. If not, the impulse is not triggered.
It is analogous to firing a gun; you have to use enough power to pull the trigger and any less will
cause the gun not to fire. Similarly, pressing the trigger harder does not cause the bullet to go
faster. With neurons (like guns), axons cannot send strong or weak responses. Strong
environmental stimuli are determined by other things: for example, the number of neurons
activated and the type of neurons activated (some neurons have higher thresholds than others)
Transmission of Nerve Impulses (see Fig. 12.13, p. 403)
1. At Rest (Polarization)
6 outside of neuron is positively charged compared to inside (sodium ions outside, chloride and
potassium ions inside). At rest, the cell membrane is not permeable to sodium ions but very
permeable to potassium ions so they diffuse out of the cells. However, a mechanism called the
sodium/potassium pump (active transporter) pulls 3 sodium ions to the outside of the cell while
pulling 2 potassium ions inside the cell
6 resting potential: the difference in charge from the inside to the outside of a cell at rest. It is
approximately – 70 mV.
2. Depolarization
6 when a neuron is stimulated enough, gates for potassium ions channels (transporters) close and
gates for sodium ion channels open. Na+ ions move in while K+ ions move out. More positive
charges move in than out, and this neutralizes the negative charge inside the cell (actually makes
the inside slightly positive). The resulting difference in charge during depolarization is called the
action potential. Action potentials occur at cell bodies and dendrites as well.
6 depolarization at one point of the axon causes the neighboring Na+ channels to open, and the
depolarization continues down the length of the axon
3. Repolarization
6 after the Na+ channels open, K+ channels reopen to cause K+ to move out. At the same time,
Na+ channels close.
6 the sodium/potassium pump restores the original concentrations of Na+ and K+ by pumping Na+
out and K+ in.
This entire process of depolarization and repolarization occurs very quickly. An axon can send
many impulses along its length every second if it is sufficiently stimulated.
Refractory period: the brief time between the triggering of an impulse along an axon and the
axon readiness for the next impulse. During that brief time, the axon cannot transmit an impulse.
For many neurons, the refractory period is about 0.001 s.
As mentioned earlier, myelinated neurons transmit impulses much quicker than unmyelinated
ones. This is due to the fact that depolarization only occurs at the nodes of Ranvier. In a sense,
the impulse jumps from node to node until it reaches the end of the neuron. Speeds of impulses
on myelinated neurons can reach 120 m/s.
The Synapse (see Fig. 12.16, p. 405)
Synapse: junction between a neuron and another neuron or muscle cell
Neurons do not directly connected with other neurons. Instead, there are spaces which allow
impulses to be spread to several surrounding neurons, not simply one.
When a wave of depolarization reaches the end of the axon of a neuron, it causes special calcium
ion (Ca2+) gated channels to open. This calcium causes the release of neurotransmitters from
synaptic vesicles. These neurotransmitters diffuse across the gap and attach to special receptors
on the dendrites of neighboring neurons causing either an excitatory response or an inhibitory
response.
Neurotransmitter: chemicals that are secreted by neurons to stimulate motor neurons and central
nervous system neurons.
Synaptic vesicles: specialized vacuole in the bulb-like end of the axons of a nerve cell containing
neurotransmitters that are released into the synapse when a nerve impulse is received.
Excitatory response: process in which the neurotransmitter reaches the dendrites of a
postsynaptic neuron and a wave of depolarization is generated by the resultant opening of sodium
gated channels.
Inhibitory response: process in which the postsynaptic neuron is made more negative on the
inside to raise the threshold of stimulus (usually by opening of chloride channels)
Neurotransmitters may also be found in the endocrine system as hormones. For example, the
neurotransmitters noradrenaline and adrenaline are used as hormones as well.
Various neurotransmitters
(1) Acetylcholine
6 Primary neurotransmitter of both the somatic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous
system
6 can be excitatory or inhibitory. It excites skeletal muscles but inhibits cardiac muscle
(2) Noradrenaline (norepinephrine)
6 Primary neurotransmitter of the sympathetic nervous system (excitatory)
(3) Glutamate
6 An amino acid
6 found in the cerebral cortex, and it accounts for 75% of all excitatory transmission in the brain
(4) gamma amino butyric acid (GABA)
6 most common inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain
(5) dopamine
6 neurotransmitter that elevates mood and controls skeletal muscles
(6) serotonin
6 formed from tryptophan (an amino acid)
6 involved in alertness, sleepiness, thermoregulation, and mood
Drugs and the Nervous System
Classes of drugs:
1. Depressants
6 slow down the CNS; relaxes and causes people to feel less pain. Also decreases coordination
and movement
6 ex. Alcohol, heroin, morphine, Valium, anesthetics
6 the drug Valium increases GABA levels to reduce anxiety
6 anesthetics can be general or local
local: affect only a small area
general: affect all nervous system activity
2. Stimulants
6 speed up the CNS; increase energy and confidence
6 ex. Caffeine, cocaine, MDMD (ecstasy) and nicotine
6 Ecstasy depletes serotonin supply, and long term use may permanently alter neurotransmitter
levels in the CNS
3. Hallucinogens
6 cause an altered state or reality; affect memory or pleasure centers as well as perception
6 Marijuana, LSD (acid)
Disorders of the Nervous System
(1) Multiple Sclerosis (MS)
6 A serious progressive disease of the central nervous system. The myelin sheath surrounding the
nerve cells becomes inflamed or damaged. This disrupts the nerve impulses that are normally
produced.
6 Believed to be an autoimmune disorder, where the body’s own immune cells attack myelin
6 No cure presently known
6 Various symptoms depending on where disruptions occur such as blurred or double vision,
slurred speech, loss of coordination, weaknesses, and possibly seizures
(2) Alzheimer’s disease
6 A degenerative disorder that affects the brain and causes dementia, which is an impairment of
the brain’s intellectual function such as memory and orientation, especially late in life
6 It results from deposits of a protein called amyloid which disrupts communication between
nerve cells. As well, acetylcholine levels drop
6 People may also suffer personality changes
6 No cure, and limited treatments
(3) Parkinson’s disease
6 A chronic movement disorder caused by gradual decline of the neurons that produce dopamine
6 Symptoms begin as slight tremors and stiffness of limbs on one side of the body. Over time,
the tremors spread to both sides of the body and movements become slow.
6 No cure, but symptoms can be treated with drugs or surgery (if necessary)
(4) Meningitis
6 A bacterial or viral infection of the meninges, the three membranes that cover and protect the
brain and spinal cord
6 Viral meningitis is more common, but bacterial meningitis is fatal (10% fatality, and survivors
often suffer from complications like hearing impairment)
6 Symptoms include headache, fever, stiff neck, light sensitivity, vomiting, and drowsiness
6 Testing of meninges is done via a spinal tap
6 There are vaccines available for some bacterial meningitis, but none for viral meningitis
(5) Huntington’s disease (Huntington’s cholera)
6 a lethal disorder in which the brain progressively deteriorates over a period of 15 years;
symptoms typically appear after age 35
6 Causes progressive decrease in mental and emotional abilities and loss of control of major
muscle movements
6 no cure
6 Symptoms include memory loss, dementia, involuntary twitching, chorea (jerky movements)
and personality changes
Diagnosing Nervous System Disorders
1. MRI
6 stands for magnetic resonance imaging
6 uses a combination of large magnets, radio frequencies, and computers to produce detailed
images of the brain and other structures in the body
2. EEG
6 stands for electroencephalogram
6 Electrodes are attached to the forehead and scalp and brain waves are recorded
6 Printout of brain waves help diagnose certain disorders like sleep disorders and locating tumors
3. CAT Scan
6 stands for computerized tomography scan
6 takes a series of the cross-sectional X-rays to create a computer generated three dimensional
image of a part of the body
12.3 – The Sense Organs
The Eye (see Fig. 12.19, p. 410)
Iris: the muscle that adjusts the pupil to regulate the amount of light that enters the eye.
Pupil: the aperture in the middle of the iris of the eye. The size of the aperture can be adjusted to
control the amount of light
Lens: a transparent, bi-convex body situated behind the iris of the eye to focus an image on the
retina
Retina: the innermost layer of the eye; contains rods and cones, bipolar cells and ganglion cells
Sclera: the thick, white outer layer that gives the eye its shape
Cornea: the clear part of the sclera at the front of the eye
Choroid layer: the middle layer of the eye, which absorbs light and prevents internal reflection.
This layer forms the iris at the front of the eye
Rods: photoreceptors in the eye; more sensitive to light than cones, but unable to distinguish
color
Cones: color receptors in the eye (red, green, blue)
Fovea centralis: concentration of cones on the retina located directly behind the center of the
lens. Vision is the most acute here
optic nerve: conducts information received from rods and cones to the brain for interpretation.
Blind spot: an area on the retina where there are no rods or cones present; locate where blood
vessels enter the eye
How the eye works
As light enters the eye, the pupil will dilate if there isn’t enough light or it will constrict if there’s
too much. As well, the shape of the lens changes depending on how far away the object is.
Accommodation: in the eye, adjustment that the ciliary body makes to the shape of the lens to
focus on objects at varying distances
When the object is far away, the lens is flattened
When the object is close, the lens is rounded
Light enters the eye through the pupil. As it does, light rays become bent at the cornea and the
lens in such a way that an inverted and reversed image of the object focuses on the retina.
Information from this image is captured by rods and cones, which transmit their info to bipolar
cells and then ganglion cells (optic nerve). Cones transmit information to a single bipolar cell,
but require more light to become stimulated. As a result, cones see more detail and are best
suited for lighted situations (daytime). Rods, however, are very sensitive to light and cannot
distinguish color. As well, many rods connect to a single bipolar cell (up to 100 rods per bipolar
cell). This causes images to be blurry. As a result, rods are best suited to situations where there
isn’t much light and details are not important.
Disorders of the Visual System
(1) cataracts- cloudy or opaque areas on the lens of the eye that increases in size over time and
can lead to blindness if not medically treatment
(2) Glaucoma – build-up of the aqueous humor in the eye that irreversibly damages the nerve
fibers responsible for peripheral vision
(3) Myopia – near-sightedness, or difficulty in seeing things that are far away. The condition is
caused by too strong ciliary muscles or a too-long eyeball
(4) Hyperopia – far-sightedness, or difficulty in seeing near objects. This condition is caused by
weak ciliary muscles or a too short eyeball
(5) Astigmatism – abnormality in the shape of the cornea or lens that results in uneven focus
Treatments of Eye Disorders
(1) Corrective lenses – glasses, contact lenses (see. Fig 12.22, p. 414)
6 with near-sightedness, the image focuses in front of the retina. This can be fixed using a
concave lens
6 with far-sightedness, the image focuses behind the retina. This can be fixed using convex
lenses
6 astigmatisms are unique and may require combinations of convex and/or concave lenses to
bring images into focus on the retina
(2) Laser surgery – two types
6 Photorefractive keratectomy (PRK): non-invasive, simple procedure
6 LASIK surgery: more complex, some surgery required (corneal)
6 Both surgeries may diminish eyesight
(3) Corneal transplant
6 Corneas come from organ donors; no need to match blood types
6 Recovery long; most patients do well though
6 Recurrence of disease unusual
The Ear (see. Fig. 12.23, p. 415)
The human ear has three sections:
1. Outer ear
6 consists of the pinna (earlobe and ear) and the auditory canal
6 auditory canal contain hairs and sweat glands, some of which are modified to secrete wax to
trap foreign particles
2. Middle ear
6 tympanic membrane: the eardrum; a membrane of thin skin and fibrous tissue that vibrates in
response to sound waves, located between the outer ear and the middle ear
6 ossicles: the group of three small bones between the eardrum and the oval window of the
middle ear; transmit sound waves from the eardrum to the inner ear
malleus - hammer
incus – anvil
stapes – stirrup
6 round window: one of the two small openings at the end of the middle ear
6 Oval window: same as round, except it is located behind the stapes
6 Eustachian tube: bony passage extending from the middle ear to the nasopharynx that plays a
role in equalizing air pressure on both sides of the eardrum. Yawning can cause the air to move
through the tubes and the ear will “pop”
3. Inner Ear
6 Vestibule: involved in balance and equilibrium
6 Semicircular canals: three tubes involved in balance and equilibrium
6 Cochlea: involved in hearing. Have several parts (see. Fig. 12.24, p. 416)
- vestibular canal: one of the three canals in the cochlea; joins the tympanic canal and leads to the
round window
- tympanic canal: one of three canals of the cochlea
- cochlear canal: one of three canals of the cochlea
- basilar membrane: one of the two parallel membranes that comprise the organ of Corti in the
inner ear; forms the lower wall of the cochlear canal
- spiral organ (organ of Corti): the sensory part of the cochlea which responds to sound (made of
basilar and tectorial membranes); sends information to auditory nerve
- tectorial membrane: one of two parallel membranes that comprise the spiral organ in the inner
ear. During the transmission of sound waves, the basilar membrane vibrate, causing the sensory
hairs to flex against the tectorial membrane
Disorders of the Auditory System
(1) Nerve Deafness
6 caused by damage to hair cells in the spiral organ
6 typically found with aging and cannot be reversed
6 hearing loss uneven, some frequencies more affected than others
(2) Conduction Deafness
6 usually caused by damage to the outer or middle ear that affects transmission to the inner ear
6 not usually a total loss of hearing; can be helped with hearing aids
(3) Ear Infections
6 caused by fluid build-up behind the eardrums, common in children
6 fluid builds up because of the shallow angle of the auditory tube
Treating Auditory Disorders
(1) Hearing Aids
(2) Eustachian tube implants
6 also called tympanostomy tube surgery; used to treat infections
6 tiny plastic tubes are placed in a slit in the eardrum, relieving the pressure from the built-up
fluid and allowing in to drain