GHSGT BIOLOGY REVIEW
Biology- study of life
Bio- life
-ology study of
Branches of Biology
Zoology- study of animals
Botany- study of plants
Microbiology- study of bacteria, viruses, and protozoa
Genetics- study of heredity
Ecology- study of the environment and its effects on living things
Cellular Basis of Life
Cell Theory
1. All living things are made up of at least one cell.
2. Cells are the basic units of structure and function.
3. Cells come from other cells of like kind.
Animal Cells
Plant Cells:
3 differences between plant and animal cells:
1. Plant cells have a cell wall.
2. Plant cells have a large central vacuole.
3. Animal cells have centrioles.
Common Cell Organelles
Structure
Cell membrane
Location
Around cell
Cytoplasm
Throughout cell
Nucleus
Nucleolus
Nuclear membrane
Center
Nucleus
Around nucleus
Chromosomes
Nucleus
Ribosomes
Endoplasmic reticulum
Throughout cell
Cytoplasm
Golgi apparatus
Cytoplasm
Mitochondria
Cytoplasm
Lysosomes
Cytoplasm
Microtubules/Microfilaments Cytoplasm/Cell Membrane
Cilia/flagella
Outside surface
Vesicles
Cytoplasm
Function
Maintains cell shape and
controls flow of materials
into and out of cell
Fluid substance which
contains cell parts
Contains chromosomes
Production of ribosomes
Controls entrance into and
out of nucleus
Determine genetic traits;
provide instructions for
protein production
Protein production
Site of protein production
and transport
Packaging and transporting
of materials from the
endoplasmic reticulum
Site of energy production for
the cell
Contain digestive enzymes;
remove waste
Form the cytoskeleton, or
framework, of cell; provide
channels for the transport of
materials.
Movement of materials for
the entire cell
Sacs pinched off from the
cell structures; contain
materials for transport into
or out of the cell
Cell Transport and Homeostasis
Homeostasis- process of keeping the cell and its surroundings the same
Examples: controlling the temperature, pH, amount of water, amount of salts, and amount of
oxygen in an organism
Passive transport- moving things into and out of a cell without using energy
Active transport- moving things into and out of a cell in a way that requires energy
Cell membrane is semipermeable. This means that some things can fit through the membrane without help.
Water is one of those things. Other things are too large to fit through and have to go through a special hole in
the membrane. These holes are like doors and require energy to open and close. Some things are so large that
the cell has to bend around them and enclose them.
Passive Transport Mechanisms:
Diffusion- movement of molecules from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower
concentration
Example: Spraying perfume in one corner of the room, and after a few minutes being able to
smell it all over the room
Osmosis- Diffusion of water
Isotonic- same concentration of water on both sides of the membrane, there is the same amount of
water going in as coming out
Hypertonic environment/ hypotonic inside cell- More solute outside of the cell, higher concentration
of water inside the cell, water moves out of the cell, the cell shrinks
Plasmolysis- cell shrinkage caused when water leaves the cell
Hypotonic environment/ hypertonic inside cell- More solute inside cell, more water outside cell,
water moves into the cell, could cause the cell to burst
Cytolysis- the bursting of the cell due to too much water entering
Facilitated diffusion- similar to diffusion except that the materials must pass through special carrier
molecules which allow the materials to get across the membrane faster
Gated channels- special proteins that allow materials in as needed by the cell
Active Transport Mechanisms:
Sodium potassium pump- used to move materials against the concentration gradient from an area of
lesser concentration to one of higher concentration
Endocytosis- when the cell surrounds a material and takes it into itself
Pinocytosis- taking in water and fluids by enclosing them
Phagocytosis- taking in solids by enclosing them
Exocytosis- when the cell expels waste by a vesicle membrane fusing to the cell membrane and then
opening to the outside of the cell and putting out the waste
CHEMICAL BASIS OF LIFE
ATOMS
combine to make
ORGAN
SYSTEMS
MOLECULES
combine to make
MACROMOLECULES
make up the
work together to
make
ORGANISM!
make up a
ORGANELLES
ORGANS
function as part of
a
combine to form
TISSUE
combine to form
CELL
Inorganic compounds- nonliving
Organic compounds- living
Six elements present in all living things:
Carbon (C)
Hydrogen (H)
Oxygen (O)
Nitrogen (N)
Sulfur (S)
Phosphorous (P)
Water- Most important inorganic compound in living things
H2O
Polar- has positive end and negative end
Universal solvent- can dissolve many substances
Dissolves polar substances but does not dissolve nonpolar substances
Like dissolves like
Oil and water don’t mix
CarbohydratesMade of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
Monomers- building blocks
Monosaccharides- one sugar
Disaccharides- two sugars
Polysaccharides- many sugars
Used for energy
LipidsFats, oils, and waxes
Non-polar, do not dissolve in water
Fatty acids- polar end with a long non-polar chain
Fats and oils are triglycerides- 3 long chains attached to a glycerol molecule
Hydrophilic- water loving
Hydrophobic- water fearing
ProteinsMade up of amino acids
Contain nitrogen
Only 20 amino acids
2 amino acids linked together called a dipeptide
many amino acids linked together called polypeptide
protein formed when 2 or more polypeptides join together
Enzymes- proteins that act as catalysts helping other reactions take place in a cell; enzymes
speed up reactions.
Enzymes work with only a specific molecule, this molecule is called its substrate
Nucleic AcidsStore the information in the cell
DNA- Deoxyribonucleic Acid- Found in chromosomes in the nucleus; stores the genetic information,
gives instructions to the cell
RNA- Ribonucleic Acid- used to transport the instructions from the DNA in the nucleus to the
ribosomes outside the nucleus
Monomers for RNA and DNA are nucleotides
COMMON LIFE FUNCTIONS
Absorption- taking in nutrients, oxygen, and water from the surroundings
Excretion- getting rid of wastes
Digestion- breaking down food into nutrients used by the cells
Biosynthesis- process of using food to make new cells and cell parts
Secretion- release of enzymes that control cell processes in the organism
Reproduction- creation of a new organism like the parent organism
Response- reacting to a stimulus
Adaptation- changing to help the organism survive better in the environment
Energy use- obtaining energy either from food, the sun, or chemicals
Photosynthesis- the process of making food from light used by green plants
Energy + 6CO2 + 6 H2O  C6H12O6 + 6 H2O
Respiration- breaking down glucose to form energy and carbon dioxide
C6H12O6 + 6 H2O  Energy + 6CO2 + 6 H2O
Chemosynthesis- gaining energy from chemicals in the environment
All life requires energy.
All energy comes from the sun.
Energy is stored in ATP.
Energy is released by breaking ATP down into ADP. Energy is added back by adding another phosphate
group to ADP to form ATP.
Stimulus- a cause, anything that causes an organism to react
Response- the reaction of an organism to a stimulus
Behavior- a complex group of responses
Reflex- involuntary response (not controlled)
Instinct- genetically controlled behavior
EVOLUTION
Theories of Evolution
Jean Baptiste de Lamarck developed the theory of the inheritance of acquired characteristics in
1809. This theory said that organisms changed to meet the needs of their environment such as a giraffe’s neck
stretching as it reached to get food. He said that these useful characteristics would be passed on to the next
generation. He also said that traits not used would “waste away” This theory has been proven false.
Charles Darwin developed the theory of natural selection. This theory states that animals who are
better suited to their environments will live longer and reproduce more offspring, thus passing on the traits that
made them better suited to more of the next generation. This theory is also called survival of the fittest.
Fossils (traces of previously living organisms) are the most convincing evidence for evolution. Fossils can be
dated by radioactive dating (used to find the age of the fossils).
Homologous structures (similar structure, different function) also provide evidence for evolution.
Analogous structures have different structure but similar function.
Vestigial organs- similar structure to organs in other organisms but have no apparent function
Adaptation- characteristic that makes a species more suited to its environment, not a change in an organism
Convergent evolution- different species becoming more alike
Divergent evolution- similar species becoming more different
Coevolution- when one organism’s adaptation causes a second organism to adapt (example: a plant develops a
poison, and the predator develops and immunity to the poison)
Extinction- when all the organisms of the species are dead
Mass extinction- massive changes cause the extinction of many species
REPRODUCTION
Asexual reproduction- requires only one parent, reproduction without sex
Sexual reproduction- requires cells from two parents
Gametes- sex cells, the cells involved in the formation of offspring
Spermatozoan or sperm- male sex cell
Ovum- female sex cell, also called an egg
Fertilization- uniting of egg and sperm to form a zygote
Zygote- a fertilized egg
Embryo- developing offspring
PLANT REPRODUCTION
In plants, fertilization occurs when pollen is transferred from the anther of one flower to the
stigma of another flower. The pollen grain produces a tube which grows down the style into the ovary.
The sperm inside the pollen grain moves down the tube into the ovary to fertilize an ovule.
Germination occurs when a seed splits and the new plant begins to grow.
Mitosis- one way cells make new cells
Pass
Me
A
Tissue
Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase
Mitosis is used to reproduce asexually.
Asexual reproduction includes the following:
Budding- part of the cytoplasm breaks off and develops into a new organism
Vegetative propagation- part of the plant is broken off and develops into a new plant
Spore formation- fungi or mosses reproduce from haploid (half the number of chromosomes) cells that
develop into organisms
Binary fission- division of a parent cell into two separate organisms that then develop into adults
Interphase- time in the cell cycle when the cell is not actively dividing.
Chromatin- the DNA during interphase, scattered throughout the nucleus in thin strands
MEIOSIS
Diploid parent (two of each chromosome) divides into 4 haploid (one of each chromosome)
daughter cells
Creates sex cells
Spermatogenesis- creation of sperm
Oogenesis- creation of eggs
Gametogenesis- creation of gametes
Pass Me A Tissue…. Pass Me A Tissue!!!!!
GENETICS
Gregor Mendel experimented with pea plants and discovered that traits were passed from parent
to offspring. He discovered this by keeping detailed records and providing for careful controls during his
experiments. He recognized a pattern of inheritance .
Gene- DNA segment that controls a single inherited characteristic
Alleles- pair of genes
Dominant- a gene that overpowers, masks, or hides the expression of the recessive gene; represented by a
capital letter
Recessive- a gene that can only be expressed if there is no dominant gene present; represented by a lower
case letter
Genotype- Gene types present
Phenotype- physical expression of the genes
Homozygous- two of the same allele, two dominant or two recessive
Heterozygous- one of each allele, one dominant, one recessive
Codominance- when neither allele is truly dominant and both are expressed in the heterozygous
phenotype (red and white flowers making pink flowers)
Incomplete Dominance- when both genes are dominant ( a white chicken and a black chicken making
and black and white checked chicken)
Punnett squaresUsed to predict the phenotype and genotype of offspring
Green seed color dominant to yellow seed color:
100 % Gg
GG
Gg
Gg
Gg
Gg
Gg
100 % green
Gg
gg
25% GG
50% Gg
25 % gg
75 % green
25 % yellow
GENETIC DISEASES
Codon- three nucleotides that tells which amino acid is added next
Mutation- change in one or more base pairs
Point mutation- a specific base is substituted for another
Frame-shift mutation- involves gaining or losing a base and shifting the codons
Lethal genes- genes that cause an organism to be less well adapted to its environment, or a gene that
causes the death of the offspring before birth
Mutagens- cause mutations; the three most common are radiation, drugs (chemicals), and viruses
Down Syndrome
Too many or too few
chromosomes
Turner Syndrome
(Chromosomal
abnormalities)
Extra 21st chromosome
Results in extra skin around
the eye, learning problems,
and heart problems
Only one X chromosome
Female child does not
develop properly and
cannot bear children
Klinefelter Syndrome
Phenylketonuria
Gene Mutation
Cystic Fibrosis
Gene Mutation cont.
Dyslexia
One dominant
gene not a sex
chromosome
Huntington’s
disease
One dominant
gene not a sex
chromosome
Hemophilia
Sex Linked
(on X or Y
chromosome)
XXY
Male child with low mental
ability and little chance of
reproducing
Lack an enzyme
Two recessive
to digest
genes
phenylalanine in
foods a build up
causes brain
damage
Offspring
Two recessive
produces excess
genes
mucous in the
lungs, offspring
tend to die young
before age 25
Causes offspring
to read words
backwards, or
confuse letters
Loss of muscle
control and
mental ability
Causes death
Symptoms do not
appear until
around age 40
Only on X chromosome
Recessive
No match on the Y
Seen almost exclusively in
males (XY)
Causes uncontrolled
bleeding
Clotting agent in blood not
present
Red-Green Color Blindness
XXXY-
Only on X chromosome
Recessive
No match on the Y
Seen almost exclusively in
males (XY)
Unable to distinguish
between colors most
commonly red and green
female offspring
male offspring
Sickle cell anemia- red blood cells become misshapen and cannot carry oxygen
The blood cells get stuck in the smaller capillaries. Causes anemia, pain, fatigue, cramps, and organ
damage.
Some mutations can be useful. Genetic engineering uses those good mutations to give specific traits to
plants and animals.
DNA REPLICATION
DNA is the instructions for the cell.
DNA is made up of nucleotides.
Phosphate
Nitrogenous base
4 Nitrogenous bases
5carbon
sugar
Adenine (A)
Thymine (T)
Guanine (G)
Cytosine (C)
A always goes with T
G always goes with C
ATCGATTGGCC
TAGCTAACCGG
DNA strands are shaped together in a double helix
DNA reproduces itself in a process called Replication
The two DNA strands uncoil and separate from each other. Once apart special molecules bring new
nucleotides (either A,T, G, or C) to create a complementary pair. The result is two DNA strands just
alike.
CLASSIFICATION
Taxonomy- the study of classification
Kings
Play
Chess
On
Fine
Green
Stools
Kingdom
Phylum
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Species
Prokaryotic- cell without a nucleus
Eukaryotic- cell with a true nucleus
TODAY'S SIX KINGDOMS ARE: ARCHAEBACTERIA, EUBACTERIA, PROTISTA, FUNGI,
PLANTAE, AND ANIMALIA.
1) KINGDOM ARCHAEBACTERIA: The prefix archae - comes from the Greek Word "ANCIENT".
Modern Archaebacteria MAY BE Directly descended from and very similar to the First Organisms on Earth.
They Are UNICELLULAR PROKARYOTES with distinctive Cell Membranes as well as Biochemical and
Genetic Properties that Differ from ALL Other Kinds of Life. Some are AUTOTROPHIC, producing food by
CHEMOSYNTHESIS. Most are HETEROTROPHIC. Many Archaebacteria LIVE in HARSH
ENVIRONMENTS such as Sulfurous Hot Springs, Very Salty Lakes, and in ANAEROBIC Environments, such
as the Intestines of Mammals. Includes Chemosynthetic Bacteria.
2) KINGDOM EUBACTERIA: The EU part of Eubacteria means "TRUE". They are UNICELLULAR
PROKARYOTES. Most of the Bacteria (Germs) that affect your life are members of the Kingdom Eubacteria.
Eubacteria are both AUTOTROPHS and HETEROTROPHS. Includes the Diesease-Causing Bacteria such as
tooth decay or food poisoning.
The Combined Kingdoms, Archaebacteria and Eubacteria include the Greatest Number of Living Things on
Earth. ALL OF THE PROKARYOTES ARE IN THESE TWO KINGDOMS. Both Reproduce By Binary
Fission, but they do have some ways to Recombine Genes, allowing Evolution (CHANGE) to occur.
3) KINGDOM PROTISTA: "THE ASH AND TRASH KINGDOM". These organisms are placed here more
because of What They Are Not than What They Are. Kingdom Protista contains All Eukaryotes that are NOT
Plants, Animal, or Fungi, more than 50,000 Species in all. Kingdom Protista includes UNICELLULAR and a
few simple MULTICELLULAR EUKARYOTES. Eukaroyotic cells have nuclei and organelles that are
surrounded by membranes. The cells of multicellular protists are not specialized to perform specific functions in
the organisms. Includes Euglena and Amoebas.
4) KINGDOM FUNGI. Fungi are Eukaryotes, and most are MULTICELLULAR. The cells of fungi have cell
walls that contain a material called CHITIN. These organisms are HETEROTROPHIC AND OBTAIN THEIR
NUTRIENTS BY RELEASING DIGESTIVE ENZYMES INTO A FOOD SOURCE. They absorb their food
after it has been Digested by the Enzymes. Fungi act either as DECOMPOSERS OR AS PARASITES IN
NATURE. KINGDOM FUNGI INCLUDES MOLDS, MILDEWS, MUSHROOMS, AND YEAST.
5) KINGDOM PLANTAE. Plants are EUKARYOTE, MULTICELLULAR and carry out
PHOTOSYNTHESIS (AUTOTROPHS). The cells of plants have CELL WALLS, that contain the
POLYSACCHARIDE CELLULOSE. PLANT CELLS ARE SPECIALIZED FOR DIFFERENT FUNCTIONS,
SUCH AS PHOTOSYNTHESIS, THE TRANSPORT OF MATERIALS, AND SUPPORT. KINGDOM
PLANTAE INCLUDES MOSSES, FERNS, CONE-BEARING PLANTS (GYMNOSPERMS), AND
FLOWERING PLANTS (ANGIOSPERMS).
6) KINGDOM ANIMALIA. Animals are MULTICELLULAR, EUKARYOTES, AND HETEROTROPHIC.
Animal cells have NO CELL WALLS. Most members of the Animal Kingdom can move from place to place.
Some are Permanently attached to surfaces such as Sponges and Barnacles. FISH, BIRDS, REPTILES,
AMPHIBIANS, AND MAMMALS-INCLUDING HUMANS BELONG TO THE KINGDOM ANIMALIA.
THIS KINGDOM ALSO INCLUDES SPONGES, JELLYFISH, WORMS, SEA STARS, AND INSECTS.
KINGDOMS
Characteristic Archaea
Cell Type
Prokaryotic
Nutrition
Heterotrophs
(Absorption)
Bacteria
Prokaryotic
Photosynthesis;
Chemosynthesis;
Absorption
Body Form
Mostly
unicellular;
some
colonial
Asexual
Mostly
unicellular;
some colonial
Present in
some
Present in some
Reproduction
Locomotion
Asexual
Protista
Eukaryotic
Photosyntheis;
ingestion or
absorption
Most
unicellular;
some simple
multicellular
Asexual &
Sexual
Present in
some
Fungi
Eukaryotic
Absorption
Plantae
Animalia
Eukaryotic
Eukaryotic
Photosynthesis Ingestion
Most
Multicellular
multicellular
Asexual &
Sexual
Absent
Sexual
Multicellular;
Organs &
Organ
Systems
Sexual
Absent
Present
ECOLOGY
Ecosystem- composed of all living and non living things in a particular location (the environment)
Biotic factors-living things in an environment
Abiotic factors- non living things in an environment
Food web- a chain of organisms that feed on one another in an environment
Producers:
make their
own food
plants
eat plants
eat plants
Primary
consumers:
herbivores
eat animals
Tertiary
consumers:
omnivores
eat animals
eat animals
Secondary
consumers:
carnivores
Scavengers and Decomposers feed on dead things
Niche- role in an ecosystem, includes all aspects of an organism’s lifestyle, but especially how it obtains
food
Habitat- the physical surroundings in which an organism lives
Habitats can change over time.
Primary succession- life has never been in the area; examples volcanic rocks, new volcanic islands, area
of bare rock after a landslide
-pioneer community
- first group of organisms to settle an area
- hardy group
- usually lichens which can survive with no soil
o - this group creates soil and accumulates soil
-second group to move in is the grasses
- need less soil than shrubs and trees
- help create and accumulate more soil
-Third group are the shrubs and cedar trees
-Finally the climax community of deciduous trees moves in
Climax community- very stable community that does not change much unless a natural or manmade disaster strikes
Secondary succession- succession that occurs after a natural disaster, usually does not take as long
as primary succession
Even ponds will eventually become forests.
Populations and changes
Biological species- have genetic makeup that is similar enough for them to produce offspring
which are able to produce a second generation of offspring
Population- all the members of a species living in a specific area
Geographic isolation- when members of a species become separated due to changes in their
environment this can cause the members of the species to change over time to the point that they are no
longer the same species
Biome
Region
Flora
Fauna
Characteristics
Polar
North and
Moss and
Polar bears,
Permafrost
South poles
Lichen
penguins
Tundra
Arctic/Antarctic Grass and
Reindeer,
Thin soil,
areas
wildflowers
caribou
permafrost
Taiga
Northern
Stunted
Wolves,
Long cold
forests
conifers
rabbits
winters
Deciduous
NE/mid-eastern Deciduous
Deer, birds,
Moderate
forest
US and
trees
small animals
precipitation,
Western
warm
Europe
summers, cold
winters
Grasslands
Mid-Western
Grasses
Prairie dogs,
Hot summers,
US; Eurasia,
ferrets, snakes cold winters,
Africa
Desert
Western US,
North and SW
Africa
Cacti,
succulents
Jackrabbits,
lizards, rats,
snakes
Tropical
rainforest
South America
Diverse plants
Monkeys,
leopards
Temperate
rainforest
NW US
Giant Conifers
Bear, deer,
birds
Effects of Humans on the Environment
Cause
Build up of carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere
Use of fossil fuels, build up of sulfur
oxides and nitrogen oxides in the
atmosphere
Everyday human activities
Release of heated water into rivers and
streams
rainfall
unpredictable
Dry, very little
rainfall,
extremely hot
in the day,
extremely cold
at night
High
temperatures
and rainfall
Moist soil,
high rainfall,
moderate
temperatures
Effect
Greenhouse effect which in turn causes
global warming
Photochemical smog which damages
plant tissues
Acid rain which changes the pH of lakes
and rivers and kills fish in those waters
Build up of pollutants or undesired
impurities in the environment
Thermopollution causes the death of
many organisms
Biodegradable- organic, can be broken down by living things in the environment
Non-Biodegradable- cannot be broken down by living things in the environment
Deforestation- erosion and habitat loss caused by cutting or burning down large areas of forest
- can be prevented by planting new forests and recycling wood products
Bioremediation- using microorganisms to decompose hazardous wastes
Three ways to help the environment
Reduce
Reuse
Recycle