Standard Grade
Chemistry
3rd Year
Revision Booklet
Topic 1
Introduction to Chemistry
Meanings of words in Topic 1
Element -
A chemical substance that cannot be broken down into anything simpler. e.g.
copper, oxygen
Mixture -
When two or more substances come together but do not react. e.g. air
Compound -
A compound is formed when atoms from two or more elements chemically join
together. e.g. copper oxide
Solute -
The substance that dissolves in a liquid.
Solvent -
The liquid that the solute dissolves in.
Solution -
A solution is formed when a solute dissolves in a solvent. e.g. sea water is a
solution of salt (solute) and water (solvent).
Exothermic
Reaction -
The temperature increases during the chemical reaction
Endothermic The temperature decreases during the chemical reaction.
Reaction Residue -
The insoluble solid left in the filter paper after filtration.
Filtrate -
The liquid that passes through the filter paper during filtration.
Chemicals changing to produce new substances are called Chemical reactions.
Examples of everyday chemical reactions are:A cake baking
Petrol burning in a car
Fireworks
A plant growing.
A chemical reaction will involve at least one of the following, a change in:Colour
State (solid, liquid, gas)
Temperature
Energy
Formation of a precipitate.
If the name of a compound ends in …ide then the compound contains 2 elements e.g. zinc oxide
contains zinc and oxygen.
If the name of a compound ends in …ate then the compound also contains oxygen e.g. copper
sulphate contains copper sulphur and oxygen.
Practice Questions
1. In chemistry there are two common changes, physical and chemical.
A
B
burning a
match
Dissolving
sugar
D
milk going
sour
G
melting
ice
E
meths and water mixing
F
H
I
steam condensing
a)
b)
c)
d)
C
water forming from
hydrogen and oxygen
iron
rusting
sand and
salt mixing
Which four boxes refer to chemical changes?
Which two boxes refer to solutions forming?
Which box refers to a compound forming from its elements?
Which box refers to a change which is the opposite of boiling?
2. Name the elements in the following compounds.
a) magnesium oxide
c) potassium hydride
e) barium iodide
g) calcium bromide
b) zinc chloride
d) copper carbonate
f) potassium sulphide
h) sodium nitride
3. Name the compounds formed between the following elements.
a) zinc and chlorine
c) sodium and fluorine
e) hydrogen and oxygen
b) iron and oxygen
d) copper, sulphur and oxygen
f) magnesium and nitrogen
4. Mixtures of substances can be separated in different ways.
A
B
filtration
E
C
sea water
F
lemonade
a)
b)
c)
d)
D
iron and sulphur
G
water
distillation
H
chromatography
oil and water
Which box shows a method of separating mud and water without heating?
Which two boxes show solutions?
Which box shows a mixture of two solids?
Which box shows a method for separating salt from water?
5. Name the reactants and products for each of the following chemical reactions. Give your answers
in the form of a table with the headings ‘reactants’ and ‘products’.
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
Sodium reacts with chlorine to form sodium chloride.
Magnesium reacts with copper(II) bromide to give copper and magnesium bromide.
Magnesium oxide is formed when magnesium is burned.
Chlorine reacts with sodium iodide to give iodine and sodium chloride.
Calcium carbonate decomposes when heated to give calcium oxide and carbon dioxide.
6. Write the word equations for the reactions in (a) to (e) in 2 above.
Topic 2
The Speed of Reactions
Meanings of words in Topic 2
Catalyst -
A substance that speeds up a chemical reaction but remains unchanged at the
end.
Enzyme -
A biological catalyst. Speeds up reactions in living things.
The 4 ways of increasing the speed (or rate) of a chemical reaction are:Increase temperature
Increase concentration
Decrease particle size
Add a catalyst
The speed of a chemical reaction can be plotted as a line graph.
The steeper the gradient (slope) of the graph the faster the chemical reaction is.
Volume of
gas (cm³)
Time(s)
Reaction A is faster than reaction B.
Practice Questions
1. The rate of a chemical reaction can be changed in a number of ways.
A
B
dilute acid
20°C
lump
E
C
dilute acid
60°C
lump
F
dilute acid
20°C
powder
D
concentrated acid
20°C
powder
G
dilute acid
60°C
powder
concentrated acid
60°C
lump
H
concentrated acid
20°C
lump
concentrated acid
60°C
powder
a) In which experiment will the speed of the reaction be greatest?
b) In which experiment will the speed of the reaction be lowest?
c) Which two experiments could be chosen to show that changing the concentration of the acid
altered the speed of the reaction?
(There is more than one correct answer.)
2. Catalysts are used in many different chemical reactions.
A
B
remains
unchanged in
a reaction
D
C
weighs less
at the end of
a reaction
E
increasing the
concentration
of reactants
cooling
reactants
F
burning
magnesium
manufacture
of margarine
a) Which box describes what happens to a catalyst in a chemical reaction?
b) Which box gives a use of a catalyst?
c) Which box gives a different way of speeding up a reaction?
Topic 3
Atoms and the Periodic Table
Meanings of words in Topic 3
Group -
Vertical (up and down) lines of elements in the Periodic Table.
Period -
Horizontal (across) lines of elements in the Periodic Table.
Atomic Number -
Each element has its own specific Atomic Number (see periodic table in
the data book). This number is the same as the number of protons in
the nucleus of each atom in that element.
Electrons arrange themselves in set layers around the nucleus of an
atom. Each layer is an electron shell.
Is the number of protons plus the number of neutrons in the nucleus of
an atom.
Is a charged atom, either positive or negative formed by loss or gain of
electrons.
Are atoms of the same element that have the same Atomic Number but
different Mass Numbers. This is due to a different number of neutrons in
the nucleus.
This is the average mass of all the isotopes of an element (see page 4
data book).
Group 1 in the Periodic Table.
Group 7 in the Periodic Table.
Group 0 in the Periodic Table. Unreactive elements. Used in coloured
lighting.
Metals between Groups 2 and 3 in the Periodic Table.
Electron Shell Mass Number Ion Isotopes -
Relative Atomic
Mass Alkali Metals
Halogens Noble Gases
Transition Metals -
All elements in a group have similar properties due to the similar arrangement of electrons.
Atoms consist of 3 types of particle.
Particle
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Found
In the nucleus
In the nucleus
Around the nucleus
Relative Mass
1
1
1/
1840
Charge
One positive (+)
No charge
One negative (-)
Atoms of an element are neutral because they have the same number of protons, positive charge,
and electrons, negative charge.
Atoms become ions when they loose or gain electrons to make a stable electron arrangement.
Metal elements loose electrons to form positive ions e.g. Mg2+.
Non-metal elements gain electrons to form negative ions e.g. Cl-.
Electrons are arranged in energy shells round the nucleus. Each shell has a maximum number of
electrons it can hold.
The symbol
tells you:
17 is the Atomic number which is the number of protons.
35 is the Mass number which is the number of protons and the number of neutrons.
Practice Questions
1.
a) Copy and label the diagram of an atom.
Use the labels ‘electrons’ and ‘nucleus’.
b) Explain why the atom is neutral.
c) Which element is represented by the diagram?
2. Copy and complete the following table.
Atom
Number of
protons
15
Number of
neutrons
Number of
electrons
16
3. Copy and complete the following table.
Ion
Number of
protons
Number of
neutrons
Number of
electrons
Topic 4
How Atoms Combine
Atoms are held together by invisible forces called BONDS. They form bonds with each other to get to
a stable structure. This is when their outer energy shell is full i.e. has the electron structure (page 1
data book) of the nearest noble gas.
Covalent bond - one pair of shared electrons forms one covalent bond.
Covalent bonds hold non-metal atoms together.
A covalent bond is the force of attraction between the positive nuclei of the two atoms and the
negative charge of the pair of shared electrons.
Covalent bonds between atoms can be shown by dot-cross diagrams. Only the outer energy shells
are drawn.
The hydrogen atom now has 2 electrons in its outer shell. This is now full and the same as its nearest
noble gas, helium.
The chlorine atom now has 8 electrons in its outer shell. This is now full and the same as its nearest
noble gas, argon.
A Molecule -
a group of non-metal atoms held together by covalent bonds.
e.g one water molecule looks like this.
Some elements in the Periodic Table exist as diatomic molecules. These are molecules that consist
of two atoms. The elements are N2, O2, Cl2, F2, Br2, I2 and H2.
H
N
O
Cl
F
Br
I
You also need to be able to write the chemical formula for compounds using:


Valency for groups 1 - 7
Roman numerals to give the valency of the transition metals (between groups 2 and 3)
Mono = 1, di = 2, tri = 3, tetra = 4
Practice Questions
1. Draw dot cross diagrams to show the covalent bonds in the following molecules:a)
b)
c)
2. Write the chemical formula of the following:
a) sodium chloride
b) fluorine oxide
c) magnesium sulphide
d) aluminium oxide
e) carbon monoxide
f) carbon disulphide
g) dinitrogen tetroxide
h) copper(II) chloride
i) iron(III) oxide
j) mercury(II) bromide
Topic 5
Fuels
Meanings of words for Topic 5
Fuel -
A fuel is a substance that gives out energy when it burns.
Combustion -
Another name for burning. During combustion a substance reacts with
oxygen and gives out energy.
Fossil Fuel -
A fuel formed millions of years ago. They are coal, oil and gas. Formed
from decaying plants (coal) and animals (oil)
Finite Resource -
Something that will not last forever, it will eventually run out.
Fractions -
The different parts that crude oil is separated into.
Fractional
Distillation Viscosity -
The process used to separate crude oil into its different fractions.
How ‘runny’ a liquid is. Viscosity increases as the number of carbon
atoms in a chain increases.
Flammability -
How easy it is to set something on fire. Flammability decreases as the
number of carbon atoms in a chain increases.
Hydrocarbon -
A chemical that consists of only carbon and hydrogen atoms.
Complete
Combustion -
A good supply of oxygen so that all the fuel burns. The products are
Incomplete
Combustion -
A poor supply of oxygen. Not all the fuel burns. The products are
carbon dioxide and water.
carbon monoxide or carbon and water.
Fraction
Number of Carbon
Atoms in Chain
Uses
Properties
Fuel gases
C1  C4
Bottled gases
Gasoline(Petrol)
C5  C11
Petrol for cars.
Naptha
C8  C10
To make chemicals.
Small. ‘light’, short
chain molecules.
Evaporate easily.
Catch fire easily.
Low boiling points.
Light in colour
Kerosene
C9  C14
Paraffin, aircraft fuel
Gas Oil (diesel)
C12  C20
Fuel for lorries, trains
Fuel Oil
C16  C30
Central heating oil.
Lubricating Oil
C20  C40
Machinery
Bitumen/Tar
C30 +
Tar for roads
Large, heavy
molecules.
Do not evaporate or
catch fire easily.
High boiling points.
Dark in colour.
Very viscous.
Pollution Problems
Burning fossil fuels produces sulphur dioxide, the main contributor to acid rain and carbon dioxide
which also contributes to acid rain and global warming.
Cars
The ‘spark’ from car plugs produces enough heat to make the nitrogen and oxygen in the air react to
form nitrogen oxide gases. These also contribute to acid rain.
Catalytic converters are now put in cars to turn these nitrogen oxides back to nitrogen and oxygen.
Practice Questions
1. When crude oil distilled, fractions are obtained which vary greatly in their properties and uses.
Here are the names of some fractions and the temperature ranges over which they boil.
A
B
gasoline
40°C - 180°C
D
C
natural gas
< 0°C
E
kerosine
180°C - 230°C
light gas oil
230°C - 305°C
F
lubricating oil
405°C - 525°C
heavy gas oil
305°C - 405°C
Which box (or boxes) could represent:
a)
b)
c)
d)
the fraction whose molecules contain the least number of carbon atoms?
A fraction which boils less easily than C?
A fraction which is more viscous than F?
The liquid fraction which is most flammable?
2. Air is a mixture of gases including 79% nitrogen, 20% oxygen, less than 1% argon and traces of
carbon dioxide.
Nitrogen is a largely unreactive gas, it gives no result with common chemical tests. Oxygen
relights a glowing splinter and carbon dioxide can be identified by lime water which it turns chalky.
Argon is a totally unreactive gas.
Present the above information in the form of a table with three headings.
3. Give the names of the products of complete combustion of the substances in the table.
Fuel
hydrogen
carbon
carbon monoxide
methane
Combustion products
Topic 6
Hydrocarbons
Meanings of words in Topic 6
Alkane -
A group of hydrocarbons with the general formula Cn H2n+2
Alkenes -
A group of hydrocarbons with the general formula CnH2n. alkenes have
at least one carbon to carbon double bond (C = C) in the chain.
Cycloalkanes -
A group of hydrocarbons with the general formula CnH2n. the carbon
atoms form a closed ring.
Homologous
Series -
A group of chemicals that have the same general formula and similar
Molecular
(Chemical)
Formula-
Using the element symbols to write the compounds formula e.g. ethane
Full Structural
Formula -
Drawing out the formula to show all the atoms and bonds.
Saturated
Hydrocarbons -
One where all the bonds to all the carbon atoms are single bonds.
Unsaturated
Hydrocarbons -
One where there is at least one C =C unsaturated alkenes will
Cracking -
The process used to split long chain alkanes into more useful shorter,
chemical properties.
is C2H6
e.g. ethane
decolorise Bromine solution.
chained molecules. One of the products will be an alkene.
Addition Reaction -
Type of reaction carried out by alkenes. A molecule of a substance is
“added” across the double bond.
e.g.
ethane + hydrogen
Isomers -
ethane
Compounds that have the same molecular formula but different
structural formula.
Cracking turns the less useful fractions from fractional distillation into much more useful products,
mainly petrol. The alkene also formed is used in the plastics industry e.g.
catalyst
C9H20
C6H14 + C3H6
Practice Questions
1. Hydrocarbons can be represented by molecular and structural formulae.
A
B
C
CH4
C5H12
D
E
F
C5H8
G
H
I
Which box (or boxes) could represent:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
the structural formula of an alkene?
the structural formula of a cycloalkane?
isomers?
a substance which is neither an alkane or an alkene or a cycloalkane?
pentane?
2. The following two compounds are both gases and both have the same molecular formula.
Compound A
Compound B
a) State the name of compounds A and B.
b) Describe a chemical test which you could carry out to distinguish them.
c) What name is given to such compounds with the same molecular formula and ifferent
structural formula?
3. When butane gas is passed over a heated catalyst it cracks as follows:
C4H10  C2H6 + compound C
a) Give the molecular formula and the name for compound X.
b) Draw the structural formula of the compounds which form when compound X reacts with i)
hydrogen, ii) bromine.
c) What name is given to the type of reactions occurring in (b)?
Topic 7
Properties of Compounds
Meanings of words in Topic 7
Ionic Bonding -
Takes place between metal and non-metal elements. Electrons are
transferred from the metal atoms to the non-metal atoms.
Ion -
An ion is a charged atom . Metal atoms loose electrons (negative
charges) to become positive ions
Mg  Mg2+ + 2eNon metal atoms gain electrons (negative charges) to become negative
ions.
Cl + e-  ClTHE NUMBER OF CHARGES ON THE ION, POSITIVE OR NEGATIVE,
IS THE SAME AS THE VALENCY OF THE ELEMENT.
Aqueous Solution -
A solution in which water is the solvent.
Electrolysis -
Splitting up a compound, in the liquid or aqueous state, using electricity.
Electrolyte -
An ionic substance that allows electricity to pass through it.
(Crystal) Lattice -
A large regular shaped structure (crystal) built up from the strong
attraction between positive and negative ions.
Covalent Network
Structure -
The atoms of covalent elements are covalently bonded together to form
a giant, regular shaped network e.g. silicon dioxide. There are no
separate molecules. They have very high melting and boiling points, are
insoluble in water and do not conduct electricity.
Properties of Ionic Compounds






They contain metal and non-metal elements.
High melting and boiling points due to the strong attraction between the positive and negative
ions in the crystal lattice.
Usually soluble in water because they contain charged ions.
Do not conduct electricity in the solid state because the ions are not free to move.
Do conduct electricity in the molten state and in aqueous state.
Electrons are transferred from the metal atoms to the non-metal atoms.
Properties of Covalent Molecular Compounds





They only contain non-metal elements.
Low melting and boiling points due to weak forces of attraction between molecules.
Usually insoluble in water because the molecules don’t have a charge, but soluble in organic
solvents.
Do not conduct electricity in any state because they are made up of uncharged molelcules.
Electrons are shared between the non-metal atoms.
Electrolysis
Chlorine ions loose electrons at the positive electrode to form chlorine gas.
2Cl- (aq)  Cl2(g) +2eThe electrons flow through the wires.
The zinc ions gain these electrons at the negative electrode, forming zinc atoms (metal).
Zn2+(aq) + 2e-  Zn(s)
Ions flow through the solution to complete the circuit.
D.C. (direct current) must be used so that the chlorine and zinc are always formed at the same
electrode.
(The ion-electron equations are written on page 7 of the data book).
Dot-Cross Diagrams (also see Topic 4)
If two pairs of electrons are shared between non-metal atoms a double bond is formed.
Each oxygen atom has 8 electrons in its outer energy shell. This is now full and the same as its
nearest noble gas, neon.
YOUR WHITE SHEETS FOR TOPIC 7 HAVE VERY GOOD SUMMARY NOTES IN THEM.
Practice Questions
1. Elements and compounds can be divided into two sets, conductors of electricity and insulators.
A
B
carbon
(graphite)
D
copper
E
sodium chloride
crystals
G
mercury
F
petrol
H
molten lead(II)
bromide
a)
b)
c)
d)
C
sulphur
I
copper(II) sulphate
solution
sodium
Which three boxes represent solids which are conductors of electricity?
Which two boxes represent conductors of electricity through which ions flow?
Which box represents a liquid which conducts electricity by a flow of electrons?
Which box represents an ionic solid?
2. Name, as precisely as you can, the particles which carry an electric current through each of the
following:
a) molten potassium iodide
b) mercury
c) sodium chloride solution.
3. Write the formulae for the following compounds.
a) sodium nitrate
b) potassium hydroxide
c) ammonium chloride
d) ammonium hydroxide
e) copper(II) sulphate
f) sodium carbonate
g) lithium carbonate
h) ammonium sulphate
i) iron(III) nitrate
j) aluminium sulphate
4. Rewrite the formulae in 7 above showing the charges on the ions.
5. Mendeleev, a Russian chemist, proposed his first Periodic Table of Elements in 1869. from this
our present periodic table has been developed. Here are six common elements from the periodic
table.
A
B
lithium
D
C
chlorine
E
potassium
magnesium
F
nitrogen
oxygen
a) Atoms of which element (or elements) form ions with the same electron arrangement as argon
atoms?
b) Which two elements will combine to form an ionic compound with the formula X3Y2?
Answers to Practice Questions
Topic 1
1 a) A,D,F,H In each case a new substance
forms.
b) B,E
c) G
2
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
magnesium and oxygen
zinc and chlorine
potassium, hydrogen
copper, carbon and oxygen
barium and iodine
potassium, sulphur
calcium, bromine
sodium, nitrogen
3
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
zinc chloride
iron oxide
sodium fluoride
copper sulphate
hydrogen oxide
magnesium nitride
4
a) A D would also work but would require
heating
b) B (salt in water) and E (gas, et., in
water)
Topic 2
1 a) H Concentrated, high temperature and
powder.
b) A Dilute, low temperature and lump.
c) A and G or B and D or C and E or F and
H Only one variable, the concentration
of acid, changes.
Topic 3
1 a)
5
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
Reactants
Sodium, chlorine
Magnesium, copper(II)
bromide
Magnesium, oxygen
Chlorine, sodium iodide
Calcium carbonate
Products
Sodium chloride
Copper, magnesium
bromide
Magnesium oxide
Iodine, sodium chloride
Calcium oxide, carbon
dioxide
When a substance ‘burns’ oxygen is added.
Decomposing means breaking down into simpler
substances
6 a) sodium + chlorine  sodium chloride
b) magnesium + copper(II) bromide  magnesium
bromide + copper
c) magnesium + oxygen  magnesium oxide
d) chlorine + sodium iodide  sodium chloride +
iodine
e) calcium carbonate  calcium oxide + carbon
dioxide
2
2
electrons
a) A
b) F
Atom
Number of
protons
Number of
neutrons
Number of
electrons
2
2
2
9
10
9
13
14
13
15
16
15
Number of
protons
Number of
neutrons
Number of
electrons
11
12
10
9
10
10
12
12
110
16
16
18
nucleus
b) it has the same
number of protons (positive charge) and
electrons (negative charge)
c) helium (2 protons so atomic number of
2, He)
3
Ion
c) D
Topic 4
1 a)
b)
c)
2
a) NaCl
c) MgS
e) CO
g) N2O4
i) Fe2O3
b) F2O
d) Al2O3
f) CS2
h) CuCl2
j) HgBr2
Topic 5
1
2
a) B b) E and F c) E d) A
The more carbon atoms there are in a
hydrocarbon molecule the heavier the
molecule is. This makes the liquid more
difficult to boil, less flammable and more
viscous.
Gas
nitrogen
oxygen
argon
Carbon dioxide
3
Percentage in
air
79%
20%
Less than 1%
traces
Chemical test
Largely unreactive
Relights a glowing splinter
Totally unreactive
Turns lime water chalky
Fuel
Combustion products
hydrogen
water
carbon
carbon dioxide
carbon monoxide
carbon dioxide
methane
carbon dioxide and water
A hydrocarbon burns to produce both carbon
dioxide and water.
Topic 6
1 a) B, E
d) F
b) D,G
e) C
c) D,E
2
a) A is butene; B is cyclobutane
b) Add bromine solution (bromine ‘water’) to each in turn. The one in which the bromine is
decolourised is butane, the one which is unaffected is cyclobutane.
When you are asked to ‘distinguish’ between two substances you should give the effect of the
test on both of them
The bromine is ‘decolourised’. Do not say it goes ‘clear’. Bromine water is clear. You can
see through something which is clear even although it may be coloured. Substances like
water, which have no colour, are described as being ‘colourless’.
c) isomers
3
a) C2H4 ethene (subtraction: C4H10 - C2H6 = C2H4)
b) i)
ii)
In (ii) the position of the bromine atoms is not
important so long as one is on each carbon atom.
c) addition reaction
Topic 7
1
a)
b)
c)
d)
A, B and I All metals and carbon in the form of graphite conduct electricity.
G and H D contains ions but does not conduct as it is in the solid state.
C
D
2
a) ions
b) electrons
c) ions
3
a) NaNO3
c) NH4Cl
e) CuSO4
g) Li2CO3
i) Fe(NO3)3
b) KOH
d) NH4OH
f) Na2CO3
h) (NH4)2SO4
j) Al2(SO4)3
4
a) Na+(NO3)
c) (NH4+)Cl
e) Cu2+(SO42)
g) (Li+)2(CO32)
i) Fe3+(NO3)3
b) K+(OH)
d) (NH4+)(OH)
f) (Na+)2(CO32)
h) (NH4+)2(SO42)
j) (Al3+)2(SO42)3
5
a) B, D
b) C, E