The effective use of English
Introduction .................................................................................................................. 3
Provenance of course ............................................................................................... 3
Overview .............................................................................................................. 3
Course description ............................................................................................... 3
1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 4
2 What is academic writing? .................................................................................... 5
Extract from S102, a previous Level 1 science course ........................................ 7
Extract from a workbook of K263, a Level 2 health and social welfare course .. 8
Extract from A316, a Level 3 art history course .................................................. 8
3 Reflecting on your language history ................................................................... 10
4 Assessing your own writing ................................................................................ 12
4.1 Looking at your writing ............................................................................... 12
4.2 Preparation for writing ................................................................................. 14
4.3 What do editing and proof-reading mean?................................................... 14
5 The ‘tools’ of writing .......................................................................................... 15
5.1 Introduction .................................................................................................. 15
5.2 Paragraphs .................................................................................................... 15
5.3 Sentences...................................................................................................... 16
5.4 Grammar ...................................................................................................... 17
5.5 Punctuation .................................................................................................. 24
5.6 Vocabulary – finding the right words .......................................................... 31
5.7 Spelling ........................................................................................................ 33
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5.8 Using other people's words .......................................................................... 37
6 Using dictionaries and grammar books............................................................... 39
6.1 Using dictionaries ........................................................................................ 39
6.2 Using grammar books .................................................................................. 41
7 Further reading and sources of help .................................................................... 42
7.1 Books ........................................................................................................... 42
7.2 Computer software ....................................................................................... 43
7.3 Websites ....................................................................................................... 44
Publication Acknowledgements............................................................................. 45
Do this ................................................................................................................ 45
Try this ............................................................................................................... 45
Acknowledgements .................................................................................................... 46
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Introduction
Do you feel that sometimes your writing is not as effective as it could be? Do you
want to develop the skills you need to write effective academic content?
This unit begins by looking at what academic writing is. It then works through your
own experience of language; encourages you to be critical of your own writing,
through the skills of assessment, editing and proof-reading; and finally concentrates
on what we call the ‘tools’ of language, such as punctuation, grammar and spelling.
A range of activities will allow you to practise the skills you are learning.
Studying this unit will help you:
 discover what it means to write in an academic way;
 learn how to reflect on your language history in order to help you to understand
how your use of language has developed;
 to think about your existing skills and to identify which skills you need to
develop;
 through instruction, worked examples and practice activities with answers, gain
an understanding of the following language concepts: paragraphs; sentences;
grammar; punctuation; vocabulary; spelling; using other people's words;
referencing (including the Harvard System);
 find useful dictionaries and grammar books;
 find useful references to further reading and sources of help.
Provenance of course
Overview
This is a toolkit which formed part of a series provided by Student Services to help
students develop study skills. It was first produced in 2004. The toolkit is currently
available, but is to be replaced by the material being published on the Skills for OU
study website.
There is no audio, video or software. This unit stands alone to be used as
preparation for undergraduate study.
Suggested study hours 10
Course description
This toolkit was created for students who are having difficulty with their written
English. It seeks to give them greater control over the language they use when
writing up assignments or projects. It includes instruction and activities.
The toolkit begins with a description of what ‘academic writing’ means. This is
followed by a section on reflection, asking the student to think about how they have
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used language throughout their lives, both written and spoken. By prompting the
student to reflect on their personal language background the unit helps them to
understand how their use of language has developed.
The toolkit then continues to explore the ‘tools’ of writing. This includes
information on
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paragraphs
sentences
grammar
punctuation
vocabulary
spelling
using other people’s words
referencing (including the Harvard System)
Who was the course for?
The toolkit is aimed at Open University students who have concerns about their
written English. It seeks to help students to gain the confidence to use language
more skilfully and to better effect for their course work. Students who may find this
unit useful also include those whose schooling was disrupted or whose full time
education may have ended some time ago. It is also useful for those whose first
language is not English.
1 Introduction
Do you feel that sometimes your writing is not as effective as it could be?
What do you consider are your main worries and concerns about your written
English?
Spend a few minutes writing down your answers to these questions before you read
on.
One student has said:
I find it hard to convey my thoughts on paper. I am not always sure my
sentences say what I want them to say, and I know I have difficulties
with spelling.
We hope that when you have worked through this unit you will have gained the
confidence to use language more skilfully and to better effect. That is, that you will
be a more confident and skilled writer: able to express yourself clearly, to construct
grammatical sentences, to use punctuation to support meaning, and to find correct
spellings.
As a student, your success depends to a large extent on your command of language
as you read and try to understand ideas and concepts, and as you write assignments
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and projects. Having a greater control over the language you use in your writing
will enable you to communicate your knowledge and ideas more effectively.
Everyone experiences difficulty with written English at some time or another. Even
experienced writers struggle over the spelling of some words and find it hard to
decide how to structure a sentence in order to avoid an ambiguous phrase. This is
particularly true when you have to produce a piece of writing in an area where you
have limited experience; for example, having to write up the minutes of a
committee meeting in which new and subtle arguments were expressed, or a letter
of complaint which you hope will result in a compensation payment.
Similarly, if you are new to academic study or are learning a new subject that you
have not encountered before, you may well feel that you are struggling to express
yourself in the way that you would like. There can be many reasons for this: maybe
your schooling was disrupted; your full time education may have ended a long time
ago; you may have been educated in a different country with an educational system
that required different things of you; or maybe English is not your first language.
Whatever your particular reason, we hope that this unit will help. It is not a ‘magic
wand’, but just a starting point to put you on the road to improving your language
skills. This is a practical unit, which begins by looking at what academic writing is.
It then works through your own experience of language; encourages you to be
critical of your own writing, through the skills of assessment, editing and proofreading; and finally concentrates on what we call the ‘tools’ of language, such as
punctuation, grammar and spelling. At the end we give you some suggestions for
further sources of help.
We expect you to be an active learner and to have a go at the activities we've
provided within the unit.
We anticipate that after you have worked through this unit you will feel more
confident about your writing and understand more of what effective communication
entails. Hopefully, you will find it easier to write your assignments and your use of
English will be more effective. Remember though that these things do not happen
instantly and that, as with any new skill, it often takes a long time to master it
completely. If this unit has helped to put you on the road to greater success in your
written work then it will have achieved its aim.
Good luck!
2 What is academic writing?
In this section we will be looking at what writing in an academic way means.
The original Activity 1 has been deleted, as it contained third party content.
The activity asked the student to compare two extracts from two different
newspapers – a tabloid and a broadsheet. Both covered the same topic and appeared
on the same day. They were both written by the same author, but in very different
styles.
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Students were asked to
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note the differences between the two pieces of writing;
identify the target audience;
identify the effect the target audience had to the writing style of each
extract;
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describe the differences between the two writing styles;
note down the effect of quotations on the reader;
identify which extract would be more useful to support an
assignment;
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identify the extract which was closest to the writing style they would
be likely to find in course units and set books.
A discussion followed on how the same subject can be written in different ways to
achieve different effects, and compared the use of headlines, quotations, pictures
and language in relation to both articles.
You probably use different styles of writing according to your purpose in writing.
For instance, letters to a friend and notes to family members are written in an
everyday style that is different from the business style of formal letters, minutes of
meetings, or technical reports at work. If you are writing an essay or report as part
of a course, you will need to adopt yet another style: one that we call academic
writing, which follows conventions of standard English. One of the main
differences between academic and everyday writing is that you are usually asked to
express a point of view based on evidence of one kind or another rather than merely
giving your personal opinion based on your feelings. Academic writing needs to
sound more formal, or impersonal. There can be differences between different
subjects, such as history or biology, but mainly this is because different kinds of
evidence are used. The purpose is the same: to take a topic and put forward ideas
and reasons which explain it, using a variety of forms of information such as
statistics, practical examples drawn from experiment, documents, or artifacts,
diagrams, maps and notes as evidence.
However, there are differences between subjects in the way language is used. So,
what is expected of you in your writing may differ, depending on the subject or
discipline you are studying.
For instance, sometimes words are used in different and very precise ways, as are
the words ‘mouse’ and ‘window’ in computing. Language can be written in direct
straightforward sentences, or in more complex ones; sometimes the first person (I
or me) is used, as in a direct quotation in a newspaper extract, whereas at other
times, it is not. If you are unsure of the appropriate style to use, you will need to
check the guidelines for your course. Sometimes the first person is best (for
example, ‘I think that…’); on other occasions, the passive voice (for example, ‘it is
thought that …’) is better as it gives a more impersonal and objective style.
Activity
Below you will find some extracts which have been taken from course material
provided by the Open University. They cover a variety of subject areas and levels
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of study. Read them and consider the questions that follow. Try not to look at the
answers until you have come up with your own ideas.
Extract from S102, a previous Level 1 science course
Kepler's first law
The planets of the Solar System orbit the Sun along elliptical paths.
The Sun is at one focus of the elliptical orbits.
An ellipse is a very easy shape to draw if you have two drawing pins, a
piece of string and a pencil. First, fasten the ends of the string to the
‘pin-parts’ of the two drawing pins. Now press the drawing pins into
your drawing surface a distance d apart, where d is less than the length
of the string. Take a sharp pencil, and with the tip, extend the string
until it is taut. Now draw the curve which the pencil follows when it is
moved in such a way as to keep the string taut. The curve is an ellipse;
the pins are at the foci of the ellipse. An ellipse can be defined as that
curve for which the sum of the distances from the two foci to any point
on the curve, is constant, i.e. in the diagram, r1 + r2 = constant. The
shape of the ellipse can be altered in one of two ways. The distance
between the two foci can be changed without changing the length of
the string, or the length of the string can be changed without changing
the positions of the foci. The distance AO (in the diagram) is known as
the semi-major axis, and the distance OB as the semi-minor axis. If the
two foci are made coincident (i.e. d = 0) the ellipse reduces to a circle.
Kepler's first law says that the planets orbit the Sun along elliptical
paths, with the Sun at one focus of the elliptical orbits. The other focus
has no significance in the case of planetary motion.
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What is the purpose of this extract?
How would you describe the style?
Pick out some examples of specialised scientific vocabulary.
Discussion
This is basically a set of instructions which tell us how to perform a particular
task. The task itself is designed to help us understand scientific law. The style is
direct and straightforward as it wants to avoid any ambiguity. Some examples of
specialised vocabulary are: ellipse, foci, constant. The author uses inverted commas
to identify a made-up expression (‘pin-parts’), which is used to describe something
otherwise indescribable.
End of discussion
Activity
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Extract from a workbook of K263, a Level 2 health and
social welfare course
The scene-setting we have been doing in this section has been mainly
about how workers get ‘chosen’ and what their socialisation as workers
involves. We've looked at how discrimination can severely affect how
people play their part as workers and even what part they play. We've
also looked briefly at users. Resources and the supply of the workforce
can affect people's chances of receiving treatment. The social
characteristics some people have may further affect their chances of
what sort of treatment or services they receive. Access to services is
not equal, and treatment is not equal either.
Discrimination can be experienced at a personal level and also
understood at a structural level in society. How the workforce is
constituted is not only a matter for statistical forecasting and analysis
but has real impact on the quality of people's lives, whether as users or
as workers.
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How would you describe the style of this piece?
Is it the same as the previous one? If not, then how does it differ?
What specific vocabulary can you pick out here?
Discussion
Discussion
This extract is also written in a direct, straightforward style, with short simple
sentences. It talks directly to the reader in a personal kind of way: ‘The scenesetting we have been doing …’ It uses the shortened form of we have – ‘we've’,
which also makes it sound less formal. Unlike the previous extract it is not a set of
instructions; it is a summary of what has already been discussed. The author uses
specialised vocabulary, (for instance ‘socialisation’ and ‘users’), and defines
abstract ideas (such as ‘discrimination’, ‘resources’ and ‘the supply of the
workforce’). An ordinary word used in a specific way is identified by putting
quotation marks round it – ‘chosen’.
End of discussion
Activity
Extract from A316, a Level 3 art history course
There is clearly a problem in trying to represent succinctly the ideas
and activities that took place under the aegis of Dada. It isn't just that
the one general label was used to stand for a range of geographically,
intellectually, politically and artistically diverse work. It is also that,
for many of those who produced the work, one of its characteristics
was that it systematically avoided clarity, consistency and logical
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analysis. In the same way as many Dada pictures are clearly ironic and
others are, so to speak, only ironically clear, some are intentionally
confusing but are not necessarily the product of confused intentions.
Similarly, much Dada writing is of the same uncertain character. What
may sound like a clear statement of intent may only be intended to lay
a false trail.
There is the further confusion that we are interpreting these works and
utterances from a distance, so it is often difficult to distinguish a
statement meant to convey a literal truth from one that is largely
rhetorical. (This is obviously a difficulty for any historical
interpretation, not just in the analysis of Dada.) There was, for
example, a lot of antipathy expressed against earlier art. Hostility to
Cubism and Futurism was metered out in much Zurich and Parisian
Dada, and German Dada was often couched in highly antiExpressionist terms. But while it is clear that the Dadaists sought to
distance themselves from what these movements may have become
towards the end of the second decade of the century, their work was in
many ways dependent upon those earlier styles and techniques.
Without Cubism, for example, there would have been no precedent for
collage; Futurist irrationalism, vitalism and simultaneity pervade much
of their writing and ‘cabarets’; their appeals to ‘directness’, to ‘nature’,
and to some form of pre-cultural organic community, or Gemeinschaft,
as well as their woodblock-printing techniques, are clearly derived
from Expressionism.
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How is this extract different from the others?
How would you describe its style? What contributes to this? (For
example, look at the structure of the sentences.)
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Again, are there any specialised words, or everyday words used in a
specific way?
Discussion
Discussion
The writing here seems more complex doesn't it? This is largely as a result of the
use of longer and more complex sentences as well as the use of a good deal of
subject specific language and generally more sophisticated vocabulary. It abounds
with specific terms, such as ‘Dada’, ‘Cubism’, and ‘Futurism’. It also uses ordinary
words in a specific way and denotes these by the use of quotation marks, for
example ‘cabarets’, ‘directness’, ‘nature’. It also ‘plays’ with words and phrases,
for instance ‘clearly ironic’ and ‘ironically clear’.
End of discussion
We hope this exercise has shown you that even within the term ‘academic writing’
there is large variation between both subject area and level. Different writers adopt
slightly different styles but what they all share is a use of English which conforms
to the rules of standard English as regards sentence construction, punctuation,
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grammar and spelling and use of appropriate vocabulary. It is the kind of language
that you are going to come across and respond to in your studies.
In the next section, we ask you to look at your own use of language and to see how
that has evolved. It is important to recognise your own starting point before you
begin to develop your language skills further.
3 Reflecting on your language history
The language we use – both spoken and written – reflects who we are. Where we
were born and grew up plays an important part in determining the language we
speak. The language that our parents and family spoke is probably the most
important influence when we are small, and then our friends, schooling and jobs all
add to the pool of language from which we choose.
Reflecting on your personal language background can help you to understand how
your use of language developed. This is true whether English is your first, second,
or even third, language.
Activity
Think for a moment about the questions below and then answer them. They are for
your eyes only so answer them honestly.
From birth to school age
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Which language(s), or dialect(s), did you hear first, do you think?
From whom?
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Which one did you learn to speak first?
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How many language(s) or dialect(s) were you using by the time you
went to school? With whom?
Discussion
Here are some extracts from the language histories of others that you might like to
compare with your own.
A I was born in Birmingham in the Midlands in 1950, the last of five children.
English was the first language I heard and spoke although for some reason I did not
utter a word till I was 3 years of age. My parents always encouraged me to speak
‘properly’ which meant sounding Ts; not swearing; not speaking in a ‘brummie’
accent.
B I was born into Wapping in London's East End and I speak with a cockney
accent. But cockney is more than just an accent, it's almost a language in its own
right. It uses many variations – the most known being rhyming slang – euphemism
and implicit meanings. My father was a great one for using rhyming slang. Bedtime
arrived with the announcement of ‘up the apples’ and meals were always served on
the ‘cain and abel’. Mum is a Geordie, but has lived in the East End for so long
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she's assumed a cockney accent, unless we have visitors from ‘up north’ then she
slips back to her geordie accent.
End of discussion
Activity
Through school
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Think about the place(s) where you went to school. Where did you go
to nursery or kindergarten; first/primary/middle school; secondary school?
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Which language did you learn to read and write in? Did this differ
from your pre-school language experience?
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Which language, or dialect, did the teachers or instructors use? Did
this affect your own use of language? Why?
Discussion
Again, here are examples from others.
C I was educated at a convent school in North-East Brazil until I was I5 years old
(1950s and early 60s). The nuns were Brazilian and German (refugees from the
Nazis). I grew up hearing German, although I couldn't speak it. I started learning
French at school when I was ten and English when I was eleven. My mother was
very keen on education, and we children had private tuition in these languages,
from native speakers. My private English tutor was actually Welsh.
D My first language is German and I started learning English at school at the age of
eleven. I continued until I stopped studying at 20. Some teachers had been to
America and so their teaching was often American English.
End of discussion
Activity
Work and study since school
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How have the jobs you have done, since school, affected your
language use?
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Think about speaking, listening, reading and writing. Do you still use
all the languages and dialects you have learnt?
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In your experience of study since school, what more have you learnt
about your own use of language?
Discussion
Here are some more examples.
E After leaving school I trained as a nursery nurse and here I learnt a completely
different language; for example ‘developmental milestones’, ‘lack of stimulation’,
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‘environmental influences’, ‘temper tantrums’. This is what I would term
professional language or jargon. In addition, I learnt that although people used
English, the meaning attached to the same word could vary greatly, for example ‘to
beat a child’ to an English person means beating with a strap or similar object, but
to a Caribbean person this means a smack. The realisation came from working and
mixing socially with people from the Caribbean. I found the Caribbean use of
English to be warm and friendly yet at times harsh as well as very descriptive,
creating a picture of what was being expressed very quickly.
F Just before leaving secondary school, most of the school-leavers were applying
for jobs (there were plenty to go round in those days) and I remember one
particular incident. A girl from another class had applied for a shop assistant's job
at John Lewis's department store in Oxford Street, and she was turned down
because of her accent. That was the first time I was aware of the connection
between class, accent and prejudice. I was working class and expected to fit into the
niche provided. The aspirations for my contemporaries and I were to get a trade and
that's what most of us did.
Thinking about your own answers and the extracts from other students’ language
histories, you will see that there is a great variety amongst us. Variation in spoken
English comes from dialect and from accent, which vary according to where we
were born, where we live or which social group we come from. Accent and dialect
are a very important part of who we are, and many of us will hang on to them in
certain circumstances, such as with family and friends, but adopt a different style of
language in more formal situations and in academic writing. This switching
between varieties of language is useful, but we need to know which ‘voice’ is
appropriate for different situations.
End of discussion
Activity
If you are currently studying, consider the following questions.
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How will your experience help you be an effective student? For
example, you might understand more about the nature of language itself, or
know that some languages are seen as being of a higher status than others.
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Which language skills do you think you need to develop now, if you
are to become an even better student?
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Are there any specific skills you will need for your particular course?
Refer to any assignment guidelines you have been given for your course.
These will contain some very useful advice on what is required.
Now that you have thought about your language background, the skills you have
acquired, and the skills you need to develop, in the next section we ask you to look
specifically at your own writing and to assess its strengths and weaknesses.
4 Assessing your own writing
4.1 Looking at your writing
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For this section we ask you to have a recent essay or report handy, or, if you are not
studying a course, a piece of formal writing. You could choose an official letter, a
report from work, or even an old school essay. If you have nothing to use, we
suggest that you use your notes from the previous section to write a short
autobiography based on your language history.
Activity
Now read through your piece of writing and ask yourself the following questions
about it. Some people find it helpful to read aloud.
Structure
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Does the piece have an introductory paragraph which re-states the
question and tells the reader what to expect in the main body of the
essay/report?
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Is there a conclusion that sums up your answer and refers back to the
title?
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Do your ideas follow each other in a logical order?
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Have you really answered the question?
Paragraphing
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Is the essay/report broken up into several paragraphs?
Does each paragraph contain one main idea?
Style
Does the essay/report sound right – does it flow?
Is it written in what you would call ‘academic’ rather than ‘everyday’
language?
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Sentences
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Are there clearly defined sentences which start with a capital letter
and end with a full stop or question mark?
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Does each sentence have a subject (a noun or pronoun) and a verb?
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Is the verb in the right tense; that is, in the past, present or future?
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Have you used the singular or plural appropriately; is everything in
the sentence consistent?
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Have you followed the conventions for using commas, semi-colons,
quotation marks?
Vocabulary
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Do you use a variety of words, rather than repeating the same words
over and over again?
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Have you used your own words rather than copied them from course
material or a book? If you have used others’ words then have you enclosed
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them in quotation marks and given a reference to say where they have come
from?
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Have you spelt all the words accurately? If in doubt, check in the
dictionary.
Discussion
If you are not sure about some of these questions, the next section of the unit,
Section 5 The ‘tools’ of writing, may help you. Look up the relevant part of the
section if you are unclear about anything, and then refer back to these questions.
End of discussion
4.2 Preparation for writing
If you found that after reading your piece of work and answering the questions, you
were really unhappy with your writing, then maybe you had not spent enough time
preparing to write before you got started. By this we mean doing such things as:
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looking at the question set, picking out the key words and working
out exactly what it is asking you to do;
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reading any assignment guidance notes you have been given for your
course, and following any advice given there;
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planning your assignment;
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writing a first draft, checking it over, and then redrafting until you
are happy with the result.
A good model for planning is to brainstorm by writing down all the words and
ideas about your given topic that come into your head and then drawing up a plan
for the essay or report either through a mind map (which organises your thoughts
in a diagrammatic way using ‘bubbles’ containing words or ideas that are linked to
others by arrows and lines) or a diagram or by listing your ideas in a logical order.
After redrafting, it is a good idea to go through a process of editing and proofreading.
4.3 What do editing and proof-reading mean?
Editing means thinking about the content of what you have written and making
changes to your writing to get your meaning across more clearly. Proof-reading
means checking for grammar, spelling and punctuation.
It is a good idea to read through once to make editing changes and a second time
for proof-reading changes. Questions 1–8 on structure, paragraphing and style form
the basis of the editing process; questions 9–17 on sentences and vocabulary are
useful for proof-reading.
If you found that you had errors that arose from the questions on sentences and
vocabulary, that is, in the proof-reading stage, then you should find the next section
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of this unit helpful; it breaks down the process of writing into a series of ‘tools’ and
offers advice for improvement.
5 The ‘tools’ of writing
5.1 Introduction
Up to now, we have looked at the general writing process; now we are going to
break this down to look at specific aspects of language, that is, the ‘tools’. By
learning the rules of standard English for such things as punctuation and spelling,
and then practising the use of them through activities, you will find that you
become more confident and more adept at using them. Noting such things in other
people's writing will also help you. Hopefully, the more you practise the more
fluent your writing will become, and you will see the results in better grades.
5.2 Paragraphs
Do you have a problem knowing when to break up your writing into paragraphs?
Some tutors have identified the following difficulties with paragraphing in
students’ writing:
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the report or essay is written in continuous prose, without any
paragraphing at all;
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each paragraph consists of only a single sentence;
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paragraphs are over-long;
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paragraphing is arbitrary with no real understanding of what a
paragraph is supposed to do.
What are paragraphs for?
Paragraphs are a way of organising a piece of writing, so good paragraphing can
help you structure your essay or report. Good paragraphing should lead you
through an essay, clearly signposting the various stages. A simple plan for your
essay or report will assist you.
What is a paragraph?
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Paragraphs are clusters of sentences about the same topic.
Within each paragraph, there should be one main idea, which should
appear in the topic (or ‘signpost’) sentence. This should come at or near the
start of the paragraph.
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The other sentences in the paragraph should expand on this idea,
either by developing the argument or providing illustrations.

Each new main idea should form the basis of a new paragraph.
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Paragraphs can be linked by transitional words or phrases such as
‘however’, ‘on the other hand’, ‘conversely’, ‘in conclusion’. These are often
referred to as ‘linking words’.
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5.3 Sentences
Good sentence structure is the key to clear expression. When the meaning of a
piece of writing is unclear, it is often because it is not written in proper sentences.
Some of the main faults are:
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omission of or inaccurate use of punctuation, especially capital letters
and full-stops;
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omission of or incomplete use of verbs;
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inappropriate word order;

sentences that are too long, with too many ideas crammed together.
If you are struggling with sentence structure, then the rules and exercises that
follow might help. However, the basic advice is to write in short simple sentences.
Often, a good way of seeing if a sentence sounds right is to read it out loud.
Guidance points



A sentence is a group of words which makes sense on its own.
Tom lives in a house.
Sentences begin with a capital letter and end with a full stop or a
question mark or exclamation mark.

Each sentence needs a subject (the person or thing that the sentence is
about), which maybe a noun or pronoun, and a verb, which describes what
the subject is doing or being.

Tom (noun) lives (verb) in a house.
There are four main types of sentence.
Statement – expresses a fact or opinion and ends with a full-stop(.).
It is cold today. (fact)
I think it is cold today. (opinion)
Question – used to request information or pose a proposition and ends
with a question mark(?).

What is the time?

Are you coming to the cinema tonight?

Command – issues an instruction and ends with a full stop.

Use 100 grams of flour. (recipe)

Do not walk on the grass. (notice in a park)

Exclamation – expresses strong feeling and ends with an explanation
mark(!).

What a beautiful view!




Activity
Which of the following examples are complete sentences? Re-write the incomplete
sentences to make them complete.
16
1.
Communication is an important skill.
2.
Reading the newspaper.
3.
When is the next television broadcast for our course?
4.
Difficulties in essay writing: paragraphs, sentences, punctuation,
spelling.
5.
I really love getting good marks!
Answer
1.
Complete sentence
2.
Incomplete sentence; it needs a complete verb – it should read, for
example, I am reading the newspaper.
3.
Complete sentence (question)
4.
Incomplete sentence; this is not a sentence because there is no verb. It
could correctly read: Some of the difficulties students have with essay
writing are with paragraphs, sentences, punctuation and spelling.
5.
Complete sentence (exclamation)
End of answer
Activity
All the following are complete sentences; underline the subject and the verb in each
one.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
She was often drawing diagrams.
Reading is difficult in a foreign language.
I like playing tennis in the afternoon.
When you begin to cook, it is important to have everything ready.
Marie is a talented pianist.
Answer
(1) She
was often
drawing diagrams.
(subject) (verb)
(verb)
(2) Reading is difficult in a foreign language.
(subject) (verb)
(3) I
like
playing tennis in the afternoon.
(subject) (verb)
(verb)
(4) When you begin to cook, it
is important to have everything ready.
(subject) (verb)
(subject) (verb)
(5) Marie
is a talented pianist.
(subject) (verb)
End of answer
5.4 Grammar
17
You may have bad memories of being taught grammar at school, or you may have
learnt English as an additional language more recently; in both cases you may
associate grammar with rules and regulations and being asked to label parts of
sentences. Most of us write without really being able to ‘label’ what we write, but
for people used to writing standard English the use of commonly accepted grammar
is automatic. If you are not so used to writing, then you need to be aware of the
conventions of grammar in order to help you write meaningful sentences. Below
we give you some basic guidelines along with some activities to do. You should
also attempt to read one or more of the more detailed grammar books outlined in
Section 7: Further reading and sources of help.
The language of grammar
There are many terms used to describe the parts of speech. Below you will find
some of the terms that you may require.



A noun is the name of a person, thing, or quality:
David, house, sparrow, beauty, honour.
A pronoun is used in place of a noun (usually to avoid having to
repeat it):

he, she, me, it, they, you, anyone.

A verb expresses an action: it is a doing word:

he reads, she thinks, we study.
or it expresses states of being:






I am, he is, we will, they might.
An adjective describes a noun or pronoun:
a black cat, a large book, the woman is intelligent, he is tired.
An adverb clarifies and extends a verb (or an adjective):
he ran quickly, she sings beautifully, an unusually tall boy.
A preposition introduces a phrase (a group of words), containing a
noun or pronoun:

Put it on the table, by airmail, over the top.

A conjunction joins words, phrases, or clauses:

bread and butter, poor but honest, he played well, although he was
injured.
Some notes on verbs







A verb is a word or group of words that:
describes what a subject is doing – Bill reads
describes an action – the computer developed a fault
describes a state of being or feeling – I am forty.
Sometimes a verb needs another word or two to complete it:
Mary will have packed her case by Friday, Mary is going to Caen
I will feel angry, I will telephone you soon.
The ‘is’, ‘will’ and ‘will have’ in these examples help form the tense of the
verb and show when the action or feeling is taking place.
18
These other words, called auxiliary (helping) verbs, are usually from one of
the verbs:




to be Mary is going to Caen
to have Mary will have packed her case
to do I did feel angry yesterday
The ‘to’ form of the word is called the infinitive (without time or
tense).




You can usually add ‘n't’ to most of the auxiliary verbs:
He isn't going to Caen, I haven't talked to you already.
You cannot add ‘n't’ to the main verb:
He walkn't to work.
You should write:



He didn't walk to work.
A verb has to agree with its subject:
I walk to college, she walks to work.
To do this, most verbs add an s for ‘he’, ‘she’ and ‘it’ in the present tense:

She thinks, he swims, it works.
So, if you were to write ‘I walks’, it would be wrong because the subject and
verb would not agree; it should be ‘I walk’.
Similarly, if you write ‘They is going to Caen’, it would be wrong because
the subject and verb would not agree. The correct form to use here is ‘are’.
You should write:

They are going to Caen.
Activity
Here are some practice sentences. Underline the correct verb form in each case.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
We go/goes to the cinema.
She never sing/sings to her grandmother.
The travel agency is/are closed on Sundays.
The Art College is/are having an exhibition.
There is/are too many people on the beach.
A diamond ring and a ruby necklace was/were stolen.
Answer
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
We go to the cinema.
She never sings to her grandmother.
The travel agency is closed on Sundays.
The Art College is having an exhibition.
There are too many people on the beach.
19
6.
A diamond ring and a ruby necklace were stolen.
End of answer
Double subjects

Where the subject of a sentence is made up of two or more separate
subjects, the verb is generally used in the plural form:

Mary and Peter are coming to France.

The cows, pigs and other animals are all well fed.
Sometimes it seems hard to decide if the subject is singular or plural
especially when the word before the verb seems to show a plural subject:

The bag of grapes was broken. (What was broken was the bag not the
grapes, so a singular verb is needed.)
Collective nouns and verbs
Some nouns name a group (a flock, a herd, a family). These are called collective
nouns.

When the group is considered as a single unit, these nouns use the
singular form of the verb:

The herd rushes out of the field.

The whole family is unhappy.
But when, for example, the family being described is made up of separate
members each with a different view, the plural verb is used:

My family have very different views on life.
Verbs and tenses

The tense of the verb in a sentence shows the time when an action
takes place:

She will play hockey tomorrow. (future tense)

She played a record yesterday. (past tense)
Tense can be shown by the use of more than one verb or more than one ‘verb
word’ (‘will’, ‘have’, and ‘had’ are types of verb – they are sometimes called
auxiliary verbs):





She will be playing.
They had been talking.
We should have gone.
I could be helping.
Although verb endings change according to the tense or the subject,
they do not change when the infinitive form (the ‘to’ form) of the verb is
used:
20



I forgot to go to the shop this morning.
We wanted to play football yesterday.
Verbs are either regular or irregular; a regular verb takes a regular set
of endings when you change its tense or subject, whereas an irregular does
not:
Regular
Irregular
Tense I walk (present) I go (present)
I walked (past) I went (past)
I am
Subject I walk
He walks
He is
Activity
Insert the correct verb ending to indicate that the action took place in the past.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
I post– the letters yesterday.
We play– a duet on the piano.
She dance– gracefully last night.
They were eat– greedily.
He was write– carefully.
Be aware of tense when writing. Within a sentence you must not drift from one
tense to another.
Answer
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
I posted the letters yesterday.
We played a duet on the piano.
She danced gracefully last night.
They were eating greedily.
He was writing carefully. (Note the final e disappears.)
End of answer
Activity
Underline the appropriate verb tense from the pair in these sentences.
1.
2.
3.
She unpacked/unpacks the shopping and put it in the cupboard.
He is stirring the soup as it boils/boiled on the stove.
She picks up the shears and cut/cuts the hedge.
21
Answer
1.
2.
3.
She unpacked the shopping and put it in the cupboard.
He is stirring the soup as it boils on the stove.
She picks up the shears and cuts the hedge.
End of answer
Past tenses – what are they?
There are many different ways of expressing things which have already happened.
There are several forms of the past tense which you might use.
Verbs
to perform
to study
to go
to be
Names of past tenses
performed
studied
went
was/were
Simple past
was/were
was/were
was/were going was/were
Past continuous
performing studying
being
has/have
has/have
has/have gone has/have
Past perfect
performed
studied
been
Perfect continuous has/have been has/have been has/have been has/have
performing studying
going
been being
had been
had been
had been going had been
Past perfect
performing studying
being
continuous
Prepositions and conjunctions
Prepositions
The word ‘preposition’ means ‘place before’ and usually introduces a phrase
containing a noun or pronoun.


Here is a list of words that can be used as prepositions:
for, above, on, at, between, until, after, without, against, along,
underneath, off, near, across, since, with, before, of.
Prepositions often show the relationship between the noun or pronoun they precede
and another word in the sentence.






The relationship usually involves time or place:
We will meet before six.
We will meet underneath the clock.
Sometimes more than one preposition will be used.
We will meet next to the clock.
It is worth checking that there are no unnecessary prepositions in a
sentence.

Our seats were very near to the orchestra.
22
This could read more effectively as:


Our seats were very near the orchestra.
On the whole, it sounds better if you do not end a sentence with a
preposition.

I have not got the eggs to make it with.
Instead write:



I have not got the eggs with which to make it.
Sometimes inappropriate prepositions are used.
Bianca was ashamed with her carpentry.
This should read:

Bianca was ashamed of her carpentry.
Activity
Add, change or remove a preposition or other word in these sentences.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
He knocked the book off of the table.
Louis lives … Munich.
She put her briefcase … the floor.
He left his mother on the church.
I'm bored of writing letters.
Jazz was music he was tired of.
Answer
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
He knocked the book off the table. (of not needed)
Louis lives in Munich.
She put her briefcase on the floor.
He left his mother at/by/in the church.
I'm bored with/by writing letters.
Jazz was music of which he was tired.
End of answer
Final tip

When two different personal pronouns follow a preposition, you can
tell which form to use if you temporarily or mentally re-use the preposition
before the second pronoun:

He sent flowers to her and (to) me.
Activity
Underline the appropriate personal pronoun in the following sentences.
23
1.
2.
3.
She spoke to (him/he) and (me/I) about my assignment.
The task was allocated between (they/them) and (we/us).
According to (her/she) and (I/me), the film is excellent.
Answer
1.
2.
3.
She spoke to him and me about my assignment.
The task was allocated between them and us.
According to her and me, the film is excellent.
End of answer
Conjunctions

A conjunction is a word which links two sentences or groups of
words together; for example ‘and’, ‘but’ and ‘or’:

He went to the shop and bought two items.

I would go to France but I haven't enough money.
Activity
Practise using ‘and’, ‘but’, ‘or’ by linking these sets of sentences.
1.
You can write your essays by hand. You can use a word processor.
2.
The floodwater came into the house. It did not cause too much
damage.
3.
Would you like coffee? Would you prefer tea?
4.
She was very good at mathematics. On this occasion she got the
answer wrong.
5.
Rashmi can ride a bicycle. He can drive a car.
Answer
1.
You can write your essays by hand or you can use a word processor.
2.
The floodwater came into the house but it did not cause too much
damage.
3.
Would you like coffee or would you prefer tea?
4.
She was very good at mathematics but on this occasion she got the
answer wrong.
5.
Rashmi can ride a bicycle and (he can) drive a car.
End of answer
5.5 Punctuation
Punctuation is a system of signals which show how the grammar of a sentence is
supposed to work. It helps the reader to understand what is written as it divides
groups of words into meaningful ‘chunks’. There are conventions which are shared
and need to be followed in order to make your writing understandable to your
reader.
24
Capital letters
When should you use a capital letter?














At the start of a sentence:
It is necessary to write in sentences.
For a person's name:
Maria, Mr Smith, Doctor Spock.
For trade names and businesses:
Marks & Spencer, Heineken.
For names of places, such as countries, towns, districts.
France, Wolverhampton, Greater Manchester.
For streets and rivers:
10 Downing Street, River Seine.
For days and months:
Wednesday 14th June.
For titles of specific organisations, people, events, subjects:
The Open University, The Vice-Chancellor, National No Smoking
Day, European Union.

For some abbreviations:

BBC, USA, OUSA.
Activity
Underline the letters in the following extract which should be in capital letters.
davina and her friend justine were planning a holiday in france. they
had collected a number of brochures from going places, which was
their local travel agent. after looking through the brochures, they
decided on paris as justine was very keen to see the eiffel tower. they
selected a convenient ba flight that left from heathrow airport at 7.30
a.m. on friday 12th march and returned a week later, on friday 19th
march at 5 o'clock in the evening. the next day, davina agreed to
telephone going places to book the holiday.
Answer
Davina and her friend Justine were planning a holiday in France. They had
collected a number of brochures from Going Places, which was their local travel
agent. After looking through the brochures, they decided on Paris as Justine was
very keen to see the Eiffel Tower. They selected a convenient BA flight that left
from Heathrow Airport at 7.30 a.m. on Friday 12th March and returned a week
later, on Friday 19th March at 5 o'clock in the evening. The next day, Davina
agreed to telephone Going Places to book the holiday.
End of answer
Full stops, question marks and exclamation marks
Full stops
25

Full stops are used to mark the end of sentences.
In order to decide when a sentence has finished you need to check that your
sentence has a subject and a full verb that relates to that subject.

Full-stops are also used for some abbreviations (usually those written
in small letters or with only the first letter in capitals):

e.g. = for example (abbreviation for the Latin words exempli
gratia which mean ‘example given’)

Mon. = Monday.

However, some abbreviations (usually those written in capital letters)
are written without full-stops between them.

OU, BBC, MP, AA

PTO = please turn over.
Question marks

Question marks are put at the end of sentences which ask something:
When are you coming to bed?
In an essay you may ask a rhetorical question, that is, a question which you then go
on to answer, although in general this should be avoided as it does not really take
the argument forward.
Is the writer attempting to engage our feelings here? It would seem
so because …
You do not need a question mark when you use the phrase ‘I wonder’.
I wonder if the writer is attempting to engage our feelings here.
Exclamation marks
Generally these are not used in academic writing, but you may choose to use them
in more personal writing when you wish to make a point strongly:
I hate writing essays!
Commas
A comma is used to make a slight pause in a sentence. They are a useful means of
organising ideas inside sentences, but should never come at the end, where a fullstop is needed.
When should you use a comma?


Between items in a list:
I have read Aeschylus, Aristotle, Aristophanes and Jeffrey
Archer.
26

To mark off additional information which is not essential to the
meaning, but adds something extra:

Amethyst, which is purple in colour, is a soft rock.

Malachite, the second rock in my sample, is hard.

To mark off groups of words beginning with, for example, ‘when’,
‘if’, ‘after’, ‘unless’, ‘although’:

If I go out now, I will miss my Open University television
programme.

Although it takes up a lot of time, I really enjoy my course.

When I meet my tutor, I shall ask her to explain the question.
In these cases, the first group of words cannot stand alone, but needs the
second group in order to make a proper sentence.




To mark off linking words or groups of words:
However, I would much rather go out than write my assignment.
Of course, it is not always the case that I get my answers right.
When there is an incomplete verb at the start of the sentence or
phrase:

Coming from a French speaking family, she had no problem with
studying L'Ouverture.

Covered in mud, he staggered upstairs to take a shower.
Activity 13
Put commas in appropriate places in the following sentences.
1.
My favourite authors are Jane Austen Vikram Seth Carol Shields and
Ernest Hemingway.
2.
The River Rhine which is a river that runs from Rotterdam to Basle is
known for the beautiful castles on its banks.
3.
The day after tomorrow I will begin doing my assignment.
4.
Therefore Mars is further away from Earth than the Sun.
5.
Listening to the music I fell asleep.
Answer
1.
My favourite authors are Jane Austen, Vikram Seth, Carol Shields
and Ernest Hemingway.
2.
The River Rhine, which runs from Rotterdam to Basle, is known for
the beautiful castles on its banks.
3.
The day after tomorrow, I will begin doing my assignment.
4.
Therefore, Mars is further away from Earth than the Sun.
5.
Listening to the music, I fell asleep.
End of answer
Colons and semi-colons
27
It is quite correct to punctuate by using only commas and full-stops; however there
are places when the use of colons (:) or semi-colons (;) can help to add both
meaning and variety to your writing.
Colons are generally used to introduce lists, explanations and quotations.


Lists:
There are four instruments that make up the string section of an
orchestra: violin, viola, cello and double-bass.

Explanations:

The Open University is open as to people: students may have few
or no previous educational qualifications.

Quotations:

As Arthur Marwick says in Unit I of A102: ‘Historians have to
cope with an enormous mass of detail, some of it significant, some of it
trivial’ (p. 22).
A semi-colon is used where you want to combine two ideas of equal importance in
one sentence; and when making a list in which each item is not just a single word
but a phrase.


Combining ideas:
The Industrial Revolution was entering its second phase; many of
the technological innovations were well established.

Complex lists:

In the last century there were thriving sea-ports all around the
coast of England: Newcastle, Hull and Liverpool in the north; Harwich
and Kings Lynn in the east; Portsmouth and Southampton in the south;
Plymouth and Port Talbot in the west.
Activity
Add semi-colons and colons in the appropriate places in the following sentences.
1.
Vegetation is a reservoir of water each type has a different capacity
for storage.
2.
The four seasons of the year are spring, summer, autumn, winter.
3.
The porter said ‘I am afraid that I have to close the building now.’
4.
The University has cancelled its early morning broadcasts it found no
one listened anymore.
5.
There were many reasons for the decline in theatre-going the
invention of the television the popularity of the cinema the reduction in
adequate public transport.
Answer
1.
Vegetation is a reservoir of water; each type has a different capacity
for storage.
2.
The four seasons of the year are: spring, summer, autumn, winter.
3.
The porter said: ‘I am afraid that I have to close the building now.’
28
4.
The University has cancelled its early morning broadcasts: no one
was listening any more.
5.
There were many reasons for the decline in theatre-going: the
invention of the television; the popularity of the cinema; the reduction in
adequate public transport.
End of answer
Use of the apostrophe
People are often confused about when to use an apostrophe (’) and sometimes
insert them when they are not needed.
In standard English, the apostrophe is used in the following circumstances.



When two words are run together with some of the letters omitted:
I am writing. → I'm writing.
I cannot understand the question. → I can't understand the
question.

This question is difficult. → This question's difficult.

It is important that I get it right. → It's important that I get it
right.

Where is my book? → Where's my book?
These shortened versions are used in speech and in personal writing, but are
rarely used in academic writing, except in quoting speech.

To indicate possession, that something belongs to someone or
something:

the student's book = the book of the student

the book's cover = the cover of the book

The Open University's Charter = the Charter of The Open
University

The government's education policy = the education policy of the
government.
These examples use the singular of the noun and so the apostrophe comes
after the word and before the s.

If the noun is plural and ends with an s, then the apostrophe comes at
the end of the word after the final s:

the students’ expectations = the expectations of the students

my parents’ address = the address of my parents.
However, if the word is plural but does not end in s, then the apostrophe still
comes at the end of the word, but is followed by an s:


the women's movement
the people's decision.
29
Indicating possession with names




For an English name that ends with an s, you add 's:
James's book
Dickens's novel.
For an English name with a final syllable that is pronounced ‘iz’ (as
in Bridges), you only add an apostrophe:

Bridges' play.

For the names of classical authors, and both classical and modern
poets, you only add an apostrophe:

Euripides' play

Keats' poems.
Its and it's
There is often confusion about when to use its and it's.

Its means that something belongs to something, but unusually it does
not use the apostrophe:

Greece is famous for its archaeological sites.

Every rock has its own formation.

It's means it is or it has and so needs the apostrophe as letters have
been omitted:

It's ten o'clock. = It is ten o'clock.

It's always been my ambition to be a teacher. = It has always been
my ambition to be a teacher.
One final note

You should never use an apostrophe when you simply change a word
or a number into the plural:

books, examples, rocks, experiments, 1980s.
Activity
Put apostrophes in the appropriate places in the following paragraph.
When youre writing an essay, you have to decide exactly what the
questions asking you. This isnt always easy, but its best to follow your
tutors advice. If, for instance, the question asks you to give your
opinion on particular topics, then you will need to back this up by the
use of appropriate pieces of evidence. Youll find this easier if you
follow the advice given in any assignment guidance that has been
provided as part of your course.
Answer
When you're writing an essay, you have to decide exactly what the question's
asking you. This isn't always easy, but it's best to follow your tutor's advice. If, for
instance, the question asks you to give your opinion on political topics, then you
30
will need to back this up by the use of appropriate pieces of evidence. You'll find
this easier if you follow the advice given in any assignment guidance that has been
provided as part of your course.
End of answer
Parentheses and brackets
Parentheses and rounded brackets
Parentheses are short pieces of additional information inserted into sentences that
would otherwise stand on their own without them.




Parentheses are marked off by commas, dashes, or rounded brackets:
The novel, written in 1898, was extremely popular.
The novel – written in 1898 – was extremely popular.
The novel (written in 1898) was extremely popular.
It is best to use commas in such a case, but it can be useful to use rounded brackets
to avoid confusion within long, complicated sentences that already have several
commas. As a general rule, brackets to denote information given in parenthesis
(singular of parentheses) should be used sparingly within academic writing. In
maths, parentheses and square brackets are used in different and precise ways; you
will learn these if you learn mathematics.
Rounded brackets are traditionally used to give additional or alternative ways of
doing something.


For introducing abbreviations you want to use later in your writing:
You should contact your Open University Student Association
(OUSA) representative.

For expressing measurements or quantities in alternative ways:

The temperature in the hall was 15 °C (60 °F) today.

For inserting dates when writing about individuals or events:

Tsar Nicholas I (1796–1855) sent military assistance.
Square brackets

Square brackets are used when you are writing a direct quotation and
you need to add some words of your own for clarification:

The Guardian said that ‘it was no way for a minister [Mr Hogg]
to speak on such an issue’.
5.6 Vocabulary – finding the right words
Understanding a word in context, and feeling confident enough to use it in your
own writing are two very different things. For this reason, it is easy to stick to the
words you know – or the ones you read – rather than try to find a new way of
saying something. Here we offer some strategies for extending your vocabulary,
31
and for making you feel more comfortable using newly acquired words or words
specific to your subject area.
Committing new words to memory
The key is to make the meaning very clear by illustrating the meaning of a word in
a phrase, a definition, a picture, a funny rhyme or a memorable quotation.


Only try to learn those words you think you will need frequently.
The basis of virtually all memory techniques is the formation of a
strong association. This can be enhanced by writing in very large letters, by
saying and reading a new word simultaneously, or by drawing a simple,
associated picture.

Write the words in alphabetic sections of a notebook.

Write the words in ‘key definitions’ lists.

Look for the root in words you have not seen before, and try to guess
their meaning by linking them with words that you already know (for
example, family, familiar, familiarise).

Be aware that the meaning of words may change, for example the
word ‘naughty’ has lost most of its strength since Shakespeare's day when it
meant ‘wicked’ or even ‘evil’.

Make extended word lists using a thesaurus (a book listing synonyms,
these are words of similar meaning, such as glad/happy).

Work through this process:

(i) Write down the new word, plus the context if possible, and add a
dictionary definition if you need it.

(ii) Write down all related words that you can think of, with the same
root or the same prefix or suffix (see the next section, 6 Using dictionaries
and grammar books); and check the dictionary to see if your guesses were
right.

(iii) Look in the dictionary for related words.

(iv) Learn each new word in context, for example by incorporating it
in a sentence.
Here is an example of how to extend your vocabulary.
Astronomy
1.
Astronomy has been Patrick Moore's abiding passion ever since
he received his first telescope at the age of ten.
Astronomy (noun) = science of heavenly bodies.
2.
3.
4.
5.
etc.
astronomer writer, mover
astronomic/al hysterics, hysterical
astrology cosmology
Astrolabe (noun) = instrument formerly used in taking altitudes,
32
A good dictionary and thesaurus are invaluable in helping you to discover new
meanings and extend your vocabulary. The next section, 6 Using dictionaries and
grammar books, will offer some help in how to use these effectively.
5.7 Spelling
Getting spelling right is part of communicating clearly, but is one of the aspects of
writing that many people find most difficult. Spelling, like grammar, has
conventions. However, it is not always easy to remember them, and they are not
followed in every case. There are many reasons why people might find it hard to
remember spellings; perhaps they are unused to reading and writing frequently,
English may not be their first language, or they might have a poor short-term
memory.
If you have extreme difficulty with spelling, reversing or confusing letters in a
word, or missing letters out, you may have some dyslexic difficulties.
The following advice will help you with your spelling, but you should also get into
the habit of writing with a dictionary close by so that you can check less familiar
words.
Spelling strategies
Look/say/cover/write/check
This is one of the most useful ways for learning how to spell individual words. For
it to be really effective as a method, you need to practise it regularly – perhaps
learning a small group of words each week.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Choose the word and check that it is spelt correctly.
Write it out.
Look at it carefully – imagine its shape.
Say it – try to notice the beginning, middle and end.
Try to picture the word in your head.
Cover the word.
Write the word in one go (to keep hold of your visual picture).
If you get stuck start again.
When you've written it, check that you are right.
This method is useful for vocabulary.
The Fernald tracing technique
This method is useful for new or irregular words that need to be learnt quickly. This
technique involves writing the word in very large letters on a strip of paper, then
tracing over the word with your finger, saying each part of the word aloud as
naturally as possible at the same time. Then, without looking at the original, write
the word on a new piece of paper.
Breaking longer words up (syllabication)
33
When you break up a word into syllables, it is easier to learn.

A syllable is the smallest part of a word that can be spoken
separately:

across = a – cross (two syllables)

remember = re – mem – ber (three syllables).
Memory strategies (mnemonics)

Mnemonics (the first m is silent) are devices for remembering.
For example, the hard part about spelling ‘necessary’ is remembering that it has one
c and a double s. So, someone might remember by using the mnemonic: it is
necessary to have one collar (one c) and two socks (double s), with or without
imagining a picture of them.
Other mnemonics use rhythm (try chanting spellings such as I–S–O–S–C–E–L–E–
S Isosceles), or music (try singing something you need to remember to a tune you
know well), or a funny idea: big elephants can always understand small elephants
spells ‘because’.
Homophones
It isn't a spelling error when you write ‘their’ instead of ‘there’. You are using the
wrong word for your meaning.





Words that sound the same are called homophones:
too, two, too
whose, who's
hear, here
bare, bear.
It is helpful to learn the word by concentrating on the meaning and perhaps a
memory picture, so for example you imagine a signpost saying ‘here’, and you
imagine an ear-shaped megaphone saying ‘hear’. Always learn the two words
separately. There is a very useful section in Spelling it out by R. Pratley (see
Section 7: Further reading and sources of help).
Commonly confused words

Here too, concentrate on learning the meaning of the word and make
a list of helpful sentences for the words you confuse:

accept/except: I accept the cheque; all except one person died.
Deliberate mispronunciations to help spelling
Wednesday say Wed–ness–day
Salmon
say Sal–mon
Friend
say Fry–end
34
Word families



To notice the grouping of words also helps you remember:
right, slight, might, tight, fight (all use the same ending).
Prefixes and suffixes are the bits added to the beginning and ends of
base (root) words to make new words:

anti– (prefix meaning ‘against’) as in antibiotic, antidote,
antifreeze

sub– (prefix meaning ‘under’) as in submarine, submission,
substitute.
Dictionaries
Get into the habit of using a dictionary. Dictionaries are reference books that give
you the spelling and meaning(s) of a word. Some also give you other information,
such as which language the word came from. They all arrange words in
alphabetical order, and some are much more complicated, because of the amount of
information they carry, than others. Choose a dictionary carefully to make sure it is
one you can use easily.
Spellcheckers/computer spellcheckers
Spellcheckers can be a useful aid. Handheld electronic spellcheckers are
inexpensive and sophisticated. Depending on the individual machine, you can
check spellings, build up your own reference lists, find word meanings and crossreference words. You still need to be able to recognise the correct spelling if it is
offered in a list of alternatives. Computer spellcheckers are invaluable to many
students.
Some useful spelling rules
The alphabet is divided into vowels (a, e, i, o, u) and consonants (all other letters).
Ei and ie

If you want to make the sound E, remember ‘i before e except after
c’:




chief, brief, grief, field, shield, priest
receive, ceiling.
If you want to make the sound A or I, it's e before i:
eight, weight, height.
Words ending in –ff, –ll or –ss

Words of one syllable, ending with the sound F, L, or S, usually end
with the spelling –ff, –ll, –ss:

cliff, tall, moss.
Doubling the final consonant
35

Words of one syllable which end in a consonant (for example, big)
double the consonant before a suffix which starts with a vowel (for example,
–er, –est and –ing):
big → bigger
big → biggest
begin → beginning.
Silent e

Words ending in a silent e drop the e before a suffix beginning with a
vowel, but do not drop it before a suffix beginning with a consonant:
hope → hoping (-ing is a suffix beginning with a vowel)
hope → hopeful (-ful is a suffix beginning with a consonant).
Plurals

Regular plurals add an s to the singular:
dog → dogs.

Nouns ending in –s, –x, –z, –ch or –sh add es to the singular:
gas → gases
box → boxes
torch → torches.

Nouns ending in –y after a vowel add an s:
boy → boys.

Nouns ending in –y after a consonant, change –y to –i and add es:
lady → ladies.
Most nouns ending in –f or –fe add an s but some change the –f or –fe
to –v or –ve:

leaf → leaves
knife → knives.
Unusual endings
Very few English words end in –i, –u, –v, or –j. Most of the words ending with
these sounds have a silent –e as in ‘give’.
36

The exceptions tend to be slang or words introduced fairly recently
from other languages:

taxi, mini, guru, raj.

The j sound at the end of an English word is usually made by the
ending –ge or –dge:

rage, edge.
A list of commonly misspelt words can be found in most books on spelling. It is
very useful to build your own list – for example, by writing the words into a small
address book.
5.8 Using other people's words
It is important, when you are writing assignments, to use your own words and not
copy from the course units or books. To copy is called plagiarism.
Plagiarism occurs when a writer takes, often word for word, the writing of someone
else and does not acknowledge who the original writer is, or where the writing is to
be found. It is easy to do this unintentionally when taking notes from course units
or other texts.
Sometimes you will need to use small extracts from texts, but these must be brief
and properly attributed by means of a reference. There are certain rules for
quotations and references, and these are given below.
Quotations
As far as possible you should use your own words in any writing you do. However,
there are occasions when you will need to quote someone else either to convey
exactly what someone said or to use the words as evidence to illustrate a point you
are making. If you are studying literature, then you may need to quote words or
phrases from the poem or passage you are analysing or discussing. Whatever your
reason for using quotations, there are various rules that you must follow.
Use single quotation marks – ‘ ’ – to enclose the quoted words.
(Double quotation marks – “ ” – are used to mark off a quotation within a
longer quoted passage; often a passage from a literary work.)

If the quotation is longer than about three lines it should be indented
(that is, set in further from margin), and the quotation marks omitted.

Each quotation must have a reference, put in brackets immediately
afterwards either naming the original source or using a number with a
numbered reference at the end.

You must quote exactly, including any punctuation marks.

If you add a word of your own in the middle of a quotation for clarity,
then you must put square brackets – [ ] – around it.

If you leave a word or phrase out, then this must be indicated by
putting three dots – … – where the word or phrase was.

You should introduce a quotation with a phrase followed either by a
comma or a colon.

37
Different disciplines do have slightly different conventions. Once you have decided
on which conventions to use, then be consistent.
5.8.2 Referencing
You may be unclear about referencing because you may not have been required to
use references in your previous writing experiences. The reference must enable the
reader to find the original source referred to as quickly and easily as possible.
References, either in the body of the writing or in footnotes, should say exactly
where the quotation or information is taken from. They allow the reader to check
the evidence on which an argument is based and follow up in their own reading if
they wish. Methods of referencing vary. Check any course or assignment guidance
to find out if a particular referencing system is recommended.
The Harvard system
The author–date system of referencing known as the Harvard System is generally
used. In this system, the full references are placed in alphabetical order in a
bibliography or reference section at the end of the article or book, while the author's
name and the date of his or her publication are put in brackets in the text.

References in the text give the surname of the author and the
publication date of the work to which reference is made. This information is
enclosed in round brackets.

Some writers (Swann and Smith 1980; Blundell 1985) have found
these texts unreliable.

When it is necessary to draw attention to a particular page or pages,
the page number(s) can be added.

The text is not seen as genuine (Swann and Smith 1980, pp. 154–
6, 279–82).

If two or more works by the same author have the same publication
date, they can be distinguished by adding small letters after the date.

Clear evidence of the system was found (Swann 1980b).

Where reference to work cited by others (secondary referencing) is
made, the form is as in the following example.

Austin and Smith (1990) list six functions of ethical codes (cited in
Russell 1993).
The Russell reference is then listed in the reference section.

When you give the author's name in your text, you should not repeat
it in the reference. In cases like this, put the date reference(s) straight after
the author's name.

Swann (1980; 1990) described it as …

The reference list is arranged in alphabetic order of the author's
surnames – the date of publication follows the author's name, all authors' first
names are uniformly reduced to initials, and the initials of all authors follow
the surname.
The following points are important when writing a reference list.
38

The name of the place of publication, if included, should be separated
from the title of the work by a comma.

Titles of books or journals are printed in italics; titles of articles are
printed in roman (upright) type and are normally enclosed in quotation
marks. If you are handwriting your reference list, underline the titles that
would be printed in italic.

The word ‘editor’ and the phrase ‘edited by’ may be abbreviated as
‘ed.’

If the work cited is an article in a book or journal, the first and last
page numbers of the article may be given.

If the list includes more than one work by the same author, a long
dash should be substituted for the author's name after its first appearance.
Here are some examples.
Smith, M.G. and Swann, P.C. 1980 ‘Plasma types’, in Gamble and Goody, 1980,
123–129. Plasma in India, London Macmillan
Green, M. 1990 ‘Roman ruins in Britain’ Oxford Journal 6 238–40
Gamble, P. and Goody, M. eds. 1980 Plasma in India, London Macmillan
Booth, R. ed The Works of Andrew Marvell, 2nd edition reviewed by F M Wilson,
5 vols Oxford: Oxford University Press
6 Using dictionaries and grammar books
6.1 Using dictionaries
If you go into a large bookshop and head for the section ‘Dictionaries and
Reference’, you will discover a wide range of dictionaries to choose from. Some
are general and some are specialist reference dictionaries, such as a Dictionary of
Science.
Activity

When do you use a dictionary?
You should be able to think of at least four occasions.
Discussion
Our answers are probably quite similar; below are some of the times when we
would use a dictionary:
(a) to find the meaning of an unfamiliar word;
(b) to check the meaning of a familiar word and related words;
39
(c) to check the spelling of a word;
(d) to see how to pronounce a word;
(e) to see what synonyms (different words with very similar meanings) are
available; sometimes a thesaurus is used for this purpose;
(f) to look up a specialist word in a specialist dictionary for a much fuller
description (for example, photosynthesis).
End of discussion
Activity

Read the following passage and write down your own definitions of
the three words in bold.
The earliest dictionaries were word lists inscribed on clay tablets
organised like a thesaurus, in the second millennium BC. Even after
the invention of the alphabet later in the same millennium, many
centuries passed before alphabetic ordering became a common tool for
organising information. The need for a dictionary in which difficult
English words were explained by easier English words took shape in
the late 16th century and, by the 18th century, the dictionary was
competing with spelling books as a quick look-up source.
Monolingual dictionaries, like the Oxford English dictionary, list and
define the words of one language. Bilingual dictionaries offer the
equivalent of language A in language B. Pronouncing dictionaries
arrived later in the 18th century, and speciality dictionaries for
technical subjects or controversial usage such as slang, in the 19th and
20th centuries; an example of a speciality dictionary is Fowler's
Dictionary of Modern English Usage.

Now look the three words up in a general dictionary.
Discussion
Often the general dictionary will tell you whether the word is a verb, or a noun, or
some other part of speech. Some will also give you an example of the word used in
a phrase or sentence.
End of discussion
Prefixes and suffixes
Prefixes and suffixes can offer clues to the meaning of words.


Prefixes come before the main part of the word:
in ‘antenatal’, ‘ante’ is a prefix meaning ‘before’ and the whole
word means ‘before birth’.
40


Suffixes are added to the end of a word:
–ive, –ing, –ness, and –ion are all suffixes and are used to form
words such as: active, willing, willingness, and action.
Activity

See how many words you can find beginning with the following
prefixes:
(a) sub– (meaning ‘under’).
(b) super– (meaning ‘above’).
(c) trans– (meaning ‘across’).
Understanding what the prefix ‘sub’ means helps you to tackle an unfamiliar word:
knowing that ‘sub’ means ‘under’ and ‘marine’ is something to do with the sea
helps you to understand the word ‘submarine’.
Extending your vocabulary
Extending your vocabulary makes your writing more interesting and vivid. A
thesaurus (meaning ‘a treasury’) gives information about words associated in
meaning with the word you are looking for.
If you look up ‘aroma’ in a thesaurus, you might find the following
associated words:

bouquet, fragrance, odour, perfume, redolence, savour, scent,
smell, whiff.
You may need to check the usage in your writing – we tend not to say the flower
had a delightful whiff!
A thesaurus may also give words ‘opposite’ in meaning, for example, loveable–
hateful.
Activity
Try looking up three words you frequently use in writing – for
example, important, relevant and significant. See if you find other words that
you may prefer to use as alternatives.

It really is worthwhile to find the right dictionaries for you: a handy small one like
The Pocket Oxford Dictionary for quick reference and a larger one, like The Oxford
Advanced Learner's Dictionary where words are put into phrases or sentences that
help to make usage clear. Some suggestions are given in the next section, 7 Further
reading and sources of help.
6.2 Using grammar books
41
Grammar books vary enormously. They offer examples of the main ways words are
used, giving practice and explanations much as we do in Section 5: The ‘tools’ of
writing, but obviously at greater length. Writers often use words without fully
understanding how they are put together, so spending some time looking at the
ways you build sentences to express meaning can be very useful. It can give you
confidence in selecting the words you want for different situations.
In the next and final section, we identify some dictionaries and grammar books that
you might find helpful, as well as some interesting web sites you might like to look
up.
7 Further reading and sources of help
7.1 Books
Dictionaries
Compact Oxford English Dictionary for University and College Students, Catherine
Soanes (Oxford University Press, 2006)
The Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary, A.S Hornby, Sally Wehmeier (Oxford
University Press, 2002)
Collins COBUILD Student's Dictionary: Plus Grammar (Collins CoBuild, 2005)
The Ace Spelling Dictionary, Moseley, D (LDA, Duke Street, Wisbech, Cambs.,
1995)
Punctuation and grammar
Rediscover Grammar, Crystal, D (Longman, 2004)
Basic Punctuation, Shiach, D (J Murray, 1995)
Basic Grammar, Shiach, D (J Murray, 1995)
The Good Grammar Book, Michael Swan, Walter Catherine (Oxford University
Press, 2002)
Vocabulary
Word Power Made Easy, Lewis, N (Bloomsbury Press, 1995)
Complete Plain Words, Gowers, E (Penguin, 1987)
Spelling
Basic Spelling, Temple, M (J Murray, 1995)
42
Spelling it Out, Pratley, R (BBC Books, 1988)
Writing
Writing at University, Creme and Lea (Open University Press, 2006)
Good Study Guide, Northedge (Open University Press, 2005)
If you are ordering from the UK, you can send your order to:
Open University Worldwide
Freepost MK 1649
Milton Keynes MK7 6BR
If you are ordering from outside the UK, please stamp the envelope and send your
order to:
Open University Worldwide
The Berrill Building
Walton Hall
Milton Keynes MK7 6AA, UK
The Study Skills Handbook, Stella Cottrell (Palgrave Macmillan, 2003)
Students Must Write, Robert Barrass (Routledge Falmer, 1995)
7.2 Computer software
The most popular and useful item of software for students is for word processing.
Most word processing software now offer not only spell-checking facilities, but
also hints on grammar and style. The most sophisticated pieces of software, like
Microsoft Word, can highlight spelling and grammar mistakes as you are going
along and can offer different stylistic options. All of this can be extremely useful to
students.
There are good reasons, however, why you should pay close attention to the way in
which the computer makes alterations and suggestions regarding your work.
Remember:

A computer can make mistakes and/or inappropriate suggestions (e.g.
it will not differentiate between similar words with different spelling, for
instance there and their).
43

There is an important difference between, on the one hand,
recognising the difference between correct and incorrect grammar, and, on
the other hand, losing one's personal style.

Many word processors come with American English as the default
dictionary option.

Noting how you have misspelled a word is useful in learning not to
misspell it in the future.
7.3 Websites
There are many sites which offer you help with language skills. Below are some
that you may find useful. It is best to use British sites as American English is a little
different.
Skills for study http://www.open.ac.uk/skillsforstudy/
A range of
resources to
help students
develop the
skills they need
to succeed with
their studies.
English
Grammar
http://www.englishgrammarconnection.com/
Connection
Interactive
online lessons
to improve
grammar skills
Edufind
http://www.edunet.com/english/grammar/index.cfm
Grammar
usage and
definitions and
links to
practice
exercises
Englishpage
http://www.englishpage.com/
Grammar
definitions and
exercises
University
College
http://www.ucl.ac.uk/internet-grammar/home.htm
London
Comprehensive
grammar guide
and interactive
exercises
44
Skills for study http://www.open.ac.uk/skillsforstudy/
University of
Surrey Skills http://www.surrey.ac.uk/Skills/Pack
Unit
The Use of
English – a
good, basic
introduction to
the tools of
writing
University of
http://www.bournemouth.ac.uk/languagecentre/english_resources.html
Bournemouth
A range of
online
resources
available to
help students to
progress
through their
studies
Websites accessed 27 March 2008.
Publication Acknowledgements
This publication has been written by Margaret Johnson and Vicki Goodwin and
produced by the Student Services Communications Team.
Production team – Mandy Anton, Clive Barrett, Marian Galvin, Penelope Lyons,
Pat Proctor.
Do this
Now you have completed this unit, you might like to:



Post a message to the unit forum.
Review or add to your Learning Journal.
Rate this unit.
Try this
You might also like to:



Find out more about the related Open University course.
Book a FlashMeeting to talk live with other learners.
Create a Knowledge Map to summarise this topic.
45
Acknowledgements
This material is taken from The Open University's OpenLearn website. OpenLearn
provides free open educational resources for learners and educators around the
world under a Creative Commons licence. Third party materials have been removed
but for ease of use the original acknowledgements copy has been included. For the
online version of this unit and for other free educational resources across a range of
topics, please go to http://www.open.ac.uk/openlearn/home.php.
46