ITEC Anatomy, Physiology & Holistic Massage Course
The Skeletal System
The skeletal system is divided into two parts:
1. Axial – head, spine and ribs
2. Appendicular – limbs, shoulder girdle and pelvic girdle
Functions of the Skeleton
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Framework / support for the body
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Forms joints to provide movement
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Protects organs
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Forms blood cells (erythrocytes) in red bone marrow
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Provides attachments for muscles and tendons
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Provides calcium and phosphorus storage
Bone Tissue
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Composition = water, carbon, mineral salts and cells
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Compact bone = appears solid, but is made up of microscopic honeycomb of blood
+ lymph vessels + nerves surrounded by bone: Haversian system
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Cancellous bone = appears spongy with larger Haversian canals, found at ends of
long bones. Bone marrow is only found here
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ITEC Anatomy, Physiology & Holistic Massage Course
The Skeletal System
Bone Types
There are 206 bones in the body, divided into 5 types:
1. Long bones (eg femur – allows movement (levers)
2. Short bones (eg tarsals – strong groups of small bones in areas requiring little
movement)
3. Flat bones (eg scapula – protection)
4. Irregular bones (eg vertebrae – shapes only found at one location)
5. Sesamoid bones (eg patella – formed in tendons)
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ITEC Anatomy, Physiology & Holistic Massage Course
The Skeletal System
Types of Joint – articulation:
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Fixed/fibrous/synarthroses – no movement (eg skull, pelvic girdle, teeth)
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Slightly moveable/cartilaginous/amphiarthroses – movement only by compression
of cartilage (eg vertebrae)
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Freely moveable/synovial/diarthroses (5 types) – ball and socket (eg shoulders);
hinge (eg elbow); pivot (eg neck); gliding (eg tarsals/metatarsals); saddle (eg
wrist)
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ITEC Anatomy, Physiology & Holistic Massage Course
The Skeletal System
Position of Bones in the Skeleton
Cranium – encloses and protects the brain. 8 flat bones:
- Frontal (1) – forehead and bony
projections under the eyebrows
- Parietal (2) – top and sides
- Temporal (2) – sides and lower
part
- Ethmoid (1) – below frontal bone,
in front of sphenoid bone. Part of
nasal and eye cavities
- Sphenoid (1) – base of skull,
butterfly shaped
- Occipital (1) – back of skull,
contains hole (Foramen Magnus)
which allows spinal cord access
Facial – bones of the face. 14 bones:
- Mandible (1) – lower jaw, chin and sides of face
- Maxilla (2) – upper jaw, all other facial bones join onto it except the mandible
- Palatine (2) – bottom of nose and eye cavities and roof of mouth
- Zygomatic (2) – cheekbones
- Lacrimal (2) – small bones behind
nasal bones in eye sockets
- Nasal (2) – bridge of nose
- Vomer (1) – thin, flat bone
separating nasal cavities
- Turbinator (or inferior conchae)
(2) – thin curved bones inside
nasal cavity
- Hyoid – not specifically part of
the skull, but works with the
mandible and temporal bones. It is
not attached to any bones, but is suspended in the mid-neck region above the
larynx
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ITEC Anatomy, Physiology & Holistic Massage Course
The Skeletal System
Vertebrae – extended from the skull
to the pelvis. 26 irregular bones:
- Cervical – 7 neck bones. The first 2
(atlas & axis) are different to the
rest and allow the head to nod and
move from side to side
- Thoracic – 12 bones supporting the
ribs. They are larger than cervical
vertebrae
- Lumber – 5 bones of the lower back.
The largest vertebrae
- Sacrum – 5 fused bones of the
pelvis.
- Coccyx – 4 fused ‘tail’ bones.
Ribs – thoracic cavity. 12 pairs of
bones protecting the heart and lungs:
- True ribs - first 7 pairs, also
attached to the sternum
- False ribs – next 5 pairs, only
attached indirectly to the
sternum or ‘floating’
Shoulder Girdle:
- Scapula (2) – shoulder blades.
Triangular, flat bones. Each has an
‘acromion process’ connecting to the
clavicle and a ‘corocoid process’ which
anchors to arm muscles
- Clavicle (2) – collar bones. Slender,
curved bones attached to the sternum
and scapula
- Sternum (1) – breast bone. Lies in front
of the thorax. Made up of the top part
(manubrim), mid part (body of sternum)
and lower part (xiphoid process)
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ITEC Anatomy, Physiology & Holistic Massage Course
The Skeletal System
Upper Limbs – arm and hand. 30 bones:
- Humerous – long bone. Rounded
end fits into the glenoid cavity
of the scapula
- Ulna – medial bone of the
forearm on the little finger side
- Radius – lateral bone of the
forearm on the thumb side.
When the hand rotates the palm
backwards, the distal end of the
radius is medial to the ulna
- Carpels (8) – wrist bones. 2 rows
of 4 bones:
Upper row: scaphoid, lunate, triquetral, pisiform
Lower row: trapezium, trapezoid, capitate, hamate
- Metacarpals (5) – palm bones. The heads of the metacarpals form the knuckles
- Phalanges (14) – finger and thumb bones. 2 in each thumb, 3 in each finger.
Pelvic Girdle – weight bearing
bones that protect the organs:
- The ilium (2) (rim of hip),
ischium (2) (sitting bones) and
pubis fuse to form the hips
- Innominate bones connect with
the sacrum, coccyx and pubis
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ITEC Anatomy, Physiology & Holistic Massage Course
The Skeletal System
Lower Limbs – Leg and foot. 26 strong weight-bearing bones:
- Femur - thigh. The proximal end is ball
shaped. The neck of the femur is a
common fracture site
- Tibia - shin. The largest of the 2 bones
of the lower leg
- Fibula – runs alongside the tibia
- Tarsals (7) – join the foot to the leg
and calceneous (heel):
navicular, tarsus, cuniforms (lateral,
intermediate and medial), and cuboid
- Metatarsals (5) – sole
- Phalanges (14) – toes. Each toe has 3,
except for the big toe that has 2
- Patella – kneecap. Set into the tendon
of quadriceps
Terminology – used for skeletal and muscle work
 Anterior – front of
 Bicipital – 2-headed (femur, humerous)
 Condyle – rounded projection (pelvis)
 Costal – pertaining to the surface of ribs
 Distal – furthest end from mid line
 Lateral – away from mid line (movement)
 Medial – towards mid line (movement)
 Proximal – nearest to trunk
 Process – a projection of bone (eg spinal process)
 Shaft – main part of bone
 Trochanter – a large, blunt process (eg ball of the hip joint)
 Tuberosity – larger and broader process than trochanter (eg shoulder)
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ITEC Anatomy, Physiology & Holistic Massage Course
The Skeletal System
Postural Deformities
Causes: congenital, environmental, trauma
Types: Kyphosis – exaggerated dorsal curve (hunched upper spine)
Scoliosis – sideways curvature of the spine (S-shaped spine)
Lordosis – exaggerated lumber curve (stomach protrudes as lower back
pushes forward)
Fractures and Their Causes
Simple = clean break (no skin penetration)
Greenstick = incomplete break (no skin penetration)
Compound = broken ends of bone protrude through soft tissues and skin
Complicated = breaks which also damage surrounding tissue
Comminuted = bone breaks into many pieces
Impacted = bone ends forced into each other
Causes = most breaks are caused by trauma that twists or smashes bone (eg sports,
car accidents, etc)
Diseases/Disorders
Osteo-arthritis
Inflammation of the joints. May be due to injury or ageing.
Cartilage breaks down, wear and tear to weight bearing
joints. Pain and muscle weakness.
Rheumatoid arthritis
Chronic local progressive inflammation of synovial joints,
blood vessels, heart and skin. The cause is unknown. Pain
and muscle weakness.
Gout
Deposition of sodium urate crystals in joints and tendons.
Acute local inflammation. Occurs when blood uric acid is
very high due to kidney problems.
Osteoporosis
Reduction of total bone density. Bones tend to fracture
more easily.
Stress
Mental stress can lead to muscle tension, which can cause
poor posture.
RSI
Excess strain placed upon joints due to many repetitions of
the same movement
Carpal Tunnel Syndrome Incorrect/too firm a grip causing nerve damage to the
hand
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