Welcome to Your
NEW MEXICO MOUNTAIN CLUB
2010 CLIMBING SCHOOL
(before reusing: update the dates, update info on location of knot night, and update
or remove flier from Stone Age Climbing Gym; also add material for Personal
Anchoring Device and Prusik cords to “Your Climbing Equipment”)
Contents
Prior to the Start Of the Climbing School ................................................................................................ 3
Get Started Now! .................................................................................................................................. 3
Equipment ............................................................................................................................................. 3
Communication..................................................................................................................................... 3
Schedule and Topics Checklist ................................................................................................................. 4
Course Schedule & Expectations.......................................................................................................... 4
April 12 (Monday, 6:00 PM to 9:00 PM) Classroom Lecture & Hands-On Practice Session ......... 4
April 24 (Saturday, 8:00 am) Outdoor Climbing Session I – Lower La Cueva Canyon ................. 6
May 1 (Saturday, 8:00 am) Outdoor Climbing Session II – Bernalillo Cliffs .................................. 6
May 2 (Sunday) Outdoor Session Snow & Ice Practice (Optional) ................................................. 7
May 4 (Tuesday, 7:00 pm...) Stone Age Climbing Gym (Optional) ................................................ 7
May 8 (Saturday, 8:00 am) Outdoor Climbing Session III – Lower Juan Tabo Canyon & MultiPitch Climbs...................................................................................................................................... 7
May 15 (Saturday, 8:00 am) Outdoor Climbing Session IV – Lower Juan Tabo Canyon & MultiPitch Climbs...................................................................................................................................... 7
May 22 (Saturday, 8:00 am ,date may change ) Technical Rescue Practice Session (Optional) ..... 8
May 22 (Saturday, 4:00 pm – 10:00 pm) Final Exam & Safe-Climbing Lecture ............................ 8
Welcome to the New Mexico Mountain Club .......................................................................................... 9
The trip leader ....................................................................................................................................... 9
Trip participants .................................................................................................................................... 9
Respect private property at all times .................................................................................................. 10
What to Bring - A basic checklist for NM Mountain Club day hikes ................................................ 11
Your Climbing Equipment ................................................................................................................. 12
Other Equipment & Clothing.............................................................................................................. 12
Snow & Ice Practice Session .............................................................................................................. 12
Stone Age Climbing Gym 2010 Advertisement ..................................................................................... 13
Technical Climb Member Ratings .......................................................................................................... 14
Top Rope ............................................................................................................................................ 14
Climber Rating.................................................................................................................................... 14
Leader Rating...................................................................................................................................... 14
Fundamental Communication ................................................................................................................. 15
Standard Climbing Signals ................................................................................................................. 15
Other Common Signals & Conditions ................................................................................................ 17
Working with Climbing Ropes ............................................................................................................... 18
Ropes .................................................................................................................................................. 18
Knots and Hitches ............................................................................................................................... 19
Important Notes .................................................................................................................................. 19
Essential Knots ................................................................................................................................... 20
Page 1 of 45
Figure-Eight .................................................................................................................................... 20
Figure-Eight, Rewoven ................................................................................................................... 20
Figure-Eight on a Bight .................................................................................................................. 20
Fisherman’s Knot (bend) ................................................................................................................ 21
Double-Fisherman’s Knot (grapevine) ........................................................................................... 21
Bowline ........................................................................................................................................... 21
Double-Bowline .............................................................................................................................. 22
Bowline on a Bight ......................................................................................................................... 22
Water Knot (ring bend) ................................................................................................................... 23
Mule Knot ....................................................................................................................................... 23
Hitches ................................................................................................................................................ 24
Girth Hitch ...................................................................................................................................... 24
Clove Hitch ..................................................................................................................................... 24
Münter Hitch ................................................................................................................................... 25
Prusik Hitch .................................................................................................................................... 25
Hand Sequence for a Safe Belay ........................................................................................................ 28
Belay Technique ................................................................................................................................. 29
An Important Self Rescue Skill: Escape the Belay ............................................................................ 30
Rappelling Technique ......................................................................................................................... 31
Yosemite Rock-Climbing Rating System ............................................................................................... 33
Grade................................................................................................................................................... 33
Class .................................................................................................................................................... 33
General Guide to Fifth Class Ratings ............................................................................................. 34
Class 5 definitions from Mountaineering: Freedom of the Hills (from an older edition) .............. 34
Class 6 ............................................................................................................................................. 34
Climbing Resource List .......................................................................................................................... 35
Reference book for the Climbing School ........................................................................................... 35
Traditional Rock Climbing Referemces ............................................................................................. 35
Awareness ........................................................................................................................................... 35
Knots ................................................................................................................................................... 35
Local Route Guides ............................................................................................................................ 35
Sport Climbing, Movement and Training ........................................................................................... 35
Staying Alive .......................................................................................................................................... 36
Page 2 of 45
Prior to the Start Of the Climbing School
Commit to the school dates, acquire the basic personal equipment, practice the knots, read some of
the reference text! Read through this packet before the start of climbing school and follow
through. Don't be a no-show or late-show to sessions. If you can't attend the school, please let us
know before the first session. We maintain a waiting list of people wanting to attend.
Get Started Now!
The first class session focuses on ropes, knots and hitches. Practice them at home before the first
session! You will find that experienced NMMC climbers do not judge you by your equipment, or your
ability to climb difficult routes, but by your attention to safety & detail. Your first opportunity to
demonstrate your competence is with the rope work. If you ever have a question about a knot or any
issue of technique ask someone to about it. You will be respected for your concern for safety.
Equipment
Review the attached Personal Equipment list and bring the noted equipment to the first classroom
session. The following are good local sources for climbing equipment and may offer discounts to
students of the NMMC climbing school for the items on the required equipment list. Please, do not
rush to purchase.
REI
Stone Age Climbing Gym
247-1191
341-2016
1550 Mercantile Ave, NE
4201 Yale Blvd, NE
Communication
We are glad to have your participation and we look forward to climbing with you during and after the
school. Communication is critical in climbing. Please start now. If you have any questions, please
contact either of us by phone or email.
Bill Lawry, Climbing Chair
505-296-0000
waterstains@gmail.com
Regina Dickens, Climbing Co-Chair
505-306-2404
solutions4teams@msn.com
Page 3 of 45
Schedule and Topics Checklist
Course Schedule & Expectations
April 12 (Monday, 6:00 PM to 9:00 PM) Classroom Lecture & Hands-On Practice Session
Meeting Place:
Heights Cumberland Presbyterian Church, 8600 Academy Road NE
Room 407 in the Education building (see facility layout on next page)
Session Activities:
Essential climber’s knots, hitches and rope handling, making a harness from webbing, climbing
communication, introduction to belay technique, safety & awareness…
Pre-Session Preparation:
Study the Ropes, Knots and Hitches section of the packet and references to the textbook.
Work hard to be competent with the knots & hitches before attending this session.
Study the belay technique section and references to the textbook.
Study the Standard Climbing Signals section, practice these as a drill with a partner.
Read the Stayin’ Alive on the Sharp End article.
Climber-Rating Qualification Form:
Attendance: Have your instructor sign-off for your attendance
Skills Demos: No skill demonstrations are evaluated in this session.
Note: All Outdoor sessions meet at 8 am and may run to 5 pm
(“A” = Heights Cumberland Presbyterian Church; map courtesy of Google, 2010)
Page 4 of 45
Facilities layout for Heights Cumberland Presbyterian Church
Page 5 of 45
April 24 (Saturday, 8:00 am) Outdoor Climbing Session I – Lower La Cueva Canyon
Meeting Place: To be announced
Session Activities:
Rope handling, knots, climbing signals, low-angle rappels, and introduction to belay technique
Pre-Session Preparation:
Increase your competence with Ropes, Knots & Hitches
Increase your competence with the Standard Climbing Signals
Study the information for the Munter Hitch
Study the belay technique information
Study the rappel safety information
Climber-Rating Qualification Form:
Attendance:
Have your instructor sign-off for your mandatory attendance
Skills Item 1:
Ropes, Knots and Hitches- First demonstration sign-off
Skills Item 2:
Rope coiling- First demonstration sign-off
Skills Item 3:
Rope Throwing- First demonstration sign-off
Skills Item 4:
Standard Climbing Signals- First demonstration sign-off
Skills Item 5.1:
Belay Skills, Lower stance- First demonstration sign-off
Skills Item 5.2:
Belay Skills, Upper stance- First demonstration sign-off
Skills Item 5.3:
Toprope Climbing- First demonstration sign-off
Skills Item 6.1:
Low-angle rappel- Demonstration sign-off
Skills Item 6.2:
High-angle rappel - Demonstration sign-off
May 1 (Saturday, 8:00 am) Outdoor Climbing Session II – Bernalillo Cliffs
Meeting Place: To be announced
Session Activities:
More belaying, climbing signals, high-angle rappel, ascending a rope with prusiks,
toprope climbing, tying-off a fallen climber…
Pre-Class Preparation:
Increase your competence with the Standard Climbing Signals
Study high-angle rappel information, re-read the rappel safety sheet.
Study the belay-tie-off and escape technique.
Practice your belay skills; study the rope ascending technique
Climber-Rating Qualification Form:
Attendance:
Have your instructor sign-off for your mandatory attendance
Skills Item 1:
Ropes, Knots and Hitches- Second demonstration sign-off
Skills Item 2:
Rope coiling- Second demonstration sign-off
Skills Item 3:
Rope Throwing- Second demonstration sign-off
Skills Item 4:
Standard Climbing Signals- Second demonstration sign-off
Skills Item 5.1: Belay Skills, Lower stance- Second demonstration sign-off
Skills Item 5.2: Belay Skills, Upper stance- Second demonstration sign-off
Skills Item 5.3: Toprope Climbing- Second demonstration sign-off
Skills Item 6:
Ascend a toprope with prussik hitches- Demonstration sign-off
Skills Item 7:
Tie-off a fallen climber and escape the belay- First demonstration sign-off
Check to see if you have any prior-session skills to make-up!
Page 6 of 45
May 2 (Sunday) Outdoor Session Snow & Ice Practice (Optional)
Meeting Place: To be announced
Session Activities:
Introduction to snow & ice mountaineering techniques
Pre-Session Preparation:
The lead instructor will provide information at the Classroom Lecture session.
Climber-Rating Qualification Form: Optional, no skills demonstrations
May 4 (Tuesday, 7:00 pm...) Stone Age Climbing Gym (Optional)
Meeting place: Stone Age Climbing Gym, 4201 Yale Blvd, NE, 341-2016
Climbing movement technique clinic by gym staff. Only $10.25 (plus any needed gear rentals)
for great instruction and a fun evening of climbing!
Participants should arrive 30 to 45 min. early to fill out release forms and go thru belay check
to save time at the check-in. Release forms can be downloaded from the website
http://www.climbstoneage.com/_literature_40006/Waiver
Individuals under 18 need a signature from a parent or guardian.
May 8 (Saturday, 8:00 am) Outdoor Climbing Session III – Lower Juan Tabo Canyon & MultiPitch Climbs
Meeting Place: To be announced
Some students will work curriculum skills and complete demonstration sign-offs.
Some students will participate in multi-pitch climbs in the Sandia Mountains.
Bad weather reschedules to Saturday, May 15 or Sunday, May 16.
Lower Juan Tabo Session Activities:
Tie-off a fallen climber and escape the belay; belay with simulated leader-fall; toprope climbing.
Pre-Class Preparation: Check to see if you have any prior-session skills to make-up!
Review information pertinent to any skills you haven’t completed.
Contact an instructor if you need help!
Climber-Rating Qualification Form:
Attendance:
Have your instructor sign-off for your mandatory attendance
Skills Item 8: Tie-off a fallen climber and escape the belay- Second demonstration sign-off
Skills Item 9: Belay with simulated leader-fall- Demonstration sign-off
May 15 (Saturday, 8:00 am) Outdoor Climbing Session IV – Lower Juan Tabo Canyon & MultiPitch Climbs
Meeting Place: To be announced
Same as last week. Some multi-pitch climbs may be scheduled Sunday, May 16. Bad weather
reschedules for Sunday, May 16, or later.
Page 7 of 45
May 22 (Saturday, 8:00 am ,date may change ) Technical Rescue Practice Session (Optional)
Meeting Place: To be announced
Session Activities
Introduction to basic techniques of wilderness rescue and with an emphasis on self-rescue.
Instruction by members of the Albuquerque Mountain Rescue Council (AMRC). If you plan to
continue climbing or have interest in joining a mountain-rescue group, please consider this
session a requirement.
May 22 (Saturday, 4:00 pm – 10:00 pm) Final Exam & Safe-Climbing Lecture
Meeting Place: To Be Announced
Session Activities: Written Exam, Climbing Safety Review
Pre-Session Preparation:
Re-read the Stayin’ Alive on the Sharp End article.
Climber-Rating Qualification Form Completion:
Attendance: Have the session leader sign-off for your attendance and exam,
Review your Completed Rating-Qualification form and receive your Climber Rating!
CONGRATULATIONS!
We’ll look forward to you joining us for our season of Tuesday Toprope Climbing as well as our
weekend traditional and sport climbing trips!
Page 8 of 45
Welcome to the New Mexico Mountain Club
The club as a whole does much more than rock climbing. This guide applies to all club outings. This
guide is distributed to all New Mexico Mountain Club (NMMC) members as a reminder that everyone
is responsible for his or her own well being while participating in NMMC outings.
The NMMC grades all outings so that members will have an idea of what to expect. Pay close attention
to the difficulty ratings of outings and other information published in every NMMC Outings Bulletin.
Outings are day trips unless otherwise noted. Try a class I trip first, unless you regularly participate in
strenuous aerobic exercise. Hiking up and down mountains is not the same as walking on the street,
and you can’t catch a ride when you tire.
All NMMC outings will be conducted in a “conservative spirit” so that reserves are available for
emergencies. Sound principles of safe hiking, skiing, etc. must be practiced by both the trip leader(s)
and all participants. The minimum recommended group size if four persons so that in case of accident,
the injured party and one person stay together while the other two go for help.
The trip leader
a. is responsible for keeping the group together and staying within sight of the last person in the
group or appointing a co-leader to bring up the rear.
b. has the right to examine participant qualifications, clothing, equipment, provisions, etc. and to
refuse participation.
c. will select the route, set and maintain the pace, may vary the route if necessary, and may turn
back short of the objective if conditions warrant.
Trip participants
… are obligated to acquaint themselves with the nature of the outing and to verify that it is within their
ability and experience. They must be willing to accept the trip leader’s direction and cooperate with
him or her and other group members to make the outing safe and enjoyable.
a. Participants must be physically and mentally prepared for the outing they plan to undertake.
Anyone who knows they may not be able to finish an outing with the group would do everyone
a favor by not participating.
b. Participants should be properly clothed, equipped, and provisioned. (See “What to Bring.”)
Boots are most important and should be broken in. Adequate water is critical.
c. Participants will “FOLLOW THE LEADER” and stay together.
d. Participants must not leave the group at any time without the leaders’s permission
e. Participants must stay within sight of the person behind them at all times. Whenever one is
separated from the group, the safety inherent in the group is lost.
f. Participants should not leave the trailhead until all group members have safely returned, unless
given permission by the trip leader.
Trails, campsites, and surroundings will be left in as good or better condition than found. Minimize
your impact on the environment.
a. Flowers, plants, shrubs, and trees are to be enjoyed, not destroyed.
b. Litter and refuse will be burned or carried out.
c. Camp fires will be completely extinguished.
d. Conduct human sanitation and washing away from water courses. Bury human wastes.
Page 9 of 45
Respect private property at all times
US Forest Service, National Park Service, Bureau of Land Management, and any other federal or state
land use regulations will be adhered to while on public property.
Feel free to call the trip leaders or club officers if you need assistance or information. The NMMC
library also contains a number of excellent reference books.
“Remember: if you take bivouac equipment along, you will bivouac…” – Yvon Chouinard
Page 10 of 45
What to Bring - A basic checklist for NM Mountain Club day hikes
Boots
Preferably leather to keep feet dry and with firm ankle support and lug soles. Recommended for Class
1+ or harder hikes and on trails with loose gravel.
Daypack
Between 1500 and 2500 cu.in. Test the size by packing your gear to see if it all fits. A pack with a
waist belt is advised.
The Ten Essentials
1. Map of the area
2. Compass (learn how to use it!)
3. Extra food & water
4. Extra clothing (rain gear, dry socks, gloves, hat, extra shirt, sweater, long underwear, water &
wind proof pants/jacket, wicking fabrics-not cotton)
5. Sunglasses & sunscreen
6. First aid kit (see below)
7. Knife
8. Lighter, matches, firestarter
9. Whistle
10. Flashlight & extra batteries
Other Items
Cell phone
Space blanket/emergency shelter
Water purification tablets/filter
Insect repellent
First Aid Kit Suggestions
Know how to use everything in your kit. Get training. Knowledge and skill save life and limb, not first
aid kits.
first aid manual
1 roll 1-inch adhesive tape
2 4x4-inch gauze pads
1 large dressing
1 3-inch elastic bandage
5 band aids
1 3x3-inch blister pad or moleskin/second skin
1 pair latex gloves
2 diaper pins/large safety pins
1 pair splinter forceps
1 emergency flashlight
1 ligher/matches
1 knife
liquid soap
povidone iodine ointment
total sunblock
duct tape
ibuprofen tablets
emergency blanket
SAMs splint
Page 11 of 45
Your Climbing Equipment
Bring items 1 through 4 to the first classroom session, and all items to the
outdoor sessions. REI and Stone Age climbing gym carry the most popular brands and models.
1.
For the 2010 class, this item will be provided to students at the class: 20 ft. of 6 mm perlon for prusik loops. Cut
and heat seal one 8-foot and one 12-foot length at time-of-purchase.
2.
3 Locking carabiners. Larger opening, pear-shaped, screw-locking are preferred.
3.
Belay/Rappel device with capacity for single and double 9 to 11 mm climbing ropes
Examples: Black-Diamond ATC; Hugh-Banner Sheriff; Trango Jaws; Wild-Country-VRC
or a “Figure 8”; however, the “Figure 8” is no longer in widespread use. Auto-locking or auto-braking devices are
not suitable such as the Petzl GriGri, Wild Country SRC.
4.
Commercial Climbing Harness - Fit a harness wearing the clothes you expect to wear while climbing. Hang test
the fit and comfort! Nifty harness features can be useful or gimmicky (and expensive). All harness manufacturers
make a safe product. For your first harness, go basic, as your skills and interest grow you can justify ‘the latest’.
5.
Helmet – The following features are mandatory:
a. Resilient shell.
b. Interior suspension system to hold the shell off the skull, or ‘bicycle-style’ polystyrene foam, or hybrid.
c. Adjustable chin strap attached to the shell.
A helmet designed for climbing is best, though if you’re uncertain whether you may continue climbing, you MAY
use a bicycle helmet or a construction hard-hat if it has the features listed.
6.
Climbing ShoesClimbing shoes are NOT required for the first outdoor session on April 24, hiking boots or sturdy trail-shoes are
acceptable. Climbing shoes are required for subsequent sessions and the multi-pich climb.
It is recommended that students rent climbing shoes from a retail store. Don’t buy new, expensive climbing shoes
unless you are certain that you will continue climbing. If you must have a new pair, note that some climbing shoe
sales folks will recommend tight-fitting climbing shoes. Tight-fitting shoes with radical down turned toes DO
make a difference in performance of the highly skilled climbers. You are looking for all day comfort not the
‘agony of de-feet’. On your multi-pitch climb, you will be wearing the shoes for a full day without taking them off.
Size them comfortably and opt for economy as per harness recommendation.
Other Equipment & Clothing
You will need these standard essential items for all outdoor sessions and multi-pitch climb:






Day pack with capacity to accommodate personal and group gear
Lunch/snacks and hydration (2 liters recommended)
Standard hikers ‘ten essentials’ (see page 10)
Clothing for climbing. Comfortable non-restrictive long pants - not shorts. Loose-fitting shirts tend to get snagged
in belay devices. Avoid cotton due to its poor performance when wet. Your clothing will take a beating, leave the
fashion at home.
Clothing for weather protection (rain gear, fleece, hat, gloves, etc.). Don’t underestimate the need for warm
clothing. It’s often cold and windy in the mountains even if Albuquerque is warm and sunny.
Hiking boots or sturdy tennis/approach shoes for the hikes to the climb session locations. We do not recommend
sandals or flipflops for the outdoor sessions)
Snow & Ice Practice Session
If you attend the optional snow and ice session add to the above:






Mountaineering boots or heavy-duty, lug-soled hiking boots (water-proofed or seam sealed).
Gaiters / scree cuffs are recommended. Crampons are NOT needed.
Warm clothing! Layering is essential for snow climbing (“takin’ em off Boss”, “puttin’ em back on Boss”).
Hat/cap that can be worn under a climbing helmet (test this before the session)
Gloves or mittens with friction-grip for grasping. (most ski gloves will suffice)
Ice Axe 60-70cm. Do NOT buy! REI rents. e NMMC has a limited supply. Check with the trip leader for options.
Page 12 of 45
Stone Age Climbing Gym 2010 Advertisement
4201 Yale Blvd. NE, Ste. I Albuquerque, NM 87107
505.341.2016 www.StoneAgeClimbingGym.com
Stone Age Climbing Gym has Albuquerque’s largest selection of climbing equipment and a
knowledgeable sales staff to help you buy the right gear, the first time. We stock the best equipment at
competitive prices and our specialty shop approach means that you get the expertise of real climbers
when you buy from us. We have put together these package deals especially for the NMMC climbing
school, but feel free to UPGRADE any item at a 15% discount off of regular price. Also, be sure to attend
our technique clinic for NMMC Climbing School students! Come to the gym on May 4th with the school
field trip, receive our discounted Happy Hour day pass rate of only $10.25 and hone your climbing skills
in our complementary technique clinic starting at 7:00 p.m. We recommend that you arrive between 6:00
and 6:30 p.m. to do a belay test and practice climbing before the class starts at 7:00.
Our NMMC Package starts with the:
BD Momentum Package,
Regular Price $99.95
Package Price: $84.96
(includes: Black Diamond Momentum Harness, BD Chalkbag with Chalk, BD Airlock Screwgate Carabiner, ATC Belay Device)
Next choose your 2 extra locking Carabiners
Regular Price
Choices
$13.95each
$13.95
$14.95
$13.95/$18.25
$17.95/$18.95
Need Shoes ?
Recommended Models
Flash, Defy, Hera, Mythos,
Sausalito, Spirit VIZ,
Joker Velcro, Sol
BD Mini Pear
Petzl Attache
Petzl William Lock
DMM Fat Boy Screwgate/Kwicklock
DMM Boa Screwgate/Kwicklock
We have the largest selection of climbing
shoes in NM! Select shoes From Boreal,
La Sportiva, Mad Rock, Evolv, Red
Chili, Mammut and Five Ten. Prices
start as low as $63.71 for the Mad Rock
Flash.
Price with Pkg
$11.86 each
$11.86
$12.71
$11.86/$15.51
$15.26/$16.11
15% Off any
Climbing Shoe
with package purchase
Options – Save 15% on any of these Add On Items
Black Diamond Halfdome Helmet – Reg. $59.95, Pkg. Price $50.96
Petzl Ecrin Roc Helmet – Reg. $94.95, Pkg. Price $80.71
Petzl Elios Helmet – Reg. $65.95, Pkg. Price $56.06
Page 13 of 45
Technical Climb Member Ratings
“State of mind is the key to safety…survivors will tell you that, somehow, they lost their better
judgement just long enough to get hurt…Ignorance, Casualness & Distraction.”
-John Long
The New Mexico Mountain Club has a technical rock climbing rating system: Top Rope,
Climber, Single-Pitch Leader, and Multi-pitch Leader. The reason we have a rating system is
safety. It is a good way of assuring to those who climb with the club that the person with them
has demonstrated skill, knowledge and competence to perform at the level of their rating. For
ratings to remain active, members must participate in club outings annually. Everyone is
encouraged to learn basic first aid. A detailed description of the various rating requirements is
available on the climber’s web site (http://www.swcp.com/~nmmc/climbrocks/ratings.html).
Top Rope
The Top Rope rating is given to those who demonstrate competent belay skills and the basic
rope handling & knots required for top rope climbing and does not indicate skills suitable for
participation in traditional, multi-pitch climbs. Newcomers who have not taken the climbing
school typically acquire top rope ratings.
Climber Rating
The Climber Rating is generally issued to people who successfully complete the climbing school
or to persons who can demonstrate to a Climbing Chairman or a designated leader that they
have already acquired all the skills required of a Climber as listed on the Climber Rating Form.
The check-off sheet listing Climber requirements will be used to make this determination.
Climber ratings are active as long as the member participates in at least two roped climbs or
practice sessions per year and demonstrates awareness of team responsibilities and safety
considerations.
Leader Rating
The Leader Rating is issued to persons who can demonstrate the skills and meet all the
requirements listed on the Single or Multi-Pitch Leader check-off sheets; pass a written exam
on general mountaineering; have climbed with the NMMC for one year; and who are judged
by three Leaders and the Climbing Chairperson to be qualified to lead club outings. Leaders
are required to have and to maintain a current Red Cross Standard First Aid certificate or have
equivalent training from another source. Maintenance of the Leader Rating requires continued
climbing activity, including rope leading, practice sessions, instructing, annual technical rescue
practice sessions, and continued demonstration of safe practices.
Persons having equivalent climbing experience elsewhere are asked to contact the Chairman
for admission to the appropriate rating. In general, this will involve an individual review of
pertinent skills, climbing with one or more NMMC members of Leader standing; and
demonstrated interest in continued participation in club climbing activities.
The NMMC does not issue ratings for snow and ice climbing.
Page 14 of 45
Fundamental Communication
Standard Climbing Signals
"Good judgment comes from experience. Experience comes from bad judgment."
- Evan Hardin
These signals are used with toprope and lead climbing and are based-on those described in
Mountaineering: The Freedom of the Hills, 7th ed. pg 154, and How to Rock Climb, 3rd ed.
pg 122, Refer to these for in-depth discussion.
Note! Familiarity with these signals Does Not constitute competence to safely perform
the associated actions of climbing, belaying or rappelling. Practice these as a drill with a
partner before using in actual climbing!
The Signals are concise, one-or-two words/syllables, selected to simplify communication at a
distance. You may precede the signals with your partner’s name to improve clarity, especially
if other climbing parties are nearby. The initiator of a command may acknowledge with
Thank You! when the requested action is performed.
Climber’s Signals & Actions
Belayer’s Signals & Actions
On Belay? At the initiation of the first
pitch, when the Climber and Belayer are
together, the climber states that her tiein to the rope is complete along with other
preparation to begin climbing. This is a
request for the Belayer’s attention to
verbally, visually & hands-on verify the tiein and harness buckles. On Rope! is an
alternate, commonly used, command.
Belay On! The Belayer’s statement that
his preparation for the belay is complete:
The rope is correctly routed through the
belay device and excess slack has been
taken-in. And when face-to-face, is a
request for the Climber’s attention to
verbally, visually & hands-on verify the
belay, harness buckles and tie-in to the
anchor.
Climbing? The climber’s statement
requesting intent & permission to begin
climbing. The Climber may approach for
the first move, but must wait for their
Belayer’s approval before climbing.
Climb-On! The Belayer’s statement that
he is giving full attention to the Climber
and that the Climber may begin the climb.
Climb! and Climb-Away! are alternate,
commonly used, commands.
Up Rope! The Climber’s request to takeup excess slack in the rope, though not to
tension the rope.
OK! The Belayer takes-in slack but does
not tension the rope, this is imperative
for lead belaying.
Page 15 of 45
Climber’s Signals & Actions
Belayer’s Signals & Actions
Watch Me! The Climber statement that
the climb has increased difficulty or
danger and a fall is more likely.
OK! As possible, visually monitor the
climber’s progress identifying hazards; and
maintain a brake-ready belay stance and
supply rope for progress in a timely
manner.
Falling!!! If possible, the Climber will
inform the Belayer of an impending or
actual fall.
Got-You! or OK! The Belayer rapidly
takes-in all slack, firmly tensions and
locks-off the rope. Prepare for impact!
Slack! The Climber’s request for slack or
release of tension in the rope to provide
unimpeded climbing progress. If more than
a foot-or-so of slack is required, you may
state “Slack- 5 feet!” Acknowledge ThankYou! or OK! when you get what you need.
OK! The Belayer releases tension and adds
slack as needed, listens for the Climber’s
reply, and resumes a brake-ready belay
hand position.
How Much Rope? At times, the climber
will ask how much rope remains for leading
the pitch.
xx Feet! In addition, the Belayer may
inform the Climber that there is limited
rope available to continue with the lead.
Off Belay! Announced when the Climber
completes a pitch and is secured into an
anchor or has lowered to the ground to
inform the Belayer that belay protection is
no longer required.
Belay Off! The Belayer releases any
tension in the rope and removes the rope
from the belay device.
On a multi-pitch climb, Do Not announce
Belay-Off! until the rope has been
disconnected from the belay device; when
the Climber hears Belay-Off! she may
immediately begin to pull-in slack and
unused rope length to prepare to belay
You as the second-climber on toprope.
That’s Me! When the Climber prepares to OK! Acknowledge and complete
follow a pitch as a second-climber, on
preparations to place the Climber on-belay.
toprope, he announces to the LeaderThen indicate Belay On!
belayer, above, that all slack has been
pulled-in and the belay may be initiated.
Page 16 of 45
Other Common Signals & Conditions
Falling Objects present a common danger to those participating in rock climbing and
mountaineering.
ROCK !!!, ROCK !!!, ROCK !!! While falling rock or ice may represent the highest energy
danger, ANY falling object, including gear, clothing, a water bottle or even a light weight
object, may cause injury. All falling objects are ROCK !!! Taking time to differentiate
can be confusing or fatal.
When Anyone (not just those actively climbing) observes that ANY object is
dislodged, dropped or observed to be falling (with the possible exception of the SKY),
Shout ROCK!!! and REPEAT until the fall of the object has terminated.
Rope !!!! Announce repeatedly when you are ready to throw a rope down a pitch for a
rappel or toprope climbing. Do not throw until you are certain the area below is clear,
look-before-you-throw; delay before throwing in order to hear a response from anyone
who may be below. A tossed rope is a significant hazard by itself and may
additionally catch and dislodge rock on its downward path.
On Rappel ! Announce when you have secured your connection to the rappel rope, and
have disconnected back-up tie-ins to the anchor and are ready to begin descent.
Off Rappel ! Announce when you have descended and are connected into a lower
anchor, or are otherwise secured, AND have disconnected the rope from your rappel
device. Acknowledge, Thank you! , to your partner to confirm completion of your rappel.
WHAT ??!!??!!?? An unfortunately common signal on multi-pitch routes. Continuous
progress and timely placement and cleaning of belay anchors are crucial elements for
safe climbing. When geographic and atmospheric conditions prevent verbal and visual
communication between the climber and belayer, the uncertainty and ensuing delay add
to the potential for a mishap to occur. Prior Planning for alternate communication –
rope-tug-signals, radios… – may reduce confusion and dangerous situations. A Crucial
signal is Belay-On! Which is often communicated by three sets of hard-pulls and
releases lasting several seconds. Whatever your method, keep it simple and be certain
to plan and practice in advance!
Page 17 of 45
Working with Climbing Ropes
The Rope, Knots, Hitches, Cord and webbing applications depicted in the following pages are not a
substitute for the in-depth discussion provided in the Reference Text books. This information is
intended to be used as a convenient outline and suitable for the wear-and-tear of field instruction
sessions.
For each item note the appropriate reference pages and figures in the reference textbooks, if included.
(due to continual revisions of Freedom of the Hills page numbers may be incorrect)
Ropes
“It’s a round trip. Getting to the summit is optional, getting down is mandatory” -Ed Viesturs
Reference Text Descriptions:
Climb, 3rd
FOH: Freedom of the Hills, 7th ,
H2RC: How to Rock
Rope Types and Uses
FOH: pages 112, 113, fig 6-2
H2RC: pages 67, 72, text
Learn rope construction types, terms & uses and how to identify:
Kernmantle, Static, Dynamic, Single-Rope, Double-Rope
Stacking / Flaking
FOH: not-referenced
Learn to prepare the rope for climbing.
H2RC: page 101, text
Butterfly Coil / Pack Coil
FOH: page 115, fig 6-4
Learn to coil the rope for carrying and storage.
H2RC: page 173
Throwing
FOH: page 167, fig 8-15
Learn to throw a rope for toprope and rappel uses.
H2RC: page 159
Rope Care
FOH: page 114, text
Learn considerations for proper rope care and inspection.
H2RC: page 70, text
Page 18 of 45
Knots and Hitches
A knot by any name…holds as securely? Don’t bet your life on it! Many well-known knots and
hitches have multiple common names and disguises that are incorrect; and for climbing there is no
margin for error! Whenever possible, have your partner double-check your knots and hitches!
Important Notes
1. Nylon-on-Nylon Sliding Friction is VERY DANGEROUS and will quickly melt-through the nonmoving rope, cord or sling.
2. A Loaded Nylon Rope Dragged and Scrapped Horizontally Over an Edge is VERY
DANGEROUS and may cut the rope.
3. Never tie Nylon rope, cord or webbing directly into the steel cable wire loops of gear or across
small metal edges! These may cut through…always isolate with a carabiner.
4. Backup Knots MUST be tied-off snug against the primary knot being protected.
5. Rope, Knot & Hitch Terms
Sharp End:
The rope end tied into the Leading Climber’s harness; a climbing term, not a
rope term!
Standing part:
The rope section going to the load
to Dress:
Forming the knot or hitch so the cord twists are uniform and smooth
Knot:
A compact interlacing of a cord(s) intended not to slip when loaded
Hitch:
Adjustable or sliding attachments of a rope or webbing connecting to a rope or
object
Bend:
The joining of rope or webbing ends
Nip:
The place(s) in the knot where the friction-pinch is accomplished
Bight:
A slack or isolated section in a rope, which may be a loop
Loop:
An isolated single-twist in the rope
Tail:
The length of rope, or webbing, extending away from the finish of a knot
Page 19 of 45
Essential Knots
Figure-Eight
FOH: page 118, fig 6-13
H2RC: page 78
Easy to tie and more secure than the over-hand knot. Leave an ample tail length.
May be used as a safety knot at the end of the rope to prevent it from slipping-through a belay device.
See pictorial usage in Figure-Eight, Rewoven, figure a.
Figure-Eight, Rewoven
FOH: page 118, fig 6-13
H2RC: page 78
Very strong, easy to tie and visually check. Recommend single or double fisherman’s backup on tail.
Can be difficult to untie after hard or repeated loading! Not recommended for toprope anchors that are
repeatedly loaded.
Figure-Eight on a Bight
FOH: page 118, fig 6-12
Very strong, easy to tie and check.
Preferred knot for clip-off of rope off harness to belay anchors.
Page 20 of 45
H2RC: page 101
Fisherman’s Knot (bend)
FOH: page 117, fig 6-10
H2RC: not-referenced
A pair of overhand knots tied around cord ends, in opposition, to join them.
A single tie-off, is, essentially, a half-fisherman’s knot. Loops can be added to increase security.
Is a standard backup knot for rope, cord & webbing tails.
See pictorial usage in Double-Fisherman’s Knot and Bowline.
Double-Fisherman’s Knot (grapevine) FOH: page 118, fig 6-11
H2RC: page 73
Improved backup knot. Use the triple-fisherman’s for cordelettes and slippery Spectra cord!
Is difficult to untie after hard loading! Commonly used to join cord ends for Prusik loops.
If used for temporary joining of rope ends for rappel, is likely to be very difficult to untie after use.
Bowline
FOH: page 119, fig 6-15
H2RC: not-referenced
Very strong and easy to untie after hard loading.
Tie-off a single rope-end to an anchor, or object.
May work loose with repeated loading.
Make certain tail finishes on inside of nip!
Mandatory backup knot on tail !
Page 21 of 45
Double-Bowline
FOH: page 119, fig 6-16
H2RC: not-referenced
Very strong and easy to untie after hard loading.
Tie-off rope section to an anchor, or object.
Make certain tail finishes on inside of nip!
Mandatory backup knot or ‘biner-clip on
tail-loop!
View this diagram from the top to see how the knot appears when tied to an object in front of you.
Bowline on a Bight
FOH: not-referenced
H2RC: not-referenced
Very strong and easy to untie after hard loading.
Easy to make the loops of different lenghts to accomplish equalizing into anchors.
Is a little tricky to get correctly tied; if incorrect, behaves like a slip-knot!
Page 22 of 45
Water Knot (ring bend)
FOH: page 117, fig 6-8
H2RC: page 73
A neat and easy knot for joining webbing and is secure, IF adequate tail is maintained!
Be certain to form smoothly and preset with full-body-weight to set securely!
If pre-tied, as commonly used for tied-slings, check over carefully before each use!
Mule Knot
FOH:not-referenced
H2RC: not-referenced
Can be simply formed from a bight of rope and can be released under loaded conditions.
Be certain to have adequate bight-tail to backup with a fisherman’s knot or ‘biner clip-in!
Is useful for tying-off a belay to allow use of both hands or during self rescue situations where you
need to ‘escape the belay’. Practice this one until you can do it ‘while taking a cold shower…with the
lights off’.
Page 23 of 45
Hitches
Girth Hitch
FOH: page 120, fig 6-21
H2RC: not-referenced
A bight of rope or cord simply looped-on-itself around an object. Often used for quick tie-off of an to
objects. Form the girth hitch so the loaded rope strands form smoothly around the object, it is incorrect
for the loaded strands to fold back over the end loop, which may double the load on the loop!
Clove Hitch
FOH: page 120, fig 6-23
H2RC: page 101
Is very useful to quickly equalize rope connections on belay anchors. Align the anticipated loaded rope
strand with the carabiner’s spine and cinch-down tightly! It will slip under hard loading!
Page 24 of 45
Münter Hitch
FOH: page 122, fig 6-27
H2RC: page 114
Useful for holding-off and lowering loads and for emergency belay and rappel when modern gear is
not available! It is desirable for the load-strand of the rope to be on the carabiner’s spine. The Munter
Hitch has the remarkable ability to hold loads in either direction!
Prusik Hitch
FOH: page 121, fig 6-24
H2RC: page 166
A multiple wrapped girth-hitch of smaller cord around a rope, three-wraps are the minimum, additional
wraps will increase the friction and holding strength. For the Prusik hitch to be effective, the cord must
be of smaller diameter than the rope by 30% or 40%. Typically, 6 or 7 mm accessory cord is adequate
for use with double-9 mm’s to single-
11 mm ropes.
The behavior of the Prusik hitch is Very sensitive to the type of accessory cord used. Only use Nylon
(Perlon) kernmantle constructed cord; Do Not Use Spectra or other high-tech cords! Important! The
Prusik hitch is never used as the sole hold on the rope, always backup with stopper-knots or a braking
device!
The Prusik Hitch
A Prusik (aka Prussik or Prussic) is a friction hitch used in climbing, canyoneering, mountaineering,
caving, rope rescue and by arborists to grab a rope (sometimes referred to as a rope-grab). The term
Prusik is used both for the knot, for the loops of cord, and for the action (to prusik). More casually,
the term is used for any friction hitch that can grab a rope.
Page 25 of 45
The Prusik hitch is named for its inventor, Austrian mountaineer Dr. Karl Prusik. It was shown in a
1931 Austrian mountaineering manual for rope ascending. It was used on several mountaineering
routes of the era to ascend the final summit block of a peak; where a rope could be thrown over the top,
one side anchored, and climbers could attain the summit by prusiking up the other side of the rope.
Advantages of a Prusik hitch
Climbers carry Prusiks mainly for emergency use, as they are lighter than other options. Prusiks are
fast to place on the rope, and with practice, can be placed with one hand. The loops of cord can be used
as slings, and are thus multi-functional in a climbing environment.
Prusiks will work around two ropes, even two ropes of different diameters. Prusiks provide a highstrength and relatively fail-safe (i.e., they will slip before damaging the rope or breaking) attachment,
and are used in some rope-rescue techniques. Prusiks are good to use in hauling systems where
multiple rope-grabs may be needed, and where mechanical rope-grabs are not available.
Prusiks are far less likely to damage the main rope than mechanical rope-grabs (or jumars). A prusik
which is overloaded will initially slip and, if loaded to excess, it will normally slide until the heat of
friction between the ropes results in a physical failure of the prusik cord. Opposed to mechanical ropegrabs which will sometimes either damage the sheath of the rope it is attached to, or, on some cases,
sever the rope entirely when overloaded. For this reason a Prusik should never be used in place of a
mechanical ascender/rope-grab during self belayed climbing on fixed rope.
Some Prusik hitches (dependent on which variant is used) have the advantage of working equally in
both directions. Most mechanical rope-grabs work like a ratchet, moving freely up the rope, but
grabbing when a load is placed down on them. Traditional Prusiks (such as those shown below) will
grab when pulled by the tail, either up or down, and will slide when pushed by the barrel.
A Prusik hitch is tied using a loop of nylon accessory cord or a sling, though some suggest avoiding
spectra slings, due to their high potential for melting when the hitch slips. The length of this loop
depends on the application it is being used for. For instance, the loop used for an Auto-Bloc might only
be 20 cm, whereas the foot loop for climbing a rope might work better with a length of 100 cm or
more. As a general rule, longer loops are preferable over shorter ones, as a loop can always be
shortened (by tying a knot in it), but cannot be lengthened if the application changes.
The effectiveness of the Prusik hitch relies on the surface area between the hitch and the mainline, and
the diameter of the cord used. Normally the greater difference between the diameter of the cord used
for the hitch and the mainline, the greater the ability for the hitch to hold. However, the smaller the
diameter of the cord used the lower its safe working load. In addition, smaller diameter cords are often
harder to work with as they often jam tight when placed under load, and the size of the rope makes
them hard to handle when wearing gloves.
In addition to being a useful rope-grab for rope-rescue applications, Prusiks are popular for:

"Rappel Backup"/"Self-Belay Below The Device": A Prusik is placed below the descender
and controlled with the brake hand. It acts as an automatic 'dead man's handle' should the
climber be incapacitated or require the use of both hands. Careful setup of the rappel backup is
critical, or it will not work. An AutoBloc knot is most widely used in this application. This
technique is used by some rappellers, and not by others.
Page 26 of 45

"Rappel Backup"/"Self-Belay Above The Device": A Prusik is placed above the descender
and controlled with the hand not being used as the brake hand. This configuration allows for
easier and faster transition from rappeling to climbing the rope, but can also result in the Prusik
locking tight as the amount of friction required to hold the load at that point is far higher than
that experienced by a self-belay below the device.

"Prusiking" or ascending the line: Two prusiks used in tandem can be used to climb a fixed
rope. One prussik is attached to the "belay loop" sewn onto the front of a harness and the other
is attached to a longer length of cord reaching to one foot. With one loop attached to the rope
above the other the climber can then stand up in the foot loop, slide the prusik hitch of the waist
loop further up the rope and then "sit" down on it. Once sitting, they can slide the foot loop up
the rope and repeat the process.

"Escaping the Belay": In a lead-climbing situation, should the belayed climber become
incapacitated in a position where they cannot be safely lowered to the ground, the belayer must
escape the belay in order to effect rescue. With the belay rope locked off with one hand, the
belayer can tie a prusik to the rope with the other hand, and transfer the load to a fixed anchor;
thus allowing them to effect rescue or go get help.
Useful Prusik variations; The Klemheist and AutoBlock Knots
The difference with the Klemheist (also called "Machard", or "French Prusik") compared to the normal
Prusik is that it can be moved once weighted and will work with webbing as well as cord. This can be
very handy in certain situations. Follow these steps to tie a Klemheist:
Step 1: Simply wrap a loop of cord around the rope several times. Step 2: Feed the bottom tail through
the top tail and clip bottom tail with your load.
The "Autoblock" is essentially the same knot as the Klemheist, except that in the last step you simply
clip both tails together with a carabiner, rather than feeding one through the other.
Page 27 of 45
Hand Sequence for a Safe Belay
Follow this hand sequence closely and keep your brake hand on and
ready at all times. 1 & 2) The brake, or right hand is in position while the
left pulls in rope to keep tight to the moving top-roped climber. 3 & 4)
The guide, or left, hand is free to grab the brake rope above the brake
hand. The guide hand holds the rope while the brake hand slides back
into place. Keep the fingers of your brake hand closed around the rope
throughout this sequence; a fall could occur at any second. 5) Once the
brake hand is back in place, the sequence is ready to repeat. Feeding
rope is easier than bringing it in. Just push out rope with your guide
hand while your brake hand remains in the ready position.

Never, ever, let go of the rope with the brake hand.

Never, ever, grab both ropes with one hand.

Always maintain a V between the two parts of the rope. Adjust
angle of V as needed to take in rope.

Always keep the climber Locked Off. The default position for the
brake hand (when rope is not being taken in or let out) is at your
side, Locked Off.
1
2

Grabbing both ropes with the guide hand defeats the purpose of the
belay device – it will not work. With the rope sections held parallel
(see below), very little friction is developed with the belay device
(only with your skin, you will get burned) and the ‘biner acts as a
pulley.

Keeping the climber Locked Off at all times means you do not have
to react when the climber falls. You do not have to do anything to
catch them, they are already caught. If you don’t have the belay
Locked Off and cannot see the climber fall, or you are distracted
when the climber falls, you will not have time to lock them off before
the rope is screaming through your burning hands. You will drop you
climber.
3
4
to climber
This is a bad idea. The so called pinch belay.
You will see many people using this approach.
In fact, many places are teaching this
technique. Don’t do it.
guide
hand
brake
hand
5
Photos & sequence description from Rock Climber by Don Mellor, 1997
Line drawing from How to Rock Climb! By John Long, 1993
Bullets, comments & photo notes by Brian Ottinger 1998
Page 28 of 45
Belay Technique
Important concepts and notes for belaying:
1. The belayer must be anchored to appropriate climbing protection (possible exception
when ‘top rope climbing).
2. The anchor to the belayer should not have any slack.
3. The rope from the belayer to the climber should be just loose enough to allow the
climber to progress. The exact amount is per climbers stated preference.
4. The belayer’s brake hand NEVER leaves the rope until the climber signals ‘off belay’.
5. Unless actively paying out slack or reeling in tension the brake hand and climbing rope
should be kept close to the belayer’s hip in locked off position.
6. The belayer should be in a direct line between the anchor and the ’fall-line’, and the
anchor line should be tight. This concept is depicted on the diagram below.
7. During a ‘free’ climb the belayed rope is considered a back safety system and is
seldom used for direct climbing assistance (that’s called aid climbing or power belay!).
8. Modern belay devices are often used in place of the traditional ‘hip’ belay. The fall
energy is transferred directly to the belay device rather than the belayer’s hip,
increasing the belayer’s relative comfort and improving belay system safety.
REMEMBER: A – B – C
Anchor
Anchor – belay - climber
Tight!
Brake hand
Always on
Belay
Unsafe
Safe
slight
slack
Climber
Climber
Fall line
Page 29 of 45
An Important Self Rescue Skill: Escape the Belay
Page 30 of 45
Rappelling Technique
Rappelling provides a means for the climber to descend from a high point. This is only done when the
terrain or conditions are too difficult to down climb safely. Since the climber is completely dependent
on the competence of his equipment and anchor system, rappelling is an extremely dangerous activity.
Errors in judgement, rappelling technique, or failure in equipment can result in death, therefore it is
extremely important to check out the equipment and situation prior to being committed to the rappel.
The purpose of this sheet is to highlight the salient aspects of rappelling technique. It assumes that a
competent leader has properly set up the rappel anchor systems.
Rappelling can be classified into two categories; low and high angle. The low angle rappel can be
executed by any number of techniques including the traditional dulfersitz (body rappel) and arm
rappel.
High angle rappels can be considered to be any angle greater than 60 degrees. Due to higher loads at
higher angles, low angle techniques such as the dulfersitz and the arm rappel are too uncomfortable
and dangerous. High angle rappelling techniques normally use a rappel device to provide friction in
slowing down the rate of descent. These devices can be simply a chain of linked carabiners or a
specialized device such as a figure 8 device. These two examples are shown below. Note that in the
carabiner brake rappelling system, the rope must run over the solid side of the carabiners, never over
the gates. Belay plates have been used occasionally for rappelling, but are not recommended due to
the potential for heat buildup in the plate that can damage the rope.
The rappel is executed by the attachment of the rappel device to the rope and your harness. Locking or
double carabiners with opposing gates must be used to attach the device to your harness. When using
a locking carabiner make sure that the locking collar is screwed down tight and the rope will not force
the collar open. Under no circumstances are you to rappel with a single non-locking carabiner. Check
the device attachment to the rope to ensure that the ropes are not crossing each other. During the
school, you will be using double line 10.5 mm rappel ropes. Smaller diameter or single line rappels can
be used in certain advanced applications.
Analogous to belaying, you will have a braking and a feeling (guide) hand to be used for the rappel.
The hand above the rappel device is the guide hand, while the hand below the device is your brake
hand. The guide hand will prevent you from flipping backwards and aids in stability during the rappel.
If you are using a prusik sling self belay, the guide hand will also keep the prusik knot loose. The guide
hand will not stop you from falling, if you do not use the brake hand during the rappel.
The brake hand will provide the tension to the rappel device, which will control your rate of descent. A
tight grip will create a slow rate of descent, while a looser grip will be faster. The brake hand is usually
braced against the hip, preventing the brake hand from being pulled into the device. Under very heavy
loads, the rope can also be placed against your back in the same manner as the hip belay. Once started
on the rappel, under no circumstances are you to let go of the rope with the brake hand.
During the school, you are required to be belayed while you are rappelling. The instructor will also
verify that your rappel equipment has been set up correctly. To start the rappel, you must have tension
on the rope. Put your weight on the rope by leaning backwards. Warn people below by shouting “on
rappel” and check to see if there are any loose rocks near you. Never stand directly under a rappelling
climber. Wear your helmet. Stability and control during the rappel is accomplished by keeping your
legs perpendicular to the terrain at all times and is further enhanced by maintaining a wide stance,
spacing your feet at least two feet apart.
Page 31 of 45
Safety depends on a SLOW rate of descent. You must not bounce, descend quickly or drag the rope
across a sharp edge. This is real life, not a Hollywood video. Please use a rate of descent equal to a
slow backwards walk. When your feet are on the rock look for projections that can enhance your
stability. During the rappel, look in the direction you are going, this will allow you to gauge how fast
you are approaching the ground or whether there are any people in the vicinity. When you are on the
ground and disengaged from the rope, call out “off rappel,” so the next person can rappel. If you have
any questions, ask an instructor.
Many climbers encourage the use of a prusik or autoblock backup knot to protect the rappeller from a
variety of potential mishaps. The use of prusik or other mechanical backups is controversial in the
world of roped travel. The caving and climbing communities have both had disasters and fatalities
associated with misapplication of these techniques. The initiation of these backup methods requires a
‘negative action’, that is, you must release the knot/device for it to actuate. While simple in concept,
the stress of an uncontrolled descent may cause you to freeze/clamp your grip on the knot or device
giving you an even speedier ‘ride to the bottom’. The positive aspects to using a backup system are
accentuated during longer multi-pitch rappels, situations where you may need to pass knots or rig
intermediate anchors and during inclement weather conditions.
Climber lore abounds with stories of the ill-fated rappeller. The vast majority of these accidents are
preventable ‘pilot errors’. Most are due to lapses in judgment or distraction. Make no mistake;
rappelling is statistically the most dangerous part of our climbing realm. PAY ATTENTION to you
and your partners safety system, hospitals and funeral homes do not make pleasant bivouacs!
Page 32 of 45
Yosemite Rock-Climbing Rating System
Technical rock climbs are usually rated by the first ascent party. This gives climbers an
indication of the difficulty of the route. This rating is composed of two parts, a
commitment rating (Grade) and a difficulty rating (Class). Read Appendix A of
Mountaineering: the Freedom of the Hills.
Grade
This rating describes the climb in terms of length, which is affected not only by the actual
length but also the severe, sustained nature of the moves. The grade rating assumes an
“average” party of climbers.
Grade I:
Grade II:
Grade III:
Grade IV:
Grade V:
Short climbs of one or two pitches (e.g., northwest ridge of the prow in the Sandias)
Medium length climb of a half day, usually less than 6 pitches (Cave route on the Pulpit)
About one full day of climbing (La Selva on Muralla Grande)
A full, long day of climbing (North Face, Grand Teton)
“Big Wall” climbing with the ascent involving one or two bivouacs and considerable
difficulty (NW face of Half Dome, the Diamond on Longs Peak)
Grade VI: Over two days of climbing, usually involving much direct aid and many difficult free
climbing moves of 5.9 or harder (Nose Route on El Capitan)
Class
A rating to categorize hikes and climbs. The class is designated by the most difficult single
move involved. There are additional rating systems specific to bouldering, ice climbing
and mixed climbing (rock and ice).
Class 1:
Class 2:
Class 3:
Class 4:
Class 5:
Easy hiking with relatively flat terrain and moderate or short distance (Piedra Lisa Trail
from parking area to Rincon)
Steep hiking with considerable elevation gain and distance, all or most of which is on a
trail (La Luz Trial to Sandia Crest)
Long, hard hiking with easy rock scrambling and considerable bushwacking, some
exposure with occasional handholds necessary (TWA Canyon, Del Agua Canyon)
Difficult exposed scrambling or very easy climbing. A rope is used by the leader with
belaying techniques involved. Fatal accidents may occur in this category due to the
unprotected climbing combined with carelessness, lack of proper training and equipment.
(In the Sandia Mountains, the Knife-Edge of the Shield, the Needle via the East saddle)
Technical rock climbing using ropes, pitons, nuts, cams, etc. for protection of the
climbers. Fifth class climbing in the United States is generally rated in the Yosemite
Decimal System (YDS). Different systems prevail in other countries. The YDS was
actually developed at Taquitz Rock, Calif. in the early 1950s. The original system
extended from 5.0 to 5.9. After its inception, climbers have recognized that any rating
system must be open-ended. In other words, as climbers and techniques improve, harder
climbs are possible and the numbers must go up. The YDS is now open ended with the
hardest climb currently rated at 5.15 !
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5.0 to 5.6
5.7 to 5.8
5.9
5.10
General Guide to Fifth Class Ratings
Very easy moves characterized by large, grip friendly holds.
Moves utilizing more precarious balance, upper body strength, and small holds,
usually deemed “average” climbing.
Climbing difficulty is noticeably increased, especially if sustained at the grade.
Technique and strength are a must.
Expert skills required. The move may involve an overhang or vertical moves on
tiny holds. Climbs in this range are often subdivided with letter grades of a
through d, (e.g., 5.10a is easy 5.10, while 5.10d is hard 5.10 climbing).
Class 5 definitions from Mountaineering: Freedom of the Hills (from an older edition)
5.0 to 5.4
5.5 to 5.6
5.7
5.8
5.9
5.10
5.11
5.12
5.13
There are two hand and two foot holds for every move. The holds become
progressively smaller as the rating increases.
The two hand and two foot holds are there, obvious to the experienced, but not to
the beginner.
The move is missing one handhold or one foothold.
The move is missing two holds of the four, or missing only one, but is very
strenuous.
This move has only one reasonable hold. It may be for either a foot or a hand.
No hand or foot holds. The choices are to pretend a hold is there, pray a lot, or go
home.
After thorough inspection, you conclude this move is obviously impossible.
However, occasionally, someone actually accomplishes it. Since there is nothing
for a handhold, grab it with both hands.
The surface is as smooth as glass and vertical. No one has really ever made this
move, although a very few claim they have.
This is identical to 5.12 except it is located under an overhanging rock.
Class 6
Direct aid climbing where progress is made by using artificial holds rather than by
climbing the rock (free climbing). Class 6 climbing is rated in Aid ratings of A1A5, and so-called Clean-Aid ratings, C1, C2, etc.
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Climbing Resource List
Reference book for the Climbing School
Mountaineering: The Freedom of the Hills, 7th Edition, By The Mountaineers
This is the bible of mountaineering in America. The book is encyclopedic in its treatment of all
aspects of climbing and mountaineering. Everyone who climbs should own a copy of this book!
Traditional Rock Climbing Referemces
Excellent texts focusing on Rock Climbing, rather than mountaineering. Topics include equipment,
knots, belaying, rappelling, movement, protection, leading, and training. Adding one or more of
these will expand your breadth and depth of rock climbing knowledge. If your interest is solely
rock-climbing and not mountaineering, one of the * books is an acceptable substitute for the course.
* How to Rock Climb! 3rd edition, by John Long: excellent, in-depth coverage for rock climbing
* Rock: Tools & Technique by Michael Benge & Duanne Raleigh: very good for rock climbing
The Mountaineering Handbook by Craig Connally: new-school alternative to Freedom of the Hills
Advanced Rock Climbing by John Long & Craig Leubben
Climbing Anchors, Second Editon by John Long & Bob Gaines
Self-Rescue by David J. Fasulo: an excellent resource for the optional, Rescue Practice session
Climbing Self-Rescue by Andy Tyson and Molly Loomis
Awareness
Close Calls: Climbing Mishaps & Near-Death Experiences by John Long
Sixty-Eight tales told in a humorous and succinct style; lessons learned by others, for you!
Knots
While texts about knots abound, the knots you need-2-know for climbing are few and are shown in
a relevant manner in the climbing texts listed. Also, here is a GREAT on-line reference:
http://www.animatedknots.com/index.php and select the “Climbing” link near the top.
Local Route Guides
Hikers and Climbers Guide to the Sandias, Latest Edition, by Mike Hill
This book is not perfect, but anyone planning to climb in the Sandias should own a copy. Novices
considering signing up for NMMC club climbs, following the climb school, are advised to study the
route description before they decide to commit to a particular climb and to adequately prepare.
Sandia Select, by Mick Schein, details the classics in the Sandias.
www.mountainproject.com -- a living guidebook and blog. Follow links to NM areas from home
page.
Sport Climbing, Movement and Training
Toproping by S. Peter Lewis- Expand your awareness and preparation for safe top rope climbing.
Sport Climbing by John Long- Movement vs. adventure.
Clip & Go! by John Long & Duanne Raleigh- Tips and tricks for the modern sport climber.
How to Climb 5.12 by Eric J. HörstWant to send a 5.12 or haven’t sent your first 5.10?
A sobering essay by the long time director of YOSAR, Yosemite Search and Rescue.
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Staying Alive
John Dill, NPS Search and Rescue
Most climbers do a good job coping with the hazards of their sport, yet more than 100 climbing accidents occur
in the park every year. What factors contribute to them? What, if anything, can climbers do to avoid them? And
just how dangerous is climbing, anyway? With these questions in mind, the National Park Service (NPS)
recently examined most of the serious accidents that occurred in the park during the years from 1970 through
1990. The conclusions provide interesting reading for those wishing to stay alive.
Analysis of Climbing Accidents
Fifty-one climbers died from traumatic injuries in that period. A dozen more, critically hurt, would have died
without rapid transport and medical treatment. In addition, there were many serious but survivable injuries, from
fractured skulls to broken legs (at least 50 fractures per year), and a much larger number of cuts, bruises, and
sprains.
Not surprisingly, most injuries occurred during leader falls and involved feet, ankles, or lower legs; for many,
these are the accepted risks of climbing. However, leader falls accounted for only 25% of the fatal and near-fatal
traumatic injuries; roughly 10% were from rockfall, 25% from being deliberately unroped, and 40% from simple
mistakes with gear. Many cases are not clear cut; several factors may share the credit, and it is sometimes hard
to quantify the weird adventures climbers have.
Not to be overlooked in the body count are environmental injuries. Inadequately equipped for the weather, four
climbers died of hypothermia and perhaps 45 more would have died of the cold or heat if not rescued.
Fifteen to 25 parties require an NPS rescue each year. Sixty more climbers stagger into Yosemite’s medical
clinic on their own, and an unknown number escape statistical immortality by seeking treatment outside the park
(or at the Mountain Room Bar).
Most Yosemite victims are experienced climbers, 60% have been climbing for three years or more, lead at least
5.10, are in good condition, and climb frequently. Short climbs and big walls, easy routes and desperate ones –
all get their share of the accidents.
The NPS keeps no statistics on how many climbers use the park, but 25,000 to 50,000 climber-days annually is
a fair estimate. With this in mind, 2.5 deaths and a few serious injuries per year may seem a pretty low rate. It’s
much too high, however, if your climbing career is cut short by a broken hip, or worse. It’s also too high when
you consider that at least 80% of the fatalities and many injuries, were easily preventable. In case after case,
ignorance, a casual attitude, and/or some form of distraction proved to be the most dangerous aspects of the
sport.
As the saying goes, “good judgment comes from bad experience.” In the pages that follow are condensed 21
years of bad experience – the situations Yosemite climbers faced, the mistakes they made, and some
recommendations for avoiding bad experiences of your own. This information comes in many cases from the
victims’ own analysis or from those of their peers.
Environmental Dangers
On October 11, 1983 a climber on El Cap collapsed from heat exhaustion. On October 11, 1984, a party on
Washington Column was immobilized by hypothermia. You can expect this range of weather year round.
Heat. No Yosemite climber has died from heat, but a half-dozen parties have come close. Too exhausted to
move, they survived only because death by drying-up is a relatively slow process, allowing rescuers time to get
there.
Temperatures on the sunny walls often exceed 100° Fahrenheit, but even in cool weather, climbing all day
requires lots of water. The generally accepted minimum, two quarts per person per day, is just that – a
minimum. It may not replace what you use, so don’t let the desire for a light haul bag be your overriding
concern, and take extra for unanticipated delays. Do not put all your water in a single container, and watch out
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for leaks.
If you find yourself rationing water, remember that dehydration will seriously sap your strength, slowing you even
further. It’s not uncommon to go from mere thirst to a complete standstill in a single day. Continuing up my be
the right choice but several climbers have said, “I should have gone down while I could.”
Storms We still hear climbers say, “It never rains in Yosemite.” In fact, there are serious storms year-round. Four
climbers have died of hypothermia and almost 50 have been rescued, most of whom would not have survived
otherwise. Several were very experienced, with winter alpine routes, Yosemite walls, and stormy bivouacs to
their credit – experts, by most measures. In many cases they took sub-standard gear, added another mistake or
two, and couldn’t deal with the water.
Mountain thunderstorms are common in spring, summer and fall. They may appear suddenly out of a clear blue
sky and rapidly shift position, their approach concealed by the route you are on. A few minutes warning may be
all that you get. Thunderstorms may last only a couple of hours, but they are very intense, with huge amounts of
near-freezing water often mixed with hail, strong winds, and lightning. The runoff can be a foot deep and fast
enough to cause rockfall. A common result is a panicky retreat, a jammed rope, and cries for help. (The
standard joke is that someone will drown on a Tuolumne climb one of these days. It’s actually possible.)
No climber has died in such a storm yet because rescuers were able to respond. No climbers have died from
lightning either, but there have been several near misses, and hikers on Half Dome and elsewhere have been
killed. Get out of the way of a thunderstorm as fast as you can, and avoid summits and projections.
The big Pacific storm systems have proven more dangerous. They sweep through the Sierra at any time of year,
most frequently from September through May. They are unpredictable, often appearing back-to-back after
several weeks of gorgeous, mind-numbing weather. It may rain on Half Dome in January and snow there in July.
These storms are dangerous because they are usually warm enough to be wet, even in winter, yet always cold
enough to kill an unprotected climber. They last from one to several days, offering little respite if you can’t
escape.
With no soil to absorb it, rain on the walls quickly collects into streams and waterfalls, pouring off overhangs and
down the corner you’re trying to climb up or sleep in. Wind blows the water in all directions, including straight up.
It may rip apart a plastic tube tent or blow a portaledge up and down until the tubing breaks or the fly rips.
Overhanging faces and other “sheltered” spots are not always immune – rain and waterfalls several yards away
may be blown directly into your bivy, and runoff will wick down your anchor rope. Even a slow but steady leak
into your shelter can defeat you. Temperatures may drop, freezing solid the next pitch, your ropes, and your wet
sleeping bag.
Once cold and wet, you are in real trouble and your options run out. If you leave your shelter to climb or rappel,
you deteriorate more rapidly from the wind and water. Even with good gear, water runs down your sleeve every
time you reach up. As your body temperature drops, you begin making dumb mistakes, such as clipping in
wrong and dropping your rack. You are seriously hypothermic, and soon you will just hang there, no longer
caring. It happens quickly. In two separate incidents, climbers on the last pitch of The Nose left what protection
they had to make a run for the top. They all died on that pitch.
Staying put may be no better. If you need help, no one may see you or hear you, and reaching you may take
days longer than in good weather. Survivors say they had no idea how helpless they’d be until it happened to
them. To find out for yourself, stand in the spray of a garden hose on a cold, windy night. How long will you last?
Big Wall Bivouacs
Despite this grim scenario, reasonable precautions will turn stormy big-wall bivouacs into mere annoyances:
· Check the forecast just before you start up but don’t rely on it. For several parties it provided no warning
whatsoever.
· Assume you’ll be hit by a storm, and that you’ll not have a choice of bivies.
· Ask friends to check on you if the weather or forecast turns bad.
· Evaluate ahead of time the problems of retreat from any point on the route. Did you bring a bolt kit? How about
a “cheater stick” for clipping into bolt hangers and stuffing cams into out-of-reach cracks as you flee down an
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overhanging pitch?
· If it’s starting to rain, think twice about climbing “just one more pitch” – once wet you won’t dry out. It’s better to
set up your bivy while you’re still dry.
· Frozen ropes are useless for climbing or retreating, as several parties found out. Put them away early.
All such hints and tricks aside, the bottom line is your ability to sit out the storm. Your first priority is to keep the
wind and outside water away. Second is to be insulated enough to stay warm, even though you are wet from
your own condensation.
· Stick with high quality gear in good condition, and don’t leave key items behind to ease the hauling. Don’t go
up with a poorly equipped partner; it will be your neck as well.
· For insulation, never rely on cotton or down (even if it’s covered with one of the waterproof/breathable fabrics).
Even nylon absorbs water. Wool, polypropylene, and polyester insulators stay relatively warm when wet, and
synthetics dry fastest. Take along long underwear, warm pants, sweater, jacket, balaclava/hat, gloves, sleeping
bag, insulating pad, extra socks or booties, and plenty of food and water – dehydration hastens hypothermia.
· For rain, use coated nylon, sailors’ oilskins, or the waterproof/breathable fabrics. Take rain pants and jacket,
overmitts, bivy bag, and hammock or portaledge with waterproof fly. The fly is critical – it must overlap your
hammock generously and be of heavy material, in excellent condition, with strong, well-sealed seams. For
sleeping on ledges, take a big tent fly or a piece of heavy-duty, reinforced plastic and the means to pitch it. Then
hope that your ledge doesn’t turn into a lake. Do you know to run your anchor through the fly without making a
hole? Did you spend more for lycra than rainwear?
· WARNING: Several climbers have blamed the waterproof/breathable fabrics for their close calls. They claim
that no version of it can take the punishment of a storm on the walls. Whether true or not, you must be the
judge; test all of your gear ahead of time under miserable conditions, but where your exit is an easy one.
For more information on bad weather, including a description of the waterproof anchor, see “Surviving Big
Walls,” by Brian Bennett, Climbing, Feb. Mar. 1990.
Unplanned Bivouacs Getting caught by darkness is common, especially on the longer one-day climbs and
descent routes, e.g., Royal Arches and Cathedral Rocks. It happens easily – a late start, a slow partner, off
route, a jammed or dropped rope, or a sprained ankle. Usually it’s nothing to get upset about, but if you are
unprepared, even a cold wind or a mild storm becomes serious. One death and several close calls occurred this
way. To avoid becoming a statistic:
· Consider the following gear for each person’s day pack: long underwear, gloves, balaclava, rain jacket and
pants (which double as wind protection). In warmer weather, all can be of the lightweight variety. If that’s too
heavy for you, at least take on of those disposable plastic rainsuits or tube tents that occupy virtually no space.
Take more warm clothes in colder weather. A headlamp with spare bulb and new batteries is very important for
finding safe anchors, signaling for help, or avoiding that bivy altogether. Matches and heat-tabs will light wet
wood. Food and water increase your safety after a night of shivering.
· Keep your survival gear with you whenever practical, not with your partner – climbers get separated from their
gear, and each other, in imaginative ways, sometimes with serious consequences.
· Standing in slings on poor anchors is not the way to spend a night. If a bivy is inevitable, don’t climb until the
last moment; find a safe, sheltered, and/or comfortable spot while you’ve got enough light.
Descents Consult the guidebook and your friends, but be wary of advice that the way down is obvious; look the
route over ahead of time. If you carry a topo of the way up, consider one for the way down, or a photograph.
Your ultimate protection is route-finding ability, and that takes experience. Some trouble spots: North Dome
Gully, the Kat Walk, Michael’s Ledge.
· Many rappel epics are born when an easy descent, often a walk-off, is missed. Search for it thoroughly before
you commit to a big drop – it may be well worth the effort.
· Conversely, footprints and rappel anchors often lead nowhere – they were someone else’s mistake. Be willing
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and able to retrace your steps and remember that the crux may not be at the top.
· To further evaluate an uncertain descent, consider rappelling a single line as far as possible (160 feet on rope,
320 feet if two). Learn to be comfortable on the rope and be willing to swing around a corner to look for the next
anchor. Carry enough gear to go back up your rope and know how to use it.
· Any time you can’t see anchors all the way to the ground, take the gear to set your own. That includes
established descents, since ice and rockfall frequently destroy anchors. It sometimes means carrying a bolt kit.
· Consider taking a second (7-9mm) rope, even for one-rope descents and walk-offs. You’ll save time, depend
on fewer anchors, leave less gear, and more easily reverse the climbing route in an emergency. This is the one
advantage of leading on double ropes. But don’t forget that thinner ropes are more vulnerable to sharp edges.
· Friction from wet or twisted ropes, slings, ledges, cracks, and flakes may jam your rope. Plan ahead when you
rig the anchor and be willing to leave gear behind to avoid friction. You can retrieve the gear tomorrow.
· Rappelling through trees? Consider short rappels, from tree to tree. It’s slow but avoids irretrievable snarls.
· Is your rope jammed? You can go back up and rerig if you still have both ends, so keep them until you’re sure
it will pull or you have to let go. If you do have to climb that rope, be careful that it isn’t jammed by a sharp edge.
Don’t forget to untie the knots in the ends before you pull.
· Dropped ropes and gear can be more than just embarrassing; without a rescue, a stranded climber is a dead
climber, even in good weather. When transferring gear, clip it to its next anchor before unclipping it from the
current one.
Loose Rock There’s plenty of it in Yosemite. Ten percent of all injuries are associated with rockfall, including six
deaths and one permanent disability. In several other deaths, loose rock was implicated but not confirmed, e.g.,
possible broken handholds and failed placements. Spontaneous rockfall is not the problem – all the fatal and
serious accidents were triggered by the victim, the rope, or by the climbers above.
Rocks lying on ledges and in steep gullies are obviously dangerous. Not so obvious is that old reliable mantle
block, five times your weight, wedged in place, and worn smooth by previous climbers. Yet with distressing
regularity, “bombproof” blocks, flakes, and even ledges collapse under body weight, split out cams, or fracture
from the pressure of a piton. The forces placed on anchors and protection, even from rappelling, may be far
higher than you generate in a test. Handholds may pass you scrutiny, then fail in mid-move. The rock you pull
off can break your leg after falling only a couple of feet. Finally, watch out for rotten rock, responsible for at least
two of these fatalities. It’s common on the last couple of pitches of climbs that go to the rim of the Valley, e.g.,
Yosemite Point Buttress and Washington Column.
The East Buttress of Middle Cathedral Rock is a well-known bowling alley, the site of many rockfall injuries. The
Northwest Face of Half Dome is another, with the added excitement of tourist “firing squads” on the summit. But
the most dangerous, surprisingly, may be El Cap; on rock so steep, loose blocks balance precariously and big
flakes wait for an unlucky hand to trigger the final fracture.
Some rockfall accidents may not be preventable, short of staying home, but being alert to the hazard and
following a few guidelines will cut the injury rate:
· Consider a helmet for loose routes. (see Helmets)
· Throw in an occasional piece on long, easy runouts, as insurance against the unpredictability of the medium.
· Avoid rotten rock as protection, even if you can back it up. When it fails it endangers everyone below.
· Ropes launch almost as many missiles as climbers do. Watch where you run your lead rope. Use directionals
to keep it away from loose – and sharp – stuff, and check it frequently. Keep in mind that your bag or pack,
when hauled, may dislodge everything in its path. When you pull your rappel ropes, stand to one side, look up,
and watch out for delayed rockfall.
· You have no control over a party above you, and by being below you accept the risk. If you are catching up,
don’t crowd them – ask for permission to pass. You can probably get by them safely, but remember that
climbers have been killed or hurt by rocks dislodged by parties above, including those they allow to pass. The
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party you want to pass may have gotten an early start to avoid that risk, and they have no obligation to let you
by. When you are above someone else, including your partner, put yourself in their shoes. Slow down, watch
your feet and rope.
Climbing Unroped
Everybody does it, to some extent. There’s no reason to stop, but good reason to be cautious: fourteen climbers
were killed and two critically injured while deliberately unroped. At least eight climbed 5.10 or better. Most, if not
all, of those accidents were avoidable. You may find yourself unroped in several situations – on third-class
terrain, spontaneously on fifth-class, and while deliberately free-soloing a route.
Third class terrain may be easy, but add a bit of sand, loose or wet rock, darkness, plus a moment of distraction,
and the rating becomes meaningless. Four climbers have died this way, typically on approach and descent
routes such as North Dome Gully, all in spots that did not demand a rope.
Sometimes you lose the way on the approach, or unrope at what you thought was the top of the climb, only to
find a few feet of “easy” fifth-class blocking your way. Your rope is tucked away in your pack, and you’re in a
hurry. Before you go on, remember that you didn’t plan to free-solo an unknown quantity today. Four died this
way, falling from fifth-class terrain that they were climbing on the spur of the moment.
Seven of the 14 killed were rappelling or otherwise tied in. They unroped while still on fifth-class rock, for various
reasons of convenience, without clipping into a nearby anchor. Three slipped off their stances, a ledge collapsed
under another, one decided to down-climb the last few feet, and two tried to climb their rappel ropes hand-overhand to attend to some problem. Like the previous group, they all went unroped onto fifth-class terrain on the
spur of the moment. In addition, they all had a belay immediately available. Did its nearness give them a false
sense of security?
No true free-soloer has been killed yet, although one, critically hurt, survived only by the speed of his rescue. A
death will happen eventually, possibly the result of a loose hold. Is the free-soloer more alert to the task, having
planned it in advance, than those who unroped on the spur of the moment? Were the unlucky fourteen still
relaxed in their minds, not quite attuned to their new situation? We can only speculate.
Keep these cases and the hidden hazards in mind as you travel through any steep terrain. Be aware of what is
under foot, and in hand, at each moment. Be patient enough to retrace your steps to find the easy way, and if
there’s a belay hanging in front of you, think twice before rejecting it. Finally, remember that your climbing ability
has probably been measured on clean, rated routes, not on unpredictable sand and wet moss. Being a 5.11
climber does not mean you can fly.
Leading
Nine climbers died and six were critically injured in leader- fall accidents involving inadequate protection. Most
fell simply because the moves were hard, and several were victims of broken holds. They were all injured
because they hit something before their protection stopped them. Either they did not place enough protection
(one-third of the cases) or it failed under the force of the fall (the remaining two-thirds). In every case, their
injuries were serious because they fell headfirst or on their sides – the head, neck, or trunk took a lethal blow.
Half fell 50 feet or less, the climber falling the shortest distance (25 feet) died, and the longest (270 feet!)
survived.
Were these catastrophes avoidable? It’s sometimes hard to tell, but the answer is often yes. Here are a few
lessons frequently learned the hard way:
· Climbers frequently describe the belaying habits they see on Yosemite routes as “frightening.” Before you start
up, how frightening is your belay? Can the anchor withstand pulls in all directions? Is there more than one piece,
with the load shared? Is the tie-in snug and in line with the fall force? Is your belayer experienced with that belay
gadget and in position to operate it effectively when you fall? (You’d be surprised.) Will you clip through a
bombproof directional as you start up, even on an easy pitch?
· Don’t cheat on your ground fall calculations. (A good belayer will keep you honest.) With rope stretch and slack
in the system, you may fall twice as far below your last protection as you are above it – if it holds.
· Nuts want to fall out. One that self-cleans below you may turn a comfortable lead into a ground-fall situation.
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Or, during a fall, the top piece may hold just long enough for the rope to yank the lower nuts out sideways, and
then also fail. For more reliable placements, set those nuts with a tug and sling them generously. A tug on a
marginal nut, however, is worthless as a test. Tiny nubbins may hold it firmly under those conditions but give
way in a fall. Be especially cautious about placements you can’t see. Back them up.
· Camming devices “fail” regularly, but it’s seldom the fault of the device. It’s more likely due to haste, coupled
with undeserved faith in technology. As with nuts, a blind placement – often in a layback crack – may feel solid
but be worthless.
· Fixed pitons loosen from freeze-thaw cycles and repeated use. They may not have been installed well to begin
with. A hammer is the only reliable way to test and rest them, but you don’t see many hammers on free routes
these days. You don’t see them on rappel routes, either, but you may find yourself hanging from anchors that
belong in a museum. If you don’t test pitons properly, do not depend on them – routinely back them up.
· There is no reliable way to test bolts but plenty of reasons to want to. For example, the common ¼” split-shaft
type was not designed or intended for life support, let alone for rock climbing. Their quality varies; several have
broken under body weight, and others like them await you. Reliability also depends on the quality of the rock
and the skill of the bolter. Add years of weathering and mistreatment by climbers and the result is many bolts
that are easily pulled out by fingers or a sharp yank with a sling. Several bolt hangers have cracked as well, with
one fatal accident so far.
· Never test a bolt with a hammer. Instead, examine the surrounding rock, the bolt, and the hanger for cracks,
and hope they are large enough to see. Is the bolt tight and fully seated in the hole? Is the nut snug? Good luck,
· Back up all untested fixed protection.
· Okay. So you know this stuff. You’re a little shaky on the lead right now and you’ve had some trouble getting
your pro to stick, but the book said this was a 5.10a, and besides, two teenage girls just walked up this pitch. It’s
only 20 feet more and one of those pieces is bound to hold. Think for a minute. Are you willing to free-solo this
pitch? Keep your answer in mind as you climb, because poorly placed protection amounts to just that – you may
not be deliberately
About falling There’s an art to falling safely – like a cat. Bouldering helps build the alertness required. Controlling
your fall may be out of the question on those 200-foot screamers, but it will reduce the risk of injury from routine
falls. Whenever possible, land on your feet – even if it breaks your leg, absorbing the shock this way may save
your life. Laybacks and underclings hold special risk in this regard – you are already leaning back, and if you
lose your grip the friction of your feet on the rock may rotate you into a headfirst – and backward – dive.
· A chest harness will not keep you from tumbling as you free fall, but it will turn you upright as the rope comes
tight. This reduces the chance of serious injury during the braking phase and may be life-saving if you hang
there for long, already seriously hurt.
· The wall may look vertical below you, but even glancing off a steep slab can be fatal. Three climbers died this
way.
· Pendulum falls are particularly dangerous. If you swing into a corner from 20 feet to one side of your
protection, you will hit with the same bone-breaking speed as when striking a ledge in a 20- foot vertical fall. The
crucial difference is, you are “landing” on your side, exposing vital organs to the impact. Two climbers died this
way and others suffered serious injuries. Even small projections are dangerous: a 20- foot swing on Glacier
Point Apron fractured a skull, and another smashed a pelvis. In a pendulum there is no difference between a
leader and a follower fall; don’t forget to protect your second from this fate as you lead a hard traverse.
Learning to Lead Four of the 15 killed or critically injured in leader falls were good climbers on well-defined
routes, but the majority were intermediates, often off-route. There may be a couple of lessons in that.
· Don’t get cocky because you just led your first 5.8 or your protection held on your first fall. Experienced
climbers have died from errors “only a beginner would make,” so you have plenty of time left in your career to
screw up.
· Climbing and protecting are separate skills but both keep you alive. Don’t challenge yourself in both at the
same time – you might not have the skill and presence of mind to get out of a tight spot. If you’re out to push
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your limits, pick a route that’s well defined and easy to protect, place extra pieces for practice, and be willing and
equipped to back off.
· Route finding is another survival skill. A mistake here can quickly put you over your head in climbing,
protecting, or both. Learn to look ahead and recognize what you want to avoid. Climb it mentally before you
climb it physically.
· Some “easy” terrain in the valley is actually pretty dangerous. Low-angle gullies are often full of loose blocks
cemented together with moss. Opportunities for protection may be scarce and route finding subtle. These are
not usually cataloged routes. Three or four climbers have been killed, or nearly so, on such terrain while looking
for easy routes to climb.
· A Leading Problem: The last pitch of The Nutcracker provides a subtle challenge for the fledgling 5.8 leader.
Once over the mantle, you may relax as you contemplate the easy climb to the top. But if you forget about your
protection, a slip in the next few moves may send you back over the side to crash into the slab below. This pitch
has scored several broken ankles when the fall was longer than expected, and a more serious injury is possible.
There are many such situations in the Valley, and one key to safety is to look below you while you plan ahead.
The Belay Chain
Whether you are climbing, rappelling, or just sitting on a ledge, the belay chain is what connects you to the rock.
There are many links, and mistakes with almost every one have killed 22 climbers, 40% of all Yosemite climbing
fatalities. In every case the cause was human error. In every case the death was completely preventable, not by
the subtle skills of placing protection on the lead, but by some simple precaution to keep the belay chain intact.
Experienced climbers outnumbered the inexperienced in this category, two to one.
Mistakes with the belay chain occur at any time. Make one and you’ll fall to the end of the rope … or farther.
Minor injuries are rare. Here are some key points to remember:
· Before you commit yourself to a system, always apply a few pounds of tension in the direction in which it will
be loaded, analyze it like an engineer – what if this happens … or that? Check every link, from the buckle of
your harness to the rock around your anchor. You would be amazed at the inadequate systems often used by
experienced climbers, even though it takes only a few seconds to run a proper check.
· Both lives depend on that system, so go through it with your partner. Nine climbers have died in multi-victim
accidents.
· Check the system periodically while you’re using it. Forces may change direction (two died when their anchors
failed for this reason), ropes and slings can wear through (serious injuries and one death) and gear can come
undone (two died when a wiggling bolt hanger unscrewed its nut – they were relying on a single bolt.)
· Are you about to rappel? Stay clipped to the anchor for a few seconds. Check both the anchor and your brake
system, as above. If one anchor point fails, will you remain attached to the others? Are the knots in your rappel
slings secure? Did you check every inch of those fixed slings for damage? Skipping these precautions cost eight
lives plus serious injuries, from poorly tied slings, partially dismantled anchors (a simple misunderstanding),
relying on single carabiners, and other reasons. The next accident may be caused by something new, but it will
have been preventable by double-checking.
· Two climbers died by rappelling off the ends of their ropes, even though both had tied knots in the ends as a
safety measure. In one case the knots pulled through the brake. In the second, the victim forgot to double-check
the ropes after a knot had been untied to deal with a problem. Knots are still a recommended safety procedure,
but do not take anything for granted. Tie both strands into one knot or knot each separately – there are pros and
cons to each method.
· When rappelling in unpredictable circumstances – dark, windy, poor communications, unknown anchors below
– consider a Prusik Hitch or a mechanical ascender as a safety. If improperly handled, neither one may stop you
if you fall – they are primarily for quickly but deliberately stopping yourself to deal with other emergencies. Both
of those who rappelled off their ropes would have survived with safeties.
· In separate incidents, five climbers somehow became detached from their ropes while climbing with
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mechanical ascenders – not the fault of the devices. Only three were tied to their ropes at all, at the lower end.
All five died because they had not tied in “short,” leaving themselves open to a long fall. To tie in short, tie a loop
in the rope a few feet below your ascenders and clip it to your harness. As you climb, repeat the process often
enough to limit your fall should you come off your rope. At the very least, do this when you must pass at least
one ascender around protection, traverse (three deaths), or change to another rope. (Is that other rope
anchored well? One climber died, partly because his wasn’t. Ask your partner first.) In addition, always be tied in
to both of your ascenders.
· Self-belayers should also tie in short – one died when his Prusik belay melted during a fall (a Prusik cord too
large for the rope). At least two were treated to close calls when other types of self-belay systems jammed open.
· Clip into a new belay point before unclipping from the old one. During those few, vulnerable seconds, pitons
have pulled, hero loops have broken, rocks have struck, and feet have slipped.
· Three climbers were killed and one critically injured by “failures” of single-carabiner tie-ins and rappel anchors.
Be careful of relying on a single non-locking carabiner for any link in the chain. The rope or sling may flip over
the gate and unclip itself, especially if it is slack, or shock-loaded. Even if you watch it carefully and/or it is
“safely” under tension, you may become distracted. One climber died while his Figure Eight descender
unclipped while he was busy passing a knot on rappel. (He should have tied in short.) For those critical points,
use either two non-locking carabiners with gates opposed and reversed, or a locking carabiner. Don’t forget to
lock it! For many applications the two-carabiner method is safer and faster to operate.
· Ropes have been cut in three fatal accidents. They did not break, but were stressed over sharp edges, a
condition never intended by the manufacturer. Two of these accidents were avoidable: one climber should have
tied in short to prevent a 100 foot fall that cut the rope; the other should have protected a fixed rope from a welldefined sharp edge. Ascending a rope produces a weighted, see-sawing action that can destroy it, even over a
rounded, moderately rough, edge.
· As with ropes, most gear failure falls into the misuse category. Failure from a design or manufacturing flaw is
rare. It was the initiating factor in one fatal accident – three climbers died when a bolt hanger broke at a two-bolt
rappel anchor. The tragic outcome would have been avoided, however, had the climbers noticed they were not
properly backed up to the second bolt.
These cases illustrate one of the rules most commonly overlooked: BACK YOURSELF UP. No matter what
initially pulled, broke, slipped, jammed, or cut, the incident became an accident because the climber did not
carefully ask himself, “What if…?” By leaving yourself open, you are betting against a variety of unpredictable
events. You don’t lose very often, but when you do, you may lose very big.
Beginners! From your first day on the rock, you have the right to inspect, and ask questions about, any system
to which you’ve committed your life. It’s a good way to learn, and a good way to stay alive. If your partner or
instructor is offended, find someone else to climb with. Never change the system or the plan, however, without
your partner’s knowledge.
Helmets
While we can never know for certain, helmets might have made a difference in roughly 25% of the fatal and
critical trauma cases. They would have significantly increased – but not guaranteed – the survival chances for
five of those fatalities. Furthermore, helmets would have offered excellent protection against less serious
fractures, concussions, and lacerations.
Most deaths, however, involved impacts of overwhelming force or mortal wounds other than to the head, i.e.,
beyond the protection offered by a helmet. This is not an argument against helmets; the point is, a helmet
doesn’t make you invincible. What goes on inside your head is more important than what you wear on it.
When to wear a helmet is a personal choice, but it is especially recommended for the following: beginners
pushing their skills, roped solo climbing, a high risk of a bad fall or of ice fall (several El Cap routes in winter and
spring), and for all approaches, descents, and climbing routes that are crowded and/or particularly loose. (See
Loose Rock)
States of Mind
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This is the key to safety. It’s impossible to know how many climbers were killed by haste or overconfidence, but
many survivors will tell you that they somehow lost their good judgement long enough to get hurt. It’s a complex
subject and sometimes a touchy one. Nevertheless, at least three states of mind frequently contribute to
accidents: ignorance, casualness, and distraction.
Ignorance There is always more to learn, and even the most conscientious climber can get into trouble if
unaware of the danger (“I thought it never rained…”). Here are some ways to fight ignorance:
· Look in the mirror. Are you the stubborn type? Do you resist suggestions? Could you be a bit overconfident?
(Ask your friends.) Several partners have said of a dead friend, “I wanted to give him advice, but he always got
mad when I did that. I didn’t realize he was about to die.”
· Read. The climbing magazines are full of good recommendations. Case histories in the American Alpine
Club’s Accidents in North American Mountaineering, a yearly compilation of accident reports, will show you how
subtle factors may combine to catch you unaware. Such accounts are the next best (or worse?) thing to being
there.
· Practice. Reading may make you aware but not competent. In fact, you can be dangerously misled by what
you read, including this report – important details are often left out, the advice may be incorrect, and in the long
run you must think and act for yourself. Several climbers, for example, waited to learn Prusiking until it was dark,
raining, overhanging and they were actually in trouble. They had read about it, but they had to be rescued
despite having the gear to improvise their own solutions. Book-learning alone gave them a complacency that
could have proved fatal.
Casualness “I just didn’t take it seriously,” is a common lament. It’s often correct, but it’s more a symptom than a
cause – there may be deeper reasons for underestimating your risk. Ignorance is one, and here are some more:
· Habit reinforcement. The more often you get away with risky business the more entrenched your lazy habits
become. Have you unconsciously dropped items from your safety checklists since you were a chicken-hearted
(or hare-brained) beginner?
· Your attitudes and habits can be reinforced by the experiences (and states of mind) of others. The sense of
awe and commitment of the 1960’s is gone from the big-wall trade routes, and young aspirants with no Grade
VI’s, or even V’s to their credit speak casually about them. Even for experts, most accidents on El Cap occur on
the easier pitches, where their guard is down.
· Memory Decay. “I’m not going up again without raingear – I thought I would die!” A week later this climber had
forgotten how scared he had been in that thunderstorm. Raingear was now too heavy and besides, he was sure
he’d be able to rap off the next time. Many of us tend to forget the bad parts. We have to be hit again.
· Civilization. With fixed anchors marking the way up and ghetto blasters echoing behind, it may be hard to
realize that the potential for trouble is as high in Yosemite as anywhere. Some say the possibility of fast rescue
added to their casualness. Maybe, but who wants a broken leg, or worse, in the first place?
Distraction It is caused by whatever takes your mind off your work – anxiety, sore feet, skinny-dippers below –
the list is endless. Being in a hurry is one of the most common causes. Here are two ways it has happened:
· Experienced climbers were often hurt after making “beginner errors” (their words) to get somewhere quickly.
There was no emergency or panic, but their minds were elsewhere – on a cold beer, a good bivy, or just sick of
being on that route for a week. (It’s often called “summit fever.”) Their mistakes were usually short cuts in
protecting easy pitches, on both walls and shorter climbs. As one put it, “We were climbing as though we were
on top.”
· Darkness had caught two day-climbers for the first time. Unprepared, upset, and off-route, they rushed to get
down, arguing with each other about what to do. After several errors, which they knew how to avoid, one died
after rappelling off the end of his rope.
An adequate state of mind is like good physical conditioning: it doesn’t happen overnight, and it takes constant
practice, but the payoff in both safety and fun is well worth it. Stay aware of your mental state: Are you uneasy
before this climb? Learn to recognize that, and ask yourself why, and deal with it. Are you taking shortcuts on
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this pitch? Could it be you’re distracted? Stop, get your act together, then go.
Rescue Despite the best of attitudes, an accident can happen to anyone. Self-rescue is often the fastest and
safest way out, but whether it’s the wise course of action depends on the injury and how well prepared you are.
Combining with a nearby party will often give you the margin of safety you need, but do not risk aggravating an
injury or getting yourself into a more serious predicament – ask for help if you need it. (Sometimes a bit of
advice, delivered by loudspeaker, is all that’s required.) In making your decision, keep an eye on weather and
darkness – call for help early.
· If you don’t have formal first aid training (which is strongly recommended), at least know to keep an
unconscious patient’s airway open, how to protect a possible broken neck or back, and how to deal with external
bleeding and serious blood loss. These procedures are lifesaving, do not require fancy gear, and are easy to
learn.
· Head injury victims, even when unconscious, may try to untie themselves. If you have to leave one alone,
make escape impossible.
· If ropes are lowered to you from a helicopter for any purpose, do not attach them to your anchors unless you
are specifically instructed to do so – if the helicopter has to leave suddenly it could pull you off the wall. If you
are told to anchor your rope, rescuers will be using a system that does not expose you to that risk; anchor that
rope securely – it may be a rescuer’s lifeline. Follow instructions exactly.
Who Pays for Rescues? The taxpayer does; the NPS does not charge for the cost of rescues, except for any
ambulance services required. This is true even if you are fined by the courts for negligence, which is a separate
charge altogether (see below). But rescues can be expensive and what the future holds is anybody’s guess. The
NPS is examining the possibility of charging all victims for the full cost of their rescues, and partial costs are
charged in some parks now. This issue is complex, but it is clear that responsible behavior by those who use the
park will minimize the threat.
Risk, Responsibility, and the Limits to Climbing
The NPS has no regulations specifying how you must climb. There is one regulation, however, requiring that all
park users act responsibly. This applies to climbers, in that the consequences of your actions put rescuers and
other climbers at risk. One rescuer has been killed in the park, so far. Thus, if your own negligence got you in
trouble, you may be charged with “creating a hazardous condition” for others. As an example, a climber was
fined because he became stranded by a hailstorm while attempting to free-solo the Steck-Salathé on Sentinel
Rock. Storms had been predicted, and his rescue should not have been necessary.
Even avoidable accidents are understandable, thus legal charges are not frequently filed. Of all park users,
however, climbers should be particularly aware – they know that their sport is dangerous, that safety lies in
education and training, and that there is an information network available.
So take what you’ll need with you on the climb, or have competent friends ready to back you up. The climber
stranded on Sentinel, for example, could have been rescued by friends without NPS participation or knowledge
– the way it must often be done on expeditions. Freedom of expression and responsibility need not be
incompatible.
Climbing will always be risky. It should be clear, however, that a reduced accident rate is possible without
seriously restricting the sport. The party in its fifth day on The Nose and the party passing them in its fifth hour
may each be climbing safely or be blindly out of control. You have a right to choose your own climbing style and
level of risk, but you owe it to yourself and everyone else to make that choice with your eyes wide open.
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