March 15th – Early Stone Age
Important slides: 9, 40 – 42, 45, 47, 52, 55, 57-58, 64, 65 ,67
Moving from Chimps to Foragers (differences)
Hunting 20-50% of diet; High mobility (foragers); Fluid Social Groups
Chimp Culture- “learned” variations. (e.g. shaking hand over their head when they greet)
Chimps use simple tools (leaves, sticks, and nut cracking with hammer and anvil)
Complex tool manufacture begins LP/ESA- Oldowan (2.6-1.8mya) and Achuelean
*References to “stone age” are specific to Africa; no MP in Asia*
RAYMOND DART: Taung baby = first hominid from Africa. Limestone cave. Fossils
found in Sterkfontein indicated carnivorous australs
 WRONG- ignoring the site formation processes
(Geological processes, burrowing animals, weathering, scavengers, people’s interactions)
Earliest Stone Tools found in Ethiopia- Gona- 2.6 MA
Early Olduwan Sites:
Small, Stones and bones, Complex processes of accumulation, Hominids and
carnivores
Glynn Isaac
Koobi Fora; Oldowan Industry/Technology; hitting rocks to make flakes and core
Typology: Choppers (unifocal/bifocal) cores w/ flakes knocked off.
Core forms: (discoids, polyhedrons) choppers w/ multiple flakes knocked off.
Flakes: (heavy duty, light duty)
Spheroids (stones pounded until they’re smooth and round) – meat
tenderizer/come from boredom
Majority are flakes.
Bone Tools: Digging and Puncturing; fossils, tubers, termites
Olduvai
Swartkrans
--- 2.2 mya
Sterkfontain
Invariant for 1million years
Stone tools too hard to make for chimps
Marrow extraction – percussion marks; meat eating – cut marks
Cores & Flakes seemingly show right handed dominance
Experimental Microwear Analysis (Koobi Fora)
16 % of flakes found were used. Distribution of use:
 33 % wood
 44 % meat
 22% grass or reeds
Glynn Isaac-Central Place Foraging hypothesis (site near water)
 Hunting / Efficient scavenging “chimp” (Bunn and Knoll)
mostly legs and jaws
Mid-shaft cut marks for de-fleshing
Prime-age adult prey
Therefore: central place for processing of hunted carcass
 Skeptics
Legs and jaws best-preserved b/c of density
mid-shaft cut marks rare for de-fleshing
Lots of carnivore marks
Which species were in the Olduwan (2.6-1.8mya)?
Who was around at the time and who was smartest (based on EQ = H. habilis and A.
rudolfensis, bc highest EQ = 3)
Manual Adapt.: Power grip/ Precision grip - Chimp not well adapted for precision grip
Fire/Cooking
Burned patches (oxidation); Burned bones: Swartkrans
(fire is natural to any/ all environments)
No real evidence but Absence of Evidence ≠ Evidence of Absence
Also, site shelters
Acheulean & Developed Olduwan – 1.7mya – H. erectus/ergaster
Kenya – handaxes, flakes and cores – butchery sites possible
The Developed Olduwan: Core – Flake, lots of tools (no hand axes)
Movius line – no handaxes above this line, so only Africa, ME and S Europe
Olduwan – Acheulian Transition
 hand axes not everywhere
 increased cognitive complexity (a little)
 more variety of forms/ more stereotypical
 more hunting?
 Fire?
March 22nd – Earliest Homo (H. habilis and rudolfensis)
Key Slides: 3-10, 16-17, 20, 26-27, 31-33, 39-40, 42-44, 47-49, 51, 56, 59, 64, 67
4.5-7mya: Sahel./Ard.  Gracile austral.; 2-4mya: Gracile  robust and H. sapien
Transition from austral. to Homo erectus (2mya)
*Homo - bigger brain and making stone tools
Body mass and brain size increases; Longer legs and shorter arms; Smaller
faces and teeth
Stone tools 2.6 mya. Foragers/carnivores, food sharing and meat eating (homo)
Lifestyles:
Early hominid diet + scavenged food
Small groups with some food sharing and male provisioning
Tool-making
History
Leakeys – Olduvai Gorge – looking for stone tools
(1959) Zinjanthropus boisei – earliest responsible for Oldowan tools?
found with many bones and stone tools
  (1964) Homo habilis (“handy man”)
different teeth; much larger brain size; hand bones suggest tool-making
*H. habilis = intermediary between austral. and H. erectus – more bipedal, more dextrous
and intermediate brain size*
Fossil Record
1970s – Koobi Fora.
--larger brains; more finds aged around 2mya
“OH 62” fragmented skeleton and complete palate – only early Homo with postcranial
Palates: shorter and more vertical premaxilia giving rounder, more parabolic tooth row
1) Early Homo from Omo, Ethiopia 2.2 mya
2) AL 666 – Hadar, Ethiopia 2.35mya “early homo” stone tools
3) A. garhi, Bourhi, 2.5 mya
3mya – NO stone tools
One species or two?
“Garbage can” taxon – lumping together anything. Prob.: too much variability w/in taxon
Ie. Diff species or genders? – KNM-ER 1813 and KNM-ER 147 (dimorph.)
How do we decide between 1 or 2 species?
1) Analogue species to compare amt of variation
2) Probability of attaining same level of variation
Conclusion: 2 species – H. rudolfensis and H. habilis:
Brain size: r > h
Face: r = austral., h = homo-like
Teeth: r = austral., h = homo-like (r has larger, flatter postcanines)
Early homo postcranials (rarity of associated postcranials and cranials)
--Hand and foot from Olduvai
Hand with expanded thumb but curved phalanges
Foot is modernized; toe is in-line (adducted), arch
--H. habilis palate with very small post-crania
Big bodies with more homo-like morphology of teeth and skull
--Dimorphism like austral. (more than Pan)
--Long forelimbs, short hindlimbs
Tooth size was larger than humans and brain size was smaller than humans
Homo or australopithecus
What genus does it belong to?
1) group of species with common ancestry (clade)
H. erectus
H. habilis
H. rudolfensis
Australopithecines
Bigger brain
Distinct browridges
Smaller, narrower face and teeth
2) similar adaptive pattern (grade
diet/subsistence: H. habilis smaller teeth like H. erectus
locomotion: both Rudolf and habilis austral-like
brain size: habilis austral-like (less advanced tech. and cognitive abilities)
life history pattern: all austral-like
Conclusion:
Habilis and rudolfensis were more austral like than homo like in overall behavior
Might include both in austral. BUT: no solid postcranial data
Climate
How did climate change influence speciation?
 Deep sea cores (%age of O18)
Over last 6mya: cooler, more seasonal (fluctuations)
Causes:  continental drift (unpredictable phenomenon)
 Predictable phenomenon (solar radiation - changes in orbit, tilt, etc.
Milankovich cycles)
Temperature fluctuation  progression toward savannahs and grassland
Climate and habitat change evolutionary consequences
Forest fragments and becomes extinct
Forest fragments and diverges into two new populations of former species
** speciation**
April 3rd – Homo erectus
Slides 16-20, 28-9, 31, 40-49,56, 58 -65, 67-80
History:
 H. Erectus unique  Bigger brains and bodies and smaller teeth
 H. Erectus  focus on ONE species throughout Africa, Asia, and Europe (H.
ergaster was only erectus in Africa)
 (1890) Pithecanthropus erectus, first H. Erectus discovered
Indonesia: Pithecanthropus, China: Sinanthropus pekenensis
Ernst Mayer lumps these together into H. erectus
 (1984) Nariokotome Boy (H. ergaster), Lake Turkana
Evolutionary origins/context:
 Major Transition: Body size increase, Post Canine reduction, EQ increase, more
terrestrial
o Correlation with cognitive complexity, life history elongation, meat in
diet, and more efficient trekking
o Erectus – big shift from even habilis and rud. (larger brain/EQ, teeth
smaller, bigger body)
 Pleistocene Dates (Ice Age) – the environment of evolutionary adaptation:
 Lower: 1.75Mya-780 KA; Middle: 780-125 KA; Upper: 125- 12 KA
Earliest  1.9mya Koobi Fora, Kenya and Dmanisi, also, as recently as 800Ka in Algiers
Asian Populations (migration from Dmanisi to S and SE Asia):
 Indonesia Population Specimens:
o Sangiran, Trinil, Modgokerto: 1.6MA-470 KA
 H. Floresensies: The Hobbit 90-13 KA
 China: Zhoukoudian: 350-500 KA; shovel-shaped teeth as Asian characteristic
 Narmada, India: MP; Different Cranial Vault Shape
Little difference between African and Asian specimens
Most likely ancestor for all of these populations: H. Habilis
Crania, Dentition and Postcrania:
Crania less than 1.2 MA
 Largest is H. erectus w/ EQ = 3.3  larger EQ is Homo sapiens = 6.3
Female: 630 CC; Male: 810 CC; ID: 1.3 (small)
 Long, low vault; sagittal keel; prognathism; large face and orbits; browridges
(dimorphic), more balanced head
o Huge Browridges: Sexual Selection
 EXTERNAL NASAL MARGIN: Air Humidification, breathing
 VERY THICK VAULT – systemic robusticity v. veinous cooling(?)
 Small dentition, shovel-shaped incisors: Yuanmou, Nariokotome
Postcrania
1) Body Mass between 60 - 70 KG
Possible Reasons; Lower quality food, intraspecies competition, predator defense,
life history, increased efficiency of transport
2) Much shorter arms; shorter distal limbs (brachial and crural indices)
Eco-geography: Climates
Also because not swinging from trees
Surface area/volume lower in colder climates
In tropical regions: Longer body, taller body sizes
3) Relatively smaller digestive tract in H. Erectus
Thoracic shape: More cylinder-like
5) Pelvis: more expanded (more efficient locomotion) and bigger joints (loading)
KEY POINTS:
H. Erectus first seen 1.9 MA and spread quickly into Eurasia
Bigger, more modern bodies, larger brains, smaller faces, teeth
April 5th – Why Homo erectus?
Slides: 6, 7, 12-15,16, 19,20, 24, 32, 42-58, 65, 75,76,86, 87, 91-97, 100,101
Phylogenetic Context:
 Long, lived species with little change
 Big change around 2mya
Conditions:
Before: Ape-like, woodland biped, simple and primitive, little technology
After: cognitive abilities, language, hunting , slower IBIs and maturation
Signature tools of the LP
 Oldowan - Sharp-edged flakes = access to meat, brain, marrow, foods, etc.; no
projectiles or throwing tools (2.6mya)
 Acheulean - bifaces (1.7mya)
Migration  H. Erectus was first hominid species to leave Africa (Dmanisi, Indonesia)
 Global climate fluctuations  habitat fluctuations  more open habitats
 Rapid spread of H. erectus because of the open habitats
Interglacials: forests expand, deserts shrink
Glacials: Forests shrink, savannahs expand
ENERGETICS AND REPRODUCTION
 H. erectus more like australopiths and chimps (IBI etc.)
 Higher body mass + energetic costs of reproduction = need for more energy/food
 Supplemental feeding less of a problem, but teeth are smaller/thinner
o Weaning at age 3, very similar to human foragers (chimps = 5yrs)
 Meat-eating 2.6 MA; 1.8MA = medium to large animals (hunting tech. improves)
Early Stone Age:
--No distance projectiles; close weaponry, endurance running
o Middle of day = peak heat, run at non-optimal speed, drive prey into
hypothermia and track
o Narrow waist, long legs, arches, Achilles, narrow thorax = benefits
o Key adaptations for stabilization:
 Big gluteus muscles; head stabilization – foramen magnum
orientation; long, detached necks, decoupling of head and pectoral
girdle (independent motion)
o Thermoregulation  sweating and loss of fur; Trekkingexternal nose
 Persistence hunting (+): Minimal risk/cost, minimal technology, High yield
 Persistence hunting (-): Hot (seasonal?), need water, salt, physical fitness, speed,
open habitat, social system, food processing
 Modern forager pirating: Vulture  Run  Fend off competitors
Running requirements: brain increase, sharing, running, meat-eating, provisioning
-- more societal-oriented activities develop with H. erectus
April 10th - ARCHAIC HOMO
Slides: 4, 5, 9, 10, 12-13, 19, 21, 24, 26, 52, 57-60, 62-63, 72-75, 79-81, 96, 97 (splitters)
H. erectus – 2.0 to 0.5mya – Kenya, Georgia, Indonesia
Basically bigger brains and faces
Low, thick cranial vault; robust postcranial ( > modern humans); large orbits
Smallish teeth
Big bodies, non–arboreal running
Substantial climatic variability within locations – cold and wet, then mild, then cold and dry
Late early stone age - handaxes etc.
Africa  Middle East Asia (India)  Indonesia
*fossils beginning to look like Neanderthals – nose, chin, cranial vault, flared ilia; wide birth
canal. Avg male height 5’7’’; 50% died between 10 and 18, no one older than 40 (like Pan.)
Traditional grade view: H. erectus  “Archaic” homo  H. sapiens
Multiregional origins – H. erectus 1.8mya spreads to Europe, Africa, Asia, Australasia
^^^Both of these are no longer used ^^^
More clade-based view: “replacement”/ “African origin”
Homo erectus evolves and moves out into other regions; modern humans develop in
Africa (only), branch out into other continents and replace A. homo
H. sp. indet – LCA between some Homo and us (closer than erectus)
lots of variability post 0.5mya – not clear how to sort them (prefer splitters)
Lieberman’s preferred splitters cladogram:
Homo sapien H. helmei H. rhodesi H. neand. H. heidel
Homo erectus
Note: H. helmei, H. rhodesiensus,
H. neanderthalensis, and H. heidelbergensis
are all part of H. species indeterminate
Examples of Archaic Homo:
1) Bodo (Ethiopia 500ka), Broken hill (Zambia), Jinnuishan (China) – female skeleton
2) “The Hobbit” - Flores, Indonesia 80 Ka
built raft?; a few primitive tools
skull 380 cc (smallest brain size of any hominid); 1m tall; tiny body, long arms; body
proportions much like Lucy
INSULAR DWARFING? (see notes from last lecture) – reversal of size; microcephalic?
3) Dmanisi (1.8mya) H. erectus/H. ergaster “The Earliest Europeans”
Gran Dolina, Spain 800-900ka - H. antecessor – juvenile
Cut marks on bones and defleshed – cannibalism?
Sima de los Huesos – 300-400KA; cave complex – 2000 human specimens – 24
individuals – burials?
Mauer, Germany – H. heidelbergensis – a lot of mandibles
April 12th – DMANISI*
Slides:1, 5, 10, 11,9 (about erectus); 13, 14, 18, 22-24, 29-30, 33-38, 40, 42 (Dmanisi)
*note: this lecture is NOT on the test, but the information is probably still important
Significance of Dmanisi
-SE Georgia earliest traces of human occupation outside Africa
-Animal bones (tooth and cut marks), stone artifacts, five hominids (skulls and
postcranial)
-medieval settlement (1200-1300ad) reveals early Pleistocene animal bones
-stone tools derived from volcanistic material (simple, crude toolds and cores)
-Masavera Basalt (1.85mya) ash and sediment accumulation after lava cooled
-hominid metatarsal discovered 2001
(1991) mandibular proportions (thick) and tooth crown dimensions (small) resembles H.
erectus
Similarities between Dmanisi and earlier Homo and/or Austral.
Small cranial capacity; Postorbital constriction; Supramastoid cresting; Transverse torus
absent; Mandibular fossa proportions as in earlier Homo; Midfacial contour projecting;
Hard palate shallow rather than arched
D3444 – completely toothless – older individual (possible male) survived for several
years in an impaired state *see slides 33-35*
**consider all specimens as single population – intragroup variation in early Homo
Neanderthals – April 17th
Slides: 12, 13, 18, 22-39, 41, 42, 44, 45
Why care?
 Top of skull found in 1856 by J. Fuhlrott in Feldhofer Cave – very controversial
 First fossil found in Belgium in 1829
 Busk - skull – 1848 - Gibraltar, revived interest in 1863
 William King said Neanderthals were new species in 1864
Evolutionary context
 Acted like a mirror to paleoanthropologists - they're like us but not
 Extreme views: they're stupid v. they're just as smart as us
o Debate about neanderthals has often been about people's
psychological extremes
Definition
 Restricted in time & space: MP – 200ka to 27ka in Europe and Middle East
 First time we see them during an interglacial (warm) period in Europe
o Glacier covering northern Europe, further south was tundra (barren)
 Replacement view of human origins – Neanderthals developed from H.
erectus that left Africa and was then replaced by H. sapiens
 Lumpers and splitters clade view (see archaic homo for cladogram)

Evolved in europe, but did not give rise to modern humans
Anatomy:
SKULL:
Shared derived features from archaic homo and heidelbergensis:
long, low, thick vault, long mandibular ramus, small mastoid, no chin, big
browridge, big orbits, no canine fossa, convex face (resistance to bending),
occipital bun
Unique derived features (apomorphies):
occipital bun, small mastoid process, retromolar space, big external nose
(humidifying the air), midfacial projection (resistance to twisting)
BRAIN:
 Higher EQ than modern humans, Cro-Magnon even bigger; larger brains
relative to body size, but body size less than ours
TEETH
 Shovel-shaped incisors (primitive), Taurodont roots (derived)
 Ear: posterior semicircular canal (diagnostic feature different from modern
humans)
POSTCRANIA
 More barrel-chested
 More flared pelvis
 Longer pubic bone
 Shorter distal limbs (cold)
 Robusticity (declines very recently)
Key Fossil Sites
 Atapuerca - Sima de los Huesos (northern Spain), Boxgrove, England
 Homo sp. Indet. From Europe = H. antecessor, H. heidelbergensis
 Heidelbergensis in Greece and Spain show derived features from Nean.
Multiple dispersals from Africa (accretionary model)
 Immigration to Europe then 3 periods of extinction; during interglacial periods
(1ma, 500ka, 300ka)
 Neanderthals are a European species
 Few early fossil location in Italy, Croatia, France
 Golden Age: 55-75 Ka
 Terminal Phase: <50-27 Ka
o Youngest Neanderthal found at southern tip of Spain 27ka
 Neands and modern humans (older than neand) found in Middle East (Tabun)
 There are no neanderthals in Asia or Africa
Life as a Neanderthal
 Life History
o 4 year-old molar eruption and brain size comparable to a modern
human of 5-6 years; grew up like modern humans
o Tooth wear starts about 3 years
o Enamel defects peak at 3.5 years
o Hypoplaisas (undergrowth) in teeth suggest that weaning begins about
3-3.5 years
o Growth differences before age 2, very different trajectories from
modern humans though rate of growth is similar
 Brain size by taxon
Language:

Fossil record - ability to produce speech
Hypoglossal nerve – ability to make vowel sounds
Miscellaneous:
Levallois Core
Anterior dental-wear indicates eating large-herd animals (reindeer etc.); ambush
hunting
High resistance to bending and twisting
Cannibalism, busted up skulls
Replaced by modern humans, little interbreeding
Origin of H. Sapiens –Fossil Evidence April 19th
Slides: 3, 6-10, 14, 18, 21, 25, 28, 34-35, 44-46, 71, 77, 86-90, 104
Paleontological
 Climatic context of Pleistocene
o Every 100K years, cycle of cold and warm periods, habitats moving
o 100-200K, key events occurred for our species' evolution
 Major changes from old view (multiregional) to Replacement model
o Genetic evidence
o Dating technology
o Impact of cladistics (shared derived characters - cladograms)
 Replacement View (now dominant)
o Homo erectus gave rise to Homo Sapiens: Erectus leaves Africa
1.8mya and H. sapiens leave Africa 200Ka replacing Neanderthals
What makes 'anatomically modern humans' modern
 Cranium (Archaic Homo from Broken Hill vs. Cro Magnon)
o Globular braincase
o Steep forehead
o Small, retracted face
o Divided browridge
o Small orbits
o Canine fossa
o Chin – resorptive field at the top, depository at bottom of mandible
 Primitive features - not derived (cranium)
o Big brain
o Vertical face
o Variable browridge
 Postcranium (derived features from neanderthalensis)
o Shallower thorax
o Lass flared pelvis
o Shorter pubic bone
o Longer distal limbs
*Robusticity*
Distribution (time and space)
 Predictions: multiregional vs. recent African origin
o Oldest fossils support african origin: S. African and Ethiopia (~200Ka)
o Regional features recent (except Africa)
o First modern Homo sites (Ethiopia- Omo, Herto)
Behavioral Modernity in Africa – bone points, pigments, blades, microliths
MP of Levant (Turkey etc.) key site = Tabun, Neanderthals 60-80Ka and modern
humans 80-130Ka – means modern humans there before Neanderthals – see next
lecture for explanation; also Levallois core – MP modern humans and neanderthals
Homo in Asia, Europe, Africa
H. erectus leaves Africa 1.8mya, into Asia spread btwn 1mya and 100ka.
H. sapiens reaches Asia 40-60ka
o Asia - Zhoukoudian (250-500 Ka); Shandingdong (60ka)
o Europe – H. heidelbergensis 900-200Ka, Neand. 200-27Ka
o Australia 40-13Ka
 Modern humans were tall and thin b/c evolved in warm climate, Africa
 Cultural capability in MP – Levallois core, spear points, scrapers
Developmental bases of human origins
 (Evo-Devo) evolutionary developmental biology
o Developmental shifts to transition to new species
o Major shifts in skull architecture?
 Globular vault
 Facial retraction
o Morphometric analysis: where does growth differ?
o Problem of integration – more than 1 gene contributes to bone growth
 Temporal lobe - part of the brain that got bigger in human evolution (speech)
 3 major shifts: 1)Relative facial shortening in H. sapiens, 2) longer anterior
cranial base, 3)flexed cranial base
Regional continuity
 What would intermediates/hybrids look like?
o Gradual event: intermediates should be present
o Mosaic idea - independent heritable traits
o Problem: most traits are polygenic (integration problem)
 Regional features are recent - similarity and overlap in skull shape
April 24th - Origins of Modern Humans: Genetic Evidence
Slides: 13-17, 18-19, 20-24, 25, 27, 29, 31, 36, 37, 43, 44, 48, 55, 59, 60, 67, 70, 79, 85,
88-91
Molecular clock – DNA mutates at a certain rate  can look at differences and
determine how far back they split (relatedness) using non-recombinant DNA (Ie: how
long ago Mitochondrial Eve left)
- DNA  A’s bind to T’s and C’s to G’s; 23 human chromosomes, #23 is sex chr.
- Central Dogma – DNA  RNA  proteins
- Codon = 3 base pair long coding for an amino acid, building block of proteins
- Most of genome unexpressed (junk DNA)
- 2 types of DNA in cells: nuclear and mitochondrial (mtDNA)
Nuclear
Mitochondrial
Y-chromosome
Inheritance pattern
Biparental
Maternal
Paternal
Recombination
Yes
No
No
Mutation rate
Slower
Faster
slower
- 5 types of mutations – point, inversion, translocation, duplication, deletion
- Haplotypes –alleles (gene variations) correlated with each other in diff.
populations w/ identifiable groups of base pairs; look at how many alleles
correlate in different parts of the world; All haplotypes exist in Africa, but only a
few of them traveled to different parts of the world (Ie: one in Asia, one in Europe
but they are both in Africa) – see slides 43 and 44
o Can create a tree based on these haplotypes, mutations around them
o Use parsimony (simplest rship possible to form cladograms)
o DNA hybridization – more energy to break up the bonds; can determine
relatedness, more related when more energy needed
- Genetic evidence can be used for dating (molecular clock)
- Multiregional model: erectus left Africa, went to other continents and evolved
into H. sapiens via DNA crossover
- Recent Africa Origin Model (AKA “Out of Africa”) – erectus left Africa, went to
other continents, (inter)glacials temporarily blocks migration, sapiens evolved
from erectus in Africa, spread out over the earth, erectus lineages die out,
confirmed by little interbreeding
- Hybridization Model – same as out of Africa, except suggests erectus-sapien
interbreeding, erectus-sapien hybrids created and genes survive: no evidence
- Population bottleneck – small erectus population changing into H. sapiens, so
limited variation; speciation – all genetic variation in world is in Africa
- Humans have low variation; variation highest in Africa (bottlenecking)
- Fst = relative amount of between group variation relative to mean
o Low Fst (0) means most variation within populations
o High Fst (1) means most variation between populations
- Searching for a mitochondrial Eve through cutting mtDNA, 290k – 140kya
- Tree – no racial grouping, racial clusters all spread out
- Coalescence time: upper time limit for pop. div. (LCA); collapses if bottleneck –
varying levels of genetic variation, less variation reduces divergence window
- Modern mtDNA is very different than Neanderthal mtDNA
- DNA primers (cutters) only cut Neanderthal DNA, not human DNA = evidence
for profound genetic differences
- Date of human/Neanderthal split = 370kya (acc. to nuclear DNA)
o LCA population size = 3,000
o Origin of humans probably slightly older than LCA of humans and Neand.
= meaning that humans were in existence before Neanderthals
o No interbreeding
Conclusions: 1) Humans recently rated (150Ka); 2) Origin of species a little older than
LCA; 3) Multiregional model incompatible with genetic data; 4) no evidence for hybrid.
April 26th – Archaeology of Modern Humans
Slides: 3-5, 6, 8-10, 14, 16-20, 22-33, 50, 54, 55, 57-60, 62, 63, 66, 72,78
- bias in archaeological record – some behaviors/environments are better preserved
- MP – Levallois Cores, little variability in time/space, no art
- UP – blade cores (twice as long as wide), lots of variability (cultures), art present
- 2 theories: UP developed in Europe vs. UP imported from Africa (evolution v.
revolution)
o Prob w/“evolution” theory – Neanderthals used UP tools, Chatelperrionian
o Confusing data from Middle East (Ie: Tabun) and all made MP tools
o No correlation btwn archaeological and fossil records; none necessary tho
- Bar-Yosef’s Explanation (accepted) – based on Tabun
o Stage 1 – (>100Ka) Neands and MidE. sapiens from Africa – MP tools
o Stage 2 – (60-80Ka) Europe - glaciers push Neands to MidE, pushed out
H. sapiens
o Stage 3 – (60-45Ka) Neands. back in Europe w/ MP tools; Sapiens bacl in
MidE w/ UP tools from Africa
o Stage 4 – (45Ka) sapiens to Europe w/ UP tools displace last neanders
*explains layers of Neanderthals and h. sapiens and why Neand were found in Spain*
- MP (in Africa = MSA):
o prepared core; core-flake technology; Levallois technique - make a core
with a flatedge, flake off and retouch
o 1st evidence of controlled fire hearths; 250Ka
o NO MP IN ASIA
- UP (in Africa = LSA)
o art/symbolism/intentional burials
o Blade core, microliths and Levallois from MP
o Aurignacian, Gravettian, Solutrean, Magdalenian
o Atlatl, bows and arrows, more complex diets, diversity of food sources
o Population density higher in UP, open air sites, elaborate graves
 Explaining the UP; Cognitive revolution hypothesis (people got
smarter suddenly) or African evolution hypothesis
FIRST HOMO SAPIENS IN AFRICA THE SAME TIME AS FIRST NEANDERTHAL
- Gradual transition to UP in Africa
1st migration out of Africa around 100kya during MP times
2nd migration from Africa 50kya, brought UP tech with them
Displacement after 45k but gradual; 30K wiped out
- What happened when neanders encountered humans?
o Humans hunted/killed neanders
o Humans better suited for environment
o Neanders interbred with humans (no evidence)
- Time of rapid climate change
Transition from interglacial to glacial = open path to Europe to closed path
- Humans weaned earlier in UP than in MP
- Chatelperronian – UP industry from 35-30k ya
Lieberman  Neands were outcompeted and went extinct
Derived characteristics
Homo erectus
Cranial
 Increased cranial capacity
 Big, vertical face; external noses
 Smaller teeth
 Long, low thick cranial vault
 Large browridges and orbits (sexually dimorphic)
 Sagittal keel
 Occipital torus
Postcranial
 Tall  5 feet, 10 inches
 More sexual dimorphism
 Barrel-shaped thorax
 Rel. short arms
 Tall, narrow waist
 Rel. narrow hips
 Rel long legs
 Rel long tibia
 Rel large lower body joints
 More robust bones
*Archaic homo = larger Homo erectus; bigger face and brain size (lecture17, slide63)
UNIQUE - larger brain size; earliest hominid to have a brain as large as
(relative to body mass) modern humans
long, low cranial vault
large orbits
browridges separate
SHARED - external nose
knee joints --> supporting large body mass --> long distance
trekking/hunting
general robusticity in bones
thick ramus in mandible --> resistance to twisting/bending
small teeth
Neanderthals (Diagnostic in Bold)
Skull
 Occipital bun
 Small mastoid
 Retromolar space
 Big nose
 Midfacial projection (resistance to twisting)
 Convex face (resistance to bending)
 Taurodont roots
 Posterior semicircular canal
Body Shape
 Barrel-chested (more than erectus???)
 Flared pelvis
 Longer pubic bone
 Shorter distal limbs
 Robust bones
Homo sapiens
Cranium
 Globular braincase, Steep forehead, Small, retracted face, Divided browridge,
Small orbits, Canine fossa, Chin
Postcranium
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Shallower thorax
Less flared pelvis
Shorter pubic bone
Longer distal limbs
Lab Summaries
Lab 1: Biomechanics Primer
Shape/size of bones, joints, muscles indicates natural selection and applied forces
Bone muscles systems
- input force (Fi) = force being applied (pull of tendons, gravity, external load)
- output force (Fo) = force derived from motion (teeth, feet, digits)
Lever Arms and Torques
- Feeding and locomotion systems  levers
- Joints usually the center of rotation (COR) or pivot
- In-Lever arm (Li) = goes from Fi to COR
- Out-Lever arm (Lo) = goes from COR to Fo
- Force x lever = turning force/moment/torque
o FiLi > FoLo – lever rotates toward Li
o FiLi < FoLo – lever rotates toward Lo
o FiLi = FoLo – no motion (equilibrium)
st
- 1 class lever systems – forces on opp. sides of COR (extensor, triceps), 2nd
class – COR, out, in, 3rd class – COR, in, out (flexor muscles – biceps)
Mechanical Advantage, V, and range of motion
- increase out-force by increasing length of in-lever or decreasing out-lever
- Mechanical advantage = Li/Lo
o Higher mech adv means less in-force to produce equal out force
- Velocity – Lo/Li  determined by distance from pivot and rate of turning
o Vi = VoLi/Lo and vice versa
- tradeoff between force and velocity (running adaptations)
Range of Motion
- range and rate of motion increase with proximity to pivot point
Application example
- COR = temporo-mandibular joint (TMJ); Fi = masseter; Fo = teeth; Li =
distance from COR to point of action of masseter; Lo = dist. From COR to
bite force
o On a face  out lever arm lines up with snout angle/direction
- Gorilla has higher out-force = more chewing potential; Shrew has higher
velocity rate = faster chewing
Lab 2: Comparative Anatomy
Cranium/Mandible:
Size of face relative to braincase – size order: humans, monkeys, apes
Browridges – face grows anteriorly, face tucked under braincase  humans so no
browridges
Foramen magnum position – monkeys and apes have a posteriorly placed foramen
magnum – humans anteriorly b/c of bipedalism and balancing over center of gravity
Prognathism – longer jaw associated with greater range of motion, orthognathic animals
have greater MA in many chewing muscles
Sagittal Crest – fxn of temporalis muscle size relative to braincase; sexually dimorphic
Temporal fossa – size related to size of temporalis muscle – chewing
Mandibular Corpus Depth/breadth – deeper corpus  bending, breadth of corpus 
twisting
Dentition:
2, 1, 3, 3, pattern
Diastema – space to accomadate lower canine
Incisor size – related to degree of initial food preparation and manipulation – surface for
biting and holding food; apes and monekys large, humans small
Canine fossa – male/female dimorphism  male-male competition
Pre-molars – blades and cusps in apes, flat and molariform in humans
Molars – 4-5cusps; small and cuspy in monkeys and apes, large and flat in hominids –
relate to food quality
Enamel thickness – diet quality (amt of fiber)– monkeys and apes have thin enamels;
humans – thicker
Lab 3: Australopithecine Cranial Morph. And Diets
Ways to infer diet  fxnl morphology, dental microwear, isotopes
Dental microwear – pits and scratches (more on Pan. than Anthro.)
Isotopic study – ratio of C12 and C13
Masticatory Apparatus
Temporalis – postorbital constriction and widely flaring zygomatic arches = larger
temporal fossa (thin muscle) – closes the mouth
Masseter – originates on z-arch and inserts @ right angle joining of ramus and corpus
Abuctor muscles = temporalis, masseter
Adductor = pterygoids (lateral and medial)  aligns incisors for incision of food
Digastric – originates on mandible goes through to voicebox and then up to styloid
process (by the ears) allows you to open your jaw
Increasing bite force –
1) increase size or cross sectional area and generate greater Fi
2) shortening Lo lengths
3) lengthening Li lengths
4) combination
Degree of postorbital constriction means increase in temporalis muscle size
Widely flaring z arches changes angle of masseter and makes it able to move vertically or
horizontally (grinding)
Anterior placement of z arch increases Li and MA, reduced prognathism also increases
MA
Pterygoids – elevating and side-to-side movements of mandible
Mandible – chewing is a unilateral fxn; asymmetric motion generating bending and
twisting; thickness resists twisting and bending; one-sided chewing = more force and less
stress
Fossil diet – adapted to fallback foods
Sexual Dimorphism – sexual selection based on male dimorphism
Lab 4: Australopith Postcranial Morphology & Locomotion
Anatomical feature Ape Human Australopithecine
1] Action of the small
gluteals Hip abduction
[2] Structure and
orientation of ilia
[4] Hamstrings
mechanical advantage
[5] Quadriceps action
and energetic
efficiency
[6] Bicondylar angle
Present
[7] Lateral lip on
femoral
condyle
[8] Femoral head
dimorphism Minimal
[9] Calcaneus and
talus
structure
[10] Glenoid fossa
orientation Dorsal and
superior
[11] Torso shape and
scapula morphology
Funnel-shaped torso,
dorsally placed
scapula
[12] Relative vertebral
body size
[13] Number of lumbar
vertebrae
[14] Transverse
processes of lumbar
vertebrae, MA in
lateral
flexion and extension
[15] Leg length,
locomotory energetics
and balance
Ape
hip extension
Human
Hip abduction
Australopith
Hip abduction
Flat
Curved
In between
Small
Greater
Similar to humans
Costly
Flex or extend hip
None
Present
None
Present
Greatest, shorter
femur, wider hip
Less pronounced
Minimal
High dimorphism
Smaller
Robust
Similar to humans
Dorsal and
superior
Inferior later
Superior dorsal
Barrel
Funnel
Funnel
Little wedging
Wedging
Wedging
4
5
6
Dorsal, greatest
MA
Dorsal
Dorsal, wider,
greater MA
Short
Longer
Short
Marked
16-18, no
knuckle walking
in Australopiths
but distal radius
primitive
Lab 5: Early Homo
Introduction
- there was a much more complete fossil record before and after the time of “early
Homo”
- period characterized by isolated fossil finds of teeth and crania, few postcranials
- originally thought to be one species – Homo habilis – now thought to be more
than one
- possibly more related to australopithecines than to homos
- 3 major questions about early Homo material
o Variability – how many species?
o Adaptive grade – ape like or human like
o Phylogeny – are these species ancestral or side branches to humans
Taxonomy – How many species?
- phenotypic data can be poor indicators of specific differences
- Brain Size variability – some early Homos have brain volume close to H. ergaster,
others closer to male afarensis
- Tooth size – pretty consistent across early Homo specimens
Grade: Similar to Australopithecines or Homo?
- Australopiths – apelike body proportions, smallish brains, large teeth
- Homo – modern human body proportions, changes in locomotion, enlarged
brains, small postcanine teeth
- Limb proportions – early Homos had proportions more like Austs than like
ergaster
- Index of Dimorphism (ID) closer to Austs than like erectus
- Encephalization Quotient (EQ) – half of specimens like Austs, half like ergaster
What grade? Probably closer to Austs than Homo, but more than 1 species present –
Homo habilis doesn’t adequately capture all the differences
Lab 6: H. Ergaster/Erectus
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H. Erectus was first discovered by Eugene Dubois in Java
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Now, H. erectus is believed to be in Old World in China, India, Europe, the
Middle East, Georgia, and Africa.
Earliest specimens ar found in Africa and Georgia at roughly 1.8-1.9 Ma and are
sometimes referred to as H. ergaster.
The latest H. erectus fossils are from Indonesia and may date to as recent as
50,000 years ago
Their increased geographic range into more seasonal and temperate environments
is related to changes in body size, shape compared to austral.
Mainly, these changes reflect an adaptation to be long distance runners or
trekking and an increase in diet quality.
Also, technology may have come into play with new tools and controlled use of
fire
Another adaptation that may have occurred is the diet in that there was now more
increased meat-eating/hunting and social or mating stems
For this reason, they are small-brained and hidden size dimorphic and are
believed to be the first "human-like species"
Postcranial:
Adaptations/Expanations
Retention of arboreal adaptations in Austalopth.-H. Ergaster is clearly proportioned
like a modern human with long legs and shorter arms. Found in more temperate and
seasonal environments and the long legs suggest ranging behavior had changed, as an
adaptation for longer distance movements.
Low dimorphism of H. Ergaster/eretus are affected mostly by female body size.
Females are much more constrained by energetics than males because of the costs of
gestation, lactation, and child-raising. Increased size of females suggests strongly that
diet quality changed dramatically to account
Thorax shape: Barrel shaped chest-Associated with smaller gut size, reorientation of the
ilia, and changes in lung volume and capacity. Rib cage is narrow at the bottom to match
that changed shape of the pelvis. Guts and brains are both expensive tissues, so any
reduction iin gut size would free up developmental energy for selection to act on.
Iliac Pillar: Thicker bone in the form of a "pillar just behind hip joint. This feature may
serve as a buttress to the hip joint and is related to physical exertion and habitual
posture/locomotion.
Cranial/Dentition
Adapations/Functions
Nasal region: Bones around nose project outwards. Presence of external nose to
humidify and warm outside air before entering lungs.
Cortical thickness: Robusticity of the overall skeleton
Facial Dimorphism: Browridges in male and female specimens or supraorbital torus are
quite pronounced and more dimorphic. Male-male competition, placement of face and
scaling effects.
Tooth Size: Smaller, because of increase in female body mass and smaller gut size shows
major shift in diet quality. Increased meat eating or cooking
Also, have saggital keel, occipital torus, reduced prognathism.
Lab 7: Archaic Homo, Neanderthals, and Modern Humans
Regional Continuity (Multiregional) – modern jhumans evolved from Homo erectus
populations spread throughout Africa, Europe, and Asia.
Rapid Replacement – modern humans differentiated in a more restricted area (Africa)
around 200-100 Ka, then eventually dispersed throughout the Old World, Australia, and
the Americas-replacing existing populations with little or no hybridization.

Evidence (particularly from genetics) supports replacement model.
Archaic Homo: Homo Heidelbergensis
“Archaic Homo” is the term given to hominids ranging in time depth from 600 Ka in
Africa (e.g. Kabwe), to 350-400 Ka in Europe (e.g., Mauer, Petralona), and 100-200 Ka
in Asia (e.g., Dali).

These specimens are distinct from H. erectus and later H. sapiens in their overall
cranial, dental, and postcranial morphology.
What sets it apart from erectus: Result of a larger brain ((large as H sapiens relative to
body mass) :
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Parietals are expanded
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Rounded occipital
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Frontal is broader
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Large sep. ridges above the orbits
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Large lower limb joint- walking long distances
Homo Neanderthalensis:
Existed in Europe and Southwest and Central Asia from at least 125 Ka until just under
30 Ka.

Thick, double arched brow ridges

Projecting face: anteriorly in the midline
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Large nose
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Occipital bun
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Large incisor teeth
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“retromolar” gap behind the third molar
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Weak chin
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*Brains were large, if not larger, than the brains of living H. Sapiens
Broad rib cage, long clavicle, wide pelvis
Stockier than humans
Robust hands and feet
*many features have little functional meaning

Size and wear of incisors suggest that the Neanders using anterior teeth as “tools”

Possessed considerable physical strength – perhaps elevate levels of activity

similar gestation and birthing process compared to modern humans

slightly different forms of locomotion

capable of both power and precision grip
Homo sapiens
Arguably the oldest known specimens are from Bouri, Ethiopia (150-160 Ka.), Skhul and
Qafzeh in Isreal (100-90Ka.), and from Klasies River and Border Cave in South Africa
(120-80Ka.) Appearance of H. sapiens coincided with all the advances in behavior
associated with the “Upper Paleolithic Revolution”. – elaborate speech w/ conceptual and
manipulative skills necessary to design and manufacture fine stone and bone tools i.e.
needles, fishing hooks, symbolic objects and art. Suggestion that cultural evidence dates
back to 200Ka.

globular cranium

orthognathic and reduced face

canine fossa

diminutive brow ridges

rounded occiput

flexed cranial base

presence of a chin

slightly smaller teeth in relation to body size compared to earlier hominids
(including other members of Homo)
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elongated distal limb bones
long limbs relative to the trunk
narrow trunk and pelvis
low body mass relative to stature
relatively large pelvic inlet
expansion of the braincase
reduction of the face
flexion of the basicranium
expansion of the braincase may be related to elaborated and fully modern
language capabilities.
Presence of a chin may be related to the reduction of the face, where the buttress
of modern humans suggest a tropical origin for the species