Society of Southeastern Social Psychologists 2004
Clemson University
November 5 & 6
~Program and Schedule of Events~
Friday, November 5
6:00 PM - 8:00 PM
Registration & Reception
(sponsored by
Hospitality Suite (Suite 430)
Wiley Publishers)
Saturday, November 6
7:30 AM - 9:00 AM
Registration & Continental Breakfast
8:00 AM - 8:55 AM
Graduate Student Workshop
Seminar Room 1
Applying for Academic and Applied Jobs: Some Pointers
(You don't want to miss this if you are or will be on the job market!)
Drew Christopher, Albion College
Lindsay Holland, Carson-Newman College
Tom Britt, Clemson University
9:00 AM - 10:15 AM
BSA*
Concurrent Symposia Session I
Current Research on the Self
- Self-Awareness and the Dynamics of Self-Evaluation
Chair: Rick H. Hoyle, Duke University
Paul Silvia,
University of North Carolina at Greensboro
- East Meets West in Tactical Self-Enhancement:
Cultural Manifestations of a Universal Motive
Lowell Gaertner, University of Tennessee,
Constantine Sedikides, Southhampton University,
&
Jack Vevea University of California, Santa Cruz
- The Role of Authenticity in Healthy Psychological
Brian Goldman, Agnes Scott College
Functioning
- Discussant: Rick H. Hoyle, Duke University
SEM1* Trying to Control Prejudice: Antecedents & Consequences
Chair: Kurt A. Boniecki,
University of Central Arkansas
- Nonverbal Indicators of Intergroup Anxiety as a Function of Michael A. Olson, University of Tennessee &
Discordant Evaluations of Blacks
- Decreasing Stereotypic Responses: The Effect of Making
Race Non-Diagnostic
Russell H. Fazio, Ohio State University
E. Ashby Plant, B. Michelle Peruche, &
David A. Butz, Florida State University
- Reducing Prejudice: When Feeling Guilty Doesn't Help
Tracie L. Stewart, H. Ted Denney,
Georgia State University, Nyla E. Branscombe, &
Nia E. Phillips, University of Kansas
- Discussant: Kurt A. Boniecki, University of Central Arkansas
10:20 AM - 11:10 AM
Poster Session I
Outside of Ballroom B
Posters should be set up by 9:00 AM and taken down at 12:30 PM.
*(BSA is the BellSouth Auditorium, SEM1 is Seminar Room 1).
11:15 AM - 12:30 PM
BSA
Concurrent Symposia Session II
Motivated Bias and the Implications of Distinguishing
Chair: Jim McNulty,
Between Global and Specific Beliefs
The Ohio State University, Mansfield
- The Effect of Social Comparison on Self-Evaluations of
Justin T. Buckingham, Towson University,
Performance and Corresponding Ability
Lavonia Smith LeBeau, Penn State University, &
William M.P. Klein, University of Pittsburgh
- Narcissism and Overconfidence: Maintaining Positive
Global Beliefs in the Face of Specific Failures
- Maintaining Marital Satisfaction in the Face of Negative
W. Keith Campbell, Adam S. Goodie, &
Joshua D. Foster, University of Georgia
Jim McNulty, The Ohio State University,
Mansfield,
Experiences: Separating Specific Events from Global Attitudes & Benjamin R. Karney, RAND
SEM1 Positive Social Psychology
- The Varieties of Courage
- Implications of Double-Edged Constructs for Positive
Chair: Cindy Pury, Clemson University
Cindy Pury, Clemson University
Tom Britt, Clemson University
Psychology: The Case of Self-Engagement
- Helping Socially Anxious Friends and Spouses Achieve
Beth A. Pontari, Furman University
Social Success
12:30 PM - 1:50 PM
2:00 PM - 3:15 PM
BSA
Lunch
Ballroom B
Concurrent Symposia Session III
As Time Goes By: Examining the Role of Time in
Judgment and Decision Making
- Do People Brace for the Outcomes of Others?
Chair: Lawrence J. Sanna
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
James A. Shepperd & Kate Dockery,
University of Florida
- Retrospective Temporal Team-Appraisals: When Our
Pasts Seem Far Away
Seth E. Carter,
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
- Timing and Framing: Construal Effects in Financial
Decision Making
Michael D. Sagristano,
Florida Atlantic University
- Biases Over Time: Integrating Confidence Changes,
Planning Fallacy, Affective Forecasting, and Hindsight Bias
SEM1 Social Psychology, Unpredictability, and Risk Taking
Lawrence J. Sanna,
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
Chair: Lisa Thomson Ross, College of
Charleston
- Unpredictability and Risk-Taking: A Model and Measures
- The Relationship Between Victimization and Risk-Taking
Lisa Thomson Ross, College of Charleston
Jacquelyn White,
University of North Carolina at Greensboro
- Sensation Seeking and Alcohol Use: A Meta-Analysis
Rhonda Swickert & James B. Hittner,
College of Charleston
- Sensation Seeking and Older Adults
Sabina Widner, Deborah Richardson, &
Heather Ferguson, August State University
3:25 PM - 4:15 PM
Poster Session II
Outside of Ballroom B
Posters should be set up by 2:00 PM and taken down at 5:30 PM.
4:30 PM - 5:30 PM
Keynote Address
The Power of Repetition: Habits in Daily Life
Ballroom B
Wendy Wood, Duke University
5:30 PM until ??
Reception
Ballroom B
POSTER SESSION I
Posters should be set up by 9:00 AM and taken down at 12:30 PM.
1. The Categorical Nature of Self-Esteem: A Taxometric Analysis
Joshua D. Foster, Keith Campell, & Steven R. H. Beach (University of Georgia)
Self-esteem has traditionally been conceptualized as a dimension. We propose that it is best conceptualized as both a dimensional and categorical
construct. In support of our contention, we present the results of two taxometric procedures (MAXCOV-HITMAX and L-Mode; Waller & Meehl, 1998)
supporting the taxonic nature of self-esteem. Specifically, there is a low self-esteem group that appears to contain approximately 15-30% of the
population. We also present evidence that traditional uses of median and tertiary splits do not fully capture the qualitative difference between high and
low self-esteem. Median splits, in particular, tend to produce “low” self-esteem groups that contain majority high self-esteem individuals. We offer
practical advice for creating “high” and “low” self-esteem groups that contain individuals who qualitatively differ in term of self-esteem.
2. A Self-Report Measure of Self-Complexity
Elizabeth Earles, Catherine Wood, & Thomas Britt (Clemson University)
Researchers have long noted that people differ in the degree to which their self-concept is elaborate and detailed versus simple and straightforward.
Researchers typically assess self-complexity with Linville’s (1988) time-consuming Q-sort procedure, but the validity of this measure has recently been
called into question. A nine-item self-report measure was developed as a result of two large pilot studies. Sample items of the Self-Complexity Scale
(SCS) include “I would say my view of who I am is complex and multi-faceted” and “My sense of who I am consists of a relatively few number of traits
and roles (R).” In a validation study involving 84 participants, the nine-item Self-Complexity Scale measured a single factor and possessed a
Cronbach Alpha of .87. The results also revealed an interesting pattern of correlations between the SCS and other measures. The SCS was
moderately positively correlated with need for cognition, openness to experience, and neuroticism, and was negatively correlated with self-concept
clarity. In support of the predictive validity of the scale, scores on the SCC were positively correlated with the number of attributes individuals listed in
response to a “Who am I” question (r = .36, p < .001).
3. Does Self-Complexity Moderate Responses to Rejection?
Erika J. Koch1 & James A. Shepperd2 (1McDaniel College, 2University of Florida)
Research suggests that self-complexity (i.e., thinking about the self in multiple, independent ways) buffers people from the negative effects of adverse
events. The present study investigated whether self-complexity—in either state or trait form—similarly buffers people from the negative effects of
rejection. We measured self-complexity with a standard card sort procedure, and we attempted to manipulate self-complexity with a novel writing task.
In an experiment presented as a study of various communication skills, participants (N = 108) engaged in a brief interaction in pairs and then were
randomly assigned to write about themselves in a complex, simple, or non-self-relevant way. Participants later received randomly assigned
acceptance or rejection feedback and then completed measures of state self-esteem and affect. Results indicated that participants who received
acceptance feedback reported higher state self-esteem and more positive affect than did participants who received rejection feedback. However, the
self-complexity manipulation did not influence participants’ responses to feedback. In addition, trait levels of self-complexity did not predict variance in
responses to feedback. Thus, the present results suggest that self-complexity does not moderate responses to rejection. However, future research
may examine whether other measures of self-complexity predict variance in responses to rejection. In addition, although the present study sought to
manipulate self-complexity by inducing thought processes involved in high or low self-complexity, future research may reveal more effective methods
of manipulating self-complexity.
4. Effects of Mindfulness on Aggression Following Social Rejection
Whitney Heppner, Chad Lakey, Brian Goldman, W. Keith Campbell, & Michael Kernis (University of Georgia)
Mindfulness involves nonevaluative awareness of immediate experiences (Brown & Ryan, 2003). Mindful people are highly attentive and aware without
being concerned about their self-esteem. The current study examined the possibility that being mindful would decrease aggressiveness following
social rejection (Twenge, Baumeister, Tice & Stucke, 2001). We hypothesized that a mindfulness induction performed before receiving social rejection
feedback would reduce later aggression, making aggression level similar to participants who received acceptance feedback. Sixty undergraduate
students wrote self-descriptive essays, ostensibly used by all participants to decide with whom they would like to work on a later task. Twenty
participants received acceptance feedback; 20 participants received rejection feedback; and 20 performed a mindfulness induction prior to receiving
rejection feedback. Aggression was measured using a computer task developed by Bushman (1995); participants pick the intensity and duration of a
noise that their “opponents” will hear. Intensity and duration scores (r = .23, p<.01) were standardized and summed to create the measure of
aggression used in analyses (Bushman & Baumeister, 1998). A one-way ANOVA revealed a significant overall difference among the three conditions
[F(2, 54) = 4.47, p<.02]. Post-hoc comparisons showed significantly higher aggression in the rejection condition (M= .725) than acceptance condition
(M= -.623; p<.01). Aggression was marginally higher in the rejection condition than the mindfulness condition (M= -.173; p<.06). Importantly,
aggression in the acceptance and mindfulness conditions did not differ (p>.33). These findings suggest that mindfulness can reduce the sting of social
rejection by activating a relatively low level of ego-involvement in people.
5. Correlates of Healthy Psychological Functioning to Authenticity
Chad E. Lakey, Josh D. Foster, Whitney Heppner, Brian Goldman, and Michael H. Kernis (University of Georgia)
Kernis (2003) conceptualized authenticity as a core component of optimal psychological functioning. Authenticity is the ability to be in accord with and
act in a manner consistent with one’s own set of values, beliefs and goals. Goldman and Kernis (2002) have shown a direct relationship between
authenticity and high, stable self-esteem, trait self-esteem, life satisfaction, positive affect, and psychological well-being. Authenticity has also been
shown to be inversely related to negative affect and contingent self-esteem. The purpose of this study was to extend these findings to other markers
of psychological health. Ninety-six participants completed a battery of individual difference measures including the Authenticity Inventory (Goldman &
Kernis, 2001), Satisfaction with Life Scale (Diener, 1993), Vitality Scale (Ryan & Frederick, 1997), Self-Determination Scale (Sheldon, 1995),
Contingent Self-Esteem Scale (Paradise & Kernis, 1999), Psychological Well-Being Scale (Ryff, 1995), Subjective Well-Being Scale (Diener, 1984),
and the Linking Scale (McIntosh, Harlow, and Martin, 1995). Consistent with previous research, significant correlations were found between
authenticity and life satisfaction (r=.39, p<.001), psychological well-being (r=.65, p<.001), and contingent self-esteem (r=-.44, p<.001). As an extension
of the previous findings, authenticity was significantly related to higher subjective well-being (r=.50, p<.001), greater vitality (r=.401, p<.001), and both
the awareness of self (r=.597, p<.001) and perceived control (r=.516, p<.001) self-determination subscales. As expected, authenticity was inversely
related to linking happiness to specific outcomes (r=-.386, p<.001). Taken as a whole, authenticity is highly correlated with a sundry of markers of
psychological health.
6. Humanity Esteem and Defensiveness
Chad E. Lakey, Whitney Heppner, Hayley Cutts, Ashley Norman, Whitney Vance, Robyn Harmelin, Rashinda Reed, and Michael H. Kernis
(University of Georgia)
Humanity-esteem is defined as one’s overall evaluation of humanity. Implicit is that any one person is also a member of humanity, so that humanityand self-esteem are intimately linked. Previous research has displayed a connection between low humanity-esteem and avoidant attachment, higher
discriminatory attitudes, as well as low self-esteem (Luke & Maio, 2004). Theoretically, holding a negative view of humanity could make becoming
verbally defensive (externalizing blame and derogating others) a psychologically viable option to strengthen one’s own feelings of worth when queried
about negative life experiences. The present research tested the extent to which one’s humanity- and self-esteem predicted one’s level of verbal
defensiveness. The Defensive Verbal Behavior Assessment (Feldman Barrett, 2002) was used as a means of assessing self-protective defensiveness.
Fifteen undergraduate students participated in this study. All completed the Humanity-Esteem Scale and the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale. This was
followed by a taped “Life Experiences Interview” (e.g., “Tell me about a time when you’ve had hateful feelings toward a loved one.”, “Describe a time
when you’ve felt less sexually desirable than a friend.”) which was later coded for defensiveness along the two dimensions of awareness (the
conscious understanding and acceptance of one’s cognitions, emotions, and behaviors in the face of threat) and distortion (the reinterpretation of
events through rationalization or justification). As hypothesized, a regression analysis revealed that humanity-esteem and self-esteem significantly
predicted verbal defensiveness. These results indicate that both humanity- and self-esteem play an important role in defensiveness as a type of
reactivity in the face of threat, and that humanity-esteem may be associated with less than optimal interpersonal functioning.
7. I Want Another Chance, I Think: Examining Overt Narcissism, Covert Narcissism and Self Esteem’s Influence on Self-Evaluation
Maintenance
Mathew J. Gregoski, Paul C. Grunewald, & Deborah S. Richardson (Augusta State University)
The current study examined the effects of narcissism on self-evaluation maintenance. Previous research supports the presence of two types of
narcissism: overt and covert (Wink, 1991; Rose, 2002). Overt narcissism is defined with characteristics of grandiosity, attention seeking, and
exhibitionism; covert narcissism is distinguished by feelings of inferiority towards others, hypersensitivity to others’ evaluations, and general
dissatisfaction (Cooper & Ronningstam, 1992; Gabbard, 1989). Measures included assessments of overt narcissism, covert narcissism, and selfesteem. We hypothesized that levels of overt and covert narcissism would influence participants to respond differently to threat during evaluation
maintenance. Specifically, we thought overt narcissism would be the best predictor of self-improvement, and that overt and covert narcissism scales
would be inversely related. Eighty-eight participants (48 female) competed with a same gender friend in a video-game task believed to be indicative of
higher academic achievement. The real intent of the study was to measure participants’ levels of narcissism and their reactions on the dimensions of
task relevance, self-improvement, and reported closeness when outperformed by a friend on an ego-threatening task. Correlations were computed for
all measures and appear in Table 1. Overt and covert narcissism were negatively related to each other and shared an inverse relationship with selfesteem. Overt narcissism and self-improvement were positively correlated, while the relationship between self-esteem and self-improvement was not
significant. Overall, overt narcissism was a better predictor than self-esteem or covert narcissism when measuring an individual’s desire to self-improve
to maintain a positive self evaluation.
8. Self-Awareness and the Emotional Consequences of Self-Discrepancies
Ann Phillips & Paul Silvia (University of North Carolina at Greensboro)
Several self-theories explore the effects of discrepant self-beliefs on motivation and emotion. The present research intersected two self-theories: selfdiscrepancy theory (Higgins, 1987) and objective self-awareness theory (Duval & Wicklund, 1972). Self-discrepancy theory predicts that ideal and
ought discrepancies cause different negative emotions; objective self-awareness theory predicts that high self-awareness will strengthen the
relationship between self-discrepancies and emotions. We predicted that self-awareness would moderate self-discrepancy theory's predictions.
Participants (n = 112) completed measures of self-discrepancies and emotions (dejection, agitation, Positive Affect, and Negative Affect). Self-focused
attention was manipulated with a large mirror. When self-awareness was low, self-discrepancies had weak, non-significant relations to emotion. When
self-awareness was high, however, self-discrepancies strongly predicted emotional experience. These effects were general-ideal and ought
discrepancies affected emotions because of their substantial shared variance, not their unique variance. Self-Discrepancy theory thus was not
supported in this experiment, as in other recent research with the theory (e. g. Tangney et al., 1998; Ozgul et al., 2003), but the results imply selfawareness levels should be considered in self-discrepancy research.
9. Self-Alienation: Losing Confidence in One's Self as the Basis for One's Judgments
Steve Shirk (University of Georgia)
To be successful in performing behaviors they do not want to perform, individuals have to ignore or discount their genuine feelings and motivations.
To maintain a diet, for example, individuals need to discount their desire for ice cream. Although this discounting can facilitate self-regulation, it can
also lead individuals to ignore their true feelings as a guide for their subsequent behavior. We tried to manipulate this self-discounting directly. We
hooked participants to a fake physiological recording machine and told them the machine would detect their brain activation as they evaluated pairs of
pictures. The activation ostensibly reflected their true feelings. Some participants were told their brain activation matched their overt evaluations 70%
of the time, whereas others were told the activation and evaluations matched 90% of the time. Thus, the 70% participants should be more likely than
the 90% participants to see their feelings as uninformative. If so, then the former should be less likely than the latter to use their self in subsequent
judgments and behavior. Consistent with this hypothesis, participants given the 70% feedback displayed a smaller difference between their liking for
ingroup and outgroup members than participants given the 90% feedback. The former also performed more poorly on a Stroop task. These results
suggest that factors that render one’s genuine feelings suspect can undermine performance on tasks in which the self is relevant (self-related
evaluations, self-control). The results also suggest that one’s feelings can be rendered suspect by evidence that one’s prior self-directed evaluations
have been misguided.
10. Self-Generated Attitude Change and Need for Structure
Tatiana Melnik & Christopher Leone (University of North Florida)
Given thought, attitudes toward social issues tend to polarize (see Tesser et al., 1995, for a review). Thought-induced attitude polarization may,
however, be moderated by individual differences in the need for structure (e.g., Neuberg, Judice, & West, 1997). Because evaluative consistency in
beliefs mediates thought-induced attitude polarization (e.g., Leone, 1994), attitude polarization should occur most often given a high opportunity for
thought by high need for structure persons. One-hundred twenty undergraduates indicated their initial attitudes toward several issues. Participants
were randomly assigned to think about four of these issues for either a brief or long period of thought after which they rerated their attitudes.
Participants later completed the Need for Structure Scale (Neuberg et al., 1997). Attitude polarization was scored trichotomously (see Tesser, 1978)
and summed across all four issues. A 2 (brief vs. long opportunity for thought) x 2 (low vs. high need for structure) ANOVA yielded two-way
interaction, F (1,116) = 9.43, p <.01. For high need for structure persons, attitudes were more polarized given long (M = 1.10, SD = 1.71) than brief (M
= -.52, SD = 1.88) thought. For low need for structure persons, attitudes were more depolarized given long (M = -.70, SD = 1.86) than brief (M = -.27,
SD = 1.82) thought. The moderating effect of the need for structure suggests that self-generated attitude change depends on the nature of thought
rather than the amount of thought and dovetails with previous investigations (e.g., Leone & Baldwin, 1983).
11. Ignoring Others: Do Socially Anxious People Disengage Attention from Emotional Faces?
Emily L. Maschauer, Penny R. Wilson, Christopher Burgin, Daniel M. McCord, & Paul J. Silvia (University of North Carolina at Greensboro)
Research in social psychology shows that many people experience social anxiety (Leary & Kowalski, 1995), a fear of being criticized, evaluated, and
scrutinized by other people. People high in social anxiety show many interesting biases in information processing. This poster reports two experiments
that examine a bias in how socially anxious people disengage attention from emotional faces. Undergraduates high and low in social anxiety
participated in an attention-disengagement task. An emotional face (angry, neutral, sad, or happy) appeared on a computer screen. After a brief
interval (200, 400, or 600 ms), an X appeared above, below, or to the left or right of the face. People had to indicate where the X appeared. This task
requires disengaging attention from the centrally-presented face and orienting it toward the X. Thus, problems in disengaging attention will appear as
longer response latencies. Both experiments found that socially anxious people showed a bias specific to angry faces. People low in social anxiety
disengaged attention equally quickly from angry, neutral, sad, and happy faces; people high in social anxiety took longer to pull attention away from
angry faces. These findings add to social psychology's knowledge of the social-cognitive processes that underlie fearful apprehension of others.
12. Seeing Smiles: Social Anxiety and Deficits in Recognizing Happy Faces
Daniel Beauchamp & Paul J. Silvia (University of North Carolina at Greensboro)
Recent research shows that people recognize happy faces faster than negative emotional faces, in part because of people's positively-biased beliefs
about other people. This is known as the "happy-face recognition advantage" (e.g., Leppnen & Hietanen, 2003, Emotion). If the advantage for happy
faces comes from positive, gregarious beliefs about others, then we would expect that people high in social anxiety would show deficits in recognizing
happy faces, given that they expect others to be hostile, critical, and threatening (Leary & Kowalski, 1995). Two experiments examined how people
high and low in social anxiety recognize happy, sad, and angry faces. In both experiments, people recognized happy faces significantly faster than sad
or angry faces, thus replicating past findings. This effect, however, was moderated by social anxiety. Socially anxious people showed no advantage for
happy faces, whereas non-anxious people showed a large happy-face advantage. This difference stemmed from a deficit in recognition of happy
faces, not from enhanced recognition of negative faces. Thus, socially anxious people have problems in recognizing happy faces, which are universal
signals of liking, social acceptance, and friendly intentions.
13. Self-Esteem and Maintenance of Friendships
Lauren Chaney & Christopher Leone (University of North Florida)
Relationship satisfaction is related to the use of relationship enhancing strategies such as communication (Murray et al., 2002). High self-esteem
individuals have more satisfying relationships than do than low self-esteem individuals (Baumeister, 1993). Therefore, given the connection between
relationship satisfaction and relationship enhancing maintenance strategies, high self-esteem persons should be more likely than low self-esteem
persons to use such strategies. One-hundred thirty six male and female undergraduates were classified as either high or low in self-esteem using their
responses on the Self-Esteem Scale (Rosenberg, 1965). They also completed modified measures of relationship communication (Braiker & Kelley,
1979), willingness to forgive partners (Murray et al., 2002), relationship attachment (Bartholomew & Horowitz, 1991), and inclusion of others in one’s
self-concept (Levinger & Snoek, 1972).As expected, high self-esteem persons were more likely than low self-esteem persons to communicate with, t
(134) = 1.82, p < .05, forgive, t (134) = 2.11, p < .05, and be securely attached to their friend, t (134) = 3.36, p < .01. (all ps, one-tailed). High selfesteem persons were also more likely than low self-esteem persons (albeit less reliably) to see their friend as securely attached to them, t (134) =
1.31, p < .10, and include their friend in their sense of self, t (134) = 1.51, p < .07. Relationship maintenance strategies may mediate the connection
between self-esteem and relationship satisfaction. Alternatively, relationship satisfaction may promote self-esteem and relationship maintenance
strategies. Causal modeling techniques are needed to evaluate these alternative explanations.
14. The Principle of Least Interest: How Desire for Power and Independence Undermines Relationship Satisfaction
Amy B. Brunell, Elizabeth A. Krusemark, & W. Keith Campbell (University of Georgia)
According to the principle of least interest (Waller, 1937), the partner who is less interested in the relationship has more power in the relationship.
Building on this model, we predicted that individual differences in desire for relational power and independence would be associated with less reported
interest in the relationship. Further, based on the investment model (Rusbult, 1980), we predicted that the partner who is less interested in the
relationship would consequently be less satisfied in the relationship. 95 participants completed questionnaires that assessed (a) how much they
wanted power in the relationship, (b) how much they wanted independence in the relationship, (c) which partner they perceived as being more
interested in the relationship, and (d) and satisfaction. Path analyses supported predictions: Perceiving oneself as the less interested party mediated
the association between wanting power and relational independence and relationship satisfaction. Implications suggest that wanting power and
independence in a relationship, rather than intimacy and closeness, undermine the quality of a relationship.
15. Self-presentation of Risk-Taking to Maximize Appeal as a Potential Romantic Partner
Jonathan F. Bassett & Brett J. Moss (Southeastern Louisiana University)
In the present study we examined gender differences in self-presentation regarding risk-taking in the context of being evaluated as a potential romantic
partner. Based on predictions from both Social Roles Theory and evolutionary psychology, risk-taking should be a more important factor in assessing
the mate vale of a man than of a woman (either because it signals resource acquisition potential, good genes, or both). Previous research has shown
that women value risk-taking in both potential short and long-term mates. We hypothesized that in order to maximize their appeal as a romantic
partner, men more than women would present themselves as high on risk-taking. One hundred men and 214 women enrolled in introductory
psychology classes at Southeastern Louisiana University, wrote brief self-descriptive essays and completed questionnaires assessing sensation
seeking and the appeal of risky activities in one of three randomly assigned instruction conditions: 1) no instructions, 2) self-presentation to maximize
appeal as a potential short-term romantic partner, and 3) self-presentation to maximize appeal as a potential long-term romantic partner. There was no
main effect for instruction but there was a significant gender by instruction interaction effect such that men rated risky activities as slightly more
appealing in the control condition than in the self-presentation conditions (this difference was not statistically significant), whereas women rated risky
activities as significantly more appealing in the self-presentation conditions than in the control condition. The results suggest that there may be a
discrepancy between schemas about what the opposite sex wants and actual mate selection criteria.
16. Similarity in Attitude Importance as a Determinant of Liking
Judy Pham, Hayley Kern, & Thomas Britt (Clemson University)
The idea that similarity leads to liking is so strong that this finding has been referred to as the “law of attraction.” Although prior research has
investigated the hypothesis that attitude similarity leads to liking, we could uncover no research addressing whether similarity in the strength which
individuals hold attitudes also leads to increased liking. The hypothesis tested in the present research was that manipulated similarity versus
dissimilarity in attitude importance would affect liking for a hypothetical stranger over and above similarity in the attitudes themselves. Participants
were 53 undergraduate students who were informed they were participating in a study on the determinants of first impressions, and that they would
evaluate four different individuals based on limited information. Participants were also told they would complete an attitude questionnaire that was
being developed by the researchers, and would be given feedback on their attitudes as a courtesy. The attitude questionnaire assessed the
participant’s attitude toward three issues (progress being made on the war on terrorism, legalized abortion, and the +/- grading system at Clemson),
and the importance of these attitudes to the individual. Based on the participants’ responses to the attitude questionnaire, four different attitude
questionnaires were constructed by the researcher to create the four different conditions of similarity: Low attitude similarity/no importance information
(Low AS/No), high attitude similarity/no importance information (High AS/No), high attitude similarity/low importance similarity (High AS/Low IS), and
high attitude similarity/high importance similarity (High AS/High IS). Participants rated each hypothetical stranger using a scale developed by Byrne
(1971). A oneway repeated measures ANOVA revealed a main effect of the manipulation on liking, F(3, 53) = 60.83, p < .0001. Follow-up
comparisons revealed significant differences among all four conditions. Most importantly, liking was significantly higher in the High AS/High IM
condition (M = 5.78) than in the High AS/No condition (M = 5.51), which was higher than the High AS/Low IS condition (M = 4.69). The results indicate
that manipulated similarity in attitude importance leads to differences in liking among individuals already high in attitude similarity.
17. To Know Her is to Like Her: Understanding and Satisfaction for Female Friends
Lauriann L. Hebb (University of Tennessee, Knoxville)
Research supports the commonplace expectation that understanding one’s partner is important in marriage (e.g. Laing, Phillipsen & Lee, 1966). For
example, Dymond (1954) found that higher understanding was associated with greater marital satisfaction. The present research sought to examine
this association between female friends. Participants completed a questionnaire containing the Relationship Assessment Scale (RAS; Hendrick, 1988)
and the Rokeach Value Survey (RVS; Rokeach, 1968) which was completed twice: once indicating participant’s own values and a second time as
participants thought their friends would complete it. The RVS measures rank-ordered preferences among two types of values, instrumental and
terminal. The RAS is a 7-item Likert scale that assesses relationship satisfaction. Understanding was operationalized by comparing participant’s
rankings of their friend’s values with the friend’s self-rankings. Correlational analyses revealed a positive association between relationship satisfaction
and understanding terminal values of the friend, but not for instrumental values. Additional analyses compared (a) pairs who had been friends less
than two years and (b) those who had been friends for two years or more. Results indicated a significant correlation between terminal values and
understanding only for friends who had been in the relationship for less than two years. Findings suggest that understanding friend’s terminal values is
associated with relationship satisfaction in early stages of the relationship. As the relationship continues, however, the factors underlying satisfaction
may shift to alternative relationship features.
18. A Narrative Analysis of Relationship Infidelity
Ilan Shrira, Joshua D. Foster, & W. Keith Campbell (University of Georgia)
Previous research on infidelity in romantic relationships has largely been limited to exploring the causes and consequences of the infidelity. However, it
is difficult to assess the processes and motives underlying relationship infidelities systematically, because conducting experiments on this topic is
impossible and using a diary methodology is impractical. The present study collected qualitative data on the self-reported perceptions and emotions of
partners whose relationship broke up because one partner was unfaithful. We collected narratives from undergraduates, each of whom wrote one story
about a time when they left their partner to start a new relationship, and about a time when a partner left their relationship to be with somebody else.
We then coded the narratives for the presence or absence of various features and themes. The “cheater” and “cheated upon” narratives diverged on a
number of dimensions, indicating that ex-partners experience and perceive these episodes very differently depending on which role they hold.
Cheaters were more likely than Cheated-upons to express dissatisfaction with the original relationship and mention specific problems in the
relationship leading up to the break-up. In addition, Cheaters were less likely to state that the original relationship was a serious one, and more likely to
try to justify their behaviors. More generally, Cheaters constructed stories in ways that minimized their guilt, whereas Cheated-upons tended to express
surprise and anger. Discussion focuses on how people create self-serving stories that function to give meaning and bring closure to unpleasant events.
19. Self-Monitoring, Sex-Role Stereotypes, and Romantic Betrayals
Alissa Garth & Christopher Leone (University of North Florida)
High self-monitors are more committed than low self-monitors to their interpersonal relationships (Snyder, 1987). Compared to low self-monitors, high
self-monitors should report more betrayals of their romantic partners. Perceptions of others’ betrayals should follow sex-role stereotypes (i.e., males
are more likely than females to betray romantic partners). Sex-role stereotyping might be attenuated when norms of equality are made salient (i.e.,
males and females are equally likely to betray romantic partners). One-hundred ninety four undergraduates completed the Interpersonal Behavior
Survey (Roscoe et al. 1988) and the Self-Monitoring Scale (Snyder & Gangestad, 1986). Before doing so, participants read one of two instructional
sets: males and females are equally likely to betray partners; males are more likely than females to betray romantic partners. Participants responded to
statements about romantic betrayals by a) themselves, b) typical males, and c) typical females. Compared to low self-monitors, high self-monitors
reported more betrayals by a) themselves, b) typical males, and c) typical females, all Fs > 3.95, all ps <.05. Participants saw typical males as more
likely than typical females to betray romantic partners, F (1,185) = 47.66, p < .01. This effect was attenuated by the instructional set that males and
females are equally likely to betray partners. Three findings are noteworthy. First, high and low self-monitors projected their own experiences onto the
experiences of others. Second, sex-role stereotypes involving betrayals can apparently be counteracted to some degree simply through education.
Third, self-monitoring effects and normative effects were largely independent.
20. Gender, Sex, and Rules of Friendship
Jessica Goodrich & Christopher Leone (University of North Florida)
In close relationships, females communicate more and self-disclose more than do males (Deaux & Lafrance, 1985). If these sex differences extend to
other facets of close relationships, then females should better understand and follow rules of friendships than should males. These sex differences
(females vs. males) may, however, actually be gender differences (feminine vs. masculine). These hypotheses were tested as follows. A median split
of responses to the PAQ was used to classify 38males and 86 females as masculine or feminine (Lenney, 1991). Participants indicated the extent to
which they followed friendship rules (Argyle & Henderson, 1984). Sex (male, female) and gender (masculine, feminine) were reliably but weakly
correlated, r = -.39, p <.01. Gender, F (1,120) = 8.45, p < .01, but not sex, F(1,120) = 2.55, was related to friendship rules. Rules were endorsed more
often by feminine (M = 142.56, SD = 10.73) than masculine (M = 135.43, SD = 9.04) individuals. One implication of this study is that feminine persons
follow close relationship rules more than do masculine persons – regardless of the person’s sex. In fact, gender differences were essentially
independent of sex differences (see also Bem, 1981; Siem & Spence, 1986). Moreover, gender differences were a better predictor of close relationship
behavior than were sex differences. It is suggested that researchers should examine both sex and gender differences when investigating other aspects
of close relationships as well as other types of relationships.
21. Why the Fake Smile? Gender Differences in Awareness of Non-Duchenne Smiling
Julie A. Woodzicka, Steven Martineza, Bethany Dannelly, & Meredith Elkins (Washington and Lee University)
Research indicates that when women are placed in an uncomfortable interview situation the most common nonverbal expression is non-Duchenne, or
false, smiling (Woodzicka & LaFrance, 2001). Unfortunately, this type of smiling seems to do more harm than good. Women who engaged in nonDuchenne smiling were rated as less competent and intelligent than those who did not smile (Woodzicka & LaFrance, in press). We know little about
women’s awareness of non-Duchenne smiling and what they believe will be the outcome of such smiling. The current study compares women and
men’s non-Duchenne smiling behavior and awareness of smiling in a low power situation. One hundred and one participants (49 males and 52
females) were interviewed by either a male or female. After the videotaped interview, participants were asked to recall the number of times they
smiled. They then listened to the audio portion of the interview and stopped the tape each time they thought they were smiling and were asked
questions regarding each smile. Actual participant smiling was coded using the Facial Action Coding System. As expected female participants
engaged in more non-Duchenne smiling than did male participants, regardless of interviewer sex. Female participants were also more aware of their
false, but not real, smiling than were men. Women tended to say that they were false smiling to be pleasant or to please the interviewer.
22. The Effects of Gender on Expert Power
Pete Warren, Mandy McGinty-Post, Christine McNally, & Sabina Widner (Augusta State University)
French and Raven (1958) detailed a framework of persuasive styles they called bases of social power. In particular, expert power is power derived
from the perception of an individual as being highly competent in some area. This study examines the possible relationship between an individual’s
gender and the degree of expert power they possess, as well as between expert power and the ability to change attitudes. Ninety-nine college
students (mean age = 23.2 years) were exposed to a speech endorsing a tuition change at their school. Thirty-three listened to a female voice on an
audio tape, 33 listened to a male voice, and 33 read the speech from a prepared document, with no gender-specific information included. Participants
were given questionnaires measuring their endorsement of sexist attitudes, their view of the target’s expert power and their initial and postmanipulation degree of agreement with the tuition increase. No significant difference was found between gender of speaker and expert power ratings,
even when considering gender of participant. A significant correlation (r = -.11, p < 05) was found between sexist attitudes and change of agreement of
the topic. The most significant relationship existed between the degree of the participants’ endorsement of the topic and how relevant it was to them (r
= -.33, p < 05). These results could represent a positive change in attitudes towards women in positions of authority from the more traditional view.
23. Women are Not Thick: Implicit Stereotypes Toward Obese Females
Chigosimuzo Nwoga & F. Dan Richard (University of North Florida)
This study investigates implicit stereotypes associated with gender and weight. Using a semantic priming procedure, investigators assessed how shortduration primes influenced response latencies to male and female names. Because of prevailing negative stereotypes toward women and weight, we
predicted that participants would respond faster to female names associated with negative weight-relevant primes. Additionally, participants would
respond identically to female names regardless of the weight direction (i.e., either overweight or underweight) of the primes. The participants consisted
of 38 (29 female, 8 male) upper-level college students. Each student completed 192 experimental trials. Within each trial, prime words were displayed
on a computer screen for 100 ms, followed by either a male or female name. The primary task was to indicate (using a keyboard) the sex of the name
presented while ignoring the prime word. Participant’s responses were recorded as reaction time in milleseconds. The design of the experiment was a
2 (valence of prime: positive or negative) x 2 (weight direction: overweight or underweight) x 2 (target name: male or female) within-subjects factorial
design. A 3-way interaction resulted from the analysis. Response latencies to identify female names were slower when preceded by positive
overweight primes as compared to other primes. Additionally, no such bias was observed for male target names regardless of prime direction or
valence. The direction of the implicit bias indicates that although positive and negative underweight words and negative overweight words are easily
associated with women, positive overweight words are not.
24. Man-hating Feminists? Feminists and Stereotype Threat: Attitudes Toward Men
LouAnne B. Hawkins & F. Dan Richard (University of North Florida)
Stereotype threat is an individual’s perceived risk of confirming as self-characteristic a negative stereotype of the individual’s group (Steele & Aronson,
1995). Individuals may become apprehensive when they fear they will validate a stereotype of a group to which they belong, which may cause
individuals to disengage from the domain. The purpose of this study is to examine the effects of stereotype threat on attitudes. One hundred and five
female college students were randomly assigned to a feminist prime condition or a non-prime condition. Participants completed the Attitudes Toward
Men Scale (Iazzo, 1983) and the Neosexism Scale (Tougas, Brown, Beaton, & Jolly, 1995). Participants scoring on the Neosexism Scale in the upper
third were categorized as feminist. A contrast analysis of scores on the Attitudes Toward Men Scale was conducted comparing the feminist prime,
feminist group to the remaining groups. The feminist prime, feminist group reported more favorable attitudes toward men than did the other groups,
F(1,95) = 7.48, p < .01. Highly feminist women in the feminist prime condition reported more positive attitudes toward men than did highly feminist
women in the non-primed condition as well as traditional and moderate women in either condition. Highly feminist women appeared to experience
stereotype threat and reported attitudes that were inconsistent with the man-hating feminist stereotype. Their incongruent attitudes may have been
because the feminists whose feminist stereotypes were activated may have attempted to disengage from the stereotype. These findings are consistent
with previous research in which individuals for whom a stereotype is activated disidentified with the stereotype.
POSTER SESSION II
Posters should be set up by 2:00 PM and taken down at 5:30 PM.
1. An Experience Sampling Study of the Relationship of Social Anhedonia with Social Contact, Stress, and Emotion
Leslie H. Brown1, Sarah A. Coates1, A. J. Anderson1, Inez Myin-Germeys2, Paul J. Silvia1, & Thomas R. Kwapil1
(1 University of North Carolina at Greensboro, 2 University of Maastricht)
The present study employed the experience sampling method (ESM) to explore the relationship of daily life experiences with the schizotypic trait of
social anhedonia. ESM is a daily structured diary technique in which participants are prompted at random times during the day to complete an
assessment of their current experiences. The present study examined the relationship of social contact, affect, and stress across levels of social
anhedonia in a sample of 56 college students using personal digital assistants. As hypothesized, elevated scores on the Revised Social Anhedonia
Scale (Eckblad, Chapman, Chapman, & Mishlove, 1982) were associated with increased social isolation, diminished social interest, and decreased
positive affect from social contact. Multilevel hierarchical linear modeling revealed that social contact was associated with lower levels of stress and
increased positive affect in nonanhedonic individuals, but with increased stress and reduced positive affect in highly anhedonic individuals. Social
anhedonia was associated with diminished reactivity to stress in terms of positive affect, but not negative affect. ESM appears to be a promising
method for examining the daily life experiences of schizotypic individuals.
2. Clarifying the Relationship between Social Anxiety and Eating Disorders: The Roles of Body Dissatisfaction and Internalization of Norms
Claire E. Adams1 & Beth A. Pontari2 (1Wake Forest University, 2Furman University)
Previous research has suggested that social anxiety, fear of negative evaluation, public self-consciousness, internalization of body-image norms, and
body dissatisfaction are all predictors of eating disorders. However, no research has considered all of these variables concurrently, or identified
specific characteristics that may help to explain the relationship between social anxiety and eating disorders. The current research investigated
several predictors of eating disorders simultaneously, including social anxiety and its correlates, internalization of norms, and body dissatisfaction.
Analyses reveal that although social anxiety does correlate with drive for thinness, it does not appear to be the most critical factor. Rather, the best
predictors of the drive for thinness are internalization of norms and body dissatisfaction. The previous relationship found between social anxiety and
eating disorders may be due to the correlation between social anxiety and internalization of norms. Although social anxiety is not the best predictor of
eating disorders, it may play a significant role in eating pathology for certain individuals. The present study identified characteristics that differentiate
socially anxious and non-socially anxious individuals who have a high drive for thinness. Implications for treatment are discussed.
3. Social Desirability and Psychosocial Adjustment
Laura N. May (University of South Carolina Aiken)
Social desirability reflects the tendency to present oneself favorably with respect to social norms/standards and comprises self-deceptive and
impression management dimensions (Zerbe & Paulhus, 1987). The self-deceptive component is an overly positive, unconscious self-image and
accounts for better social/emotional adjustment; whereas impression management reflects the creation of a positive social image through the rejection
of negative information and appears unrelated to psychological well-being (Paulhus, 1984; Paulhus & Reid, 1991). Thus, this study examined the
relationship between social desirability and psychosocial adjustment. One hundred and nineteen undergraduate students (78 women and 41 men)
completed a questionnaire packet including two indices of social desirability (e.g., BIDR and IRI) and two indices of adjustment (e.g., RSES and CESD) in exchange for nominal course credit. This group had a mean age of 20.0 years. BIDR results indicated a positive association between selfdeceptive enhancement and self-esteem (r = .55, p < .001) and an inverse relationship with depression (r = -.45, p < .001). BIDR impression
management was unrelated to both indices of adjustment. In contrast, IRI pattern of correlations with adjustment denoted significant relationships
among self-esteem and self-deceptive positivity (r = .26, p < .01), impression management (r = .24, p < .05), and deliberate deception (r = .33, p < .01),
and inverse associations between depression and both self-deceptive positivity (r = -.23, p < .05) and impression management (r = -.18, p < .05).
These findings call into question whether deliberate image formation attempts are truly of no consequence to self-esteem maintenance.
4. Defining Courage: What Makes an Action Courageous?
Robin Kowalski & Cindy Pury (Clemson University)
Although courage is on most short-lists of human virtues, it has received sporadic research attention (e.g., Lopez, O’Byrne, & Peterson, 2003). Despite
pioneering studies by Rachman and colleagues (e.g., Rachman, 1984), few systematic investigations have been conducted to determine emotional,
cognitive, and situational correlates of courageous action, let alone to define courage itself. Recent literature reviews (e.g., Lopez et al., 2003;
Peterson & Seligman, 2004) agree that courage itself is poorly defined by psychologists. Yet, courageous is a relatively common accolade in day-today life. How do people go about identifying an action as courageous?
To address this question, 99 male and 151 female students wrote narratives about a time in their life when they acted courageously. As part of a larger
questionnaire following this narrative, participants wrote a description of why they thought the action was courageous. Inspection of the responses
revealed 10 common reasons why people perceived an action as courageous: taking the action itself defined the behavior as courageous, the action
prevented a negative outcome, the action involved risk or danger, the action was courageous because of a personal limitation of the actor (e.g., “ I was
only 6 at the time”), the action had a positive result, the action by the participant was compared to inaction by others, the participant acted voluntarily
(“The action was courageous because it was a choice I was not obligated to make”), the action required overcoming negative emotions, or the reason
reflected a universal statement about courage (“It takes guts to do that”).
5. The Psychometrics of Need to Belong in an Older Adult Population
F. Pasko, K. Bivens, S. Widner, & D. Richardson (Augusta State University)
Need to belong (NTB), as defined by Baumeister and Leary (1995), is an intrinsic desire to create and sustain satisfying relationships. Previous
research in this area has focused on college-aged respondents. The present study tested the psychometric properties of the NTB scale in an older
adult population. One-hundred and thirty nine adults (aged 55 -90 years) completed the 13-item NTB scale, along with measures of loneliness,
depression, and affect balance, as a part of a larger study investigating predictors of well being. For this study, the 13-item scale and the revised 10item scale developed by Leary (personal correspondence, 1997) were found to be internally consistent (Cronbach alpha of .82 and .79, respectively).
NTB scores in Leary’s college-aged respondents averaged 3.5 on a 5 point scale for the 10-item scale. In the present study, means were 2.82
(SD=1.0) and 3.29 (SD=.65), respectively, for the 13 and 10-item scales. Principal component factor analysis showed loadings on four factors for the
13-item scale and two factors on the 10-item scale. As one might expect, both versions of the NTB scale were significantly and positively correlated in
this population with interaction anxiety (r = .39), loneliness (r = .35) and depression (r = .29). The 13-item NTB score was negatively correlated with
affect balance (-.25). These results are similar to Leary’s findings in a younger population (personal correspondence, 1997). Since the 13 and 10-item
scales were internally consistent for the older adult population, there may be no advantage in using the 13-item scale in an older population.
6. Self-Handicapping in Older Adults: Preemptively Using Excuses to Deal with Poor Memory Performance
Lisa A. Merrill2 & Beth A. Pontari2 (1University of Florida, 2Furman University)
Research suggests that memory loss among the American elderly is related to negative stereotypes associated with aging (e.g., Levy & Langer, 1994).
We propose that stereotypes affect memory via self-handicapping. To deal with negative expectations for memory performance, older adults may
engage in behaviors that provide an excuse for upcoming failure. To test this, two studies were conducted. Older adults took the same cognitive test.
Following Rahhal, Hasher, & Colcombe (2001), half were told the test was a memory test and half were told it was a trivia test. After a pre-test,
participants received either false negative or positive feedback, or no feedback. Because negative expectations for memory performance are so strong
for older adults, and conversely, they do not have doubts about performance on a trivia test, we hypothesized that regardless of feedback, participants
in the memory condition would self-handicap, whereas those in the trivia condition would not. In Study 1, participants chose to listen to either
performance-enhancing or performance-inhibiting music while they studied and took a second test. If participants chose to listen to the performance
inhibiting music, this would show self-handicapping (Shepperd & Arkin, 1989). The hypothesis was supported: participants self-handicapped in the
memory but not trivia conditions, and feedback had no effect. In Study 2, participants were given the opportunity to supposedly improve their
performance on the second test by doing practice problems. We expected and it was found that those in the memory condition would not practice, and
therefore withdraw effort and self-handicap, whereas those in the trivia condition would practice. Implications for the study of self and aging, and
memory decline and aging are discussed.
7. Gender Differences in Ratings of Sexist Humor
Jeff Pannell, Connor Boyle, Corey Woodall, & Millicent Abel (Western Carolina University)
This study focused on gender differences in funniness and likeability ratings of sexist humor. We hypothesized significant differences in these ratings
between men and women when rating hostile jokes targeting the opposite sex. The sample consisted of 77 participants (49 women, 28 men), primarily
first-year students. After signing a consent form, the participants completed a demographic form, and then rated 6 male-targeted jokes and 6 femaletargeted jokes embedded within 12 neutral jokes. The jokes were rated on funniness and likeability using a 0-10 point Likert scale. The results
supported the hypotheses. The female-targeted jokes were rated significantly funnier and more likeable by the men than the women; the male-targeted
jokes were rated significantly funnier and more likeable by the women than the men. Furthermore, women rated the male-targeted jokes funnier and
more likeable than the female-targeted jokes and men rated the female-targeted jokes funnier and more likeable than the male-targeted jokes. No
significant differences between men and women were found on ratings of the neutral jokes. These results suggest that both men and women find
sexist humor that is hostile to the opposite sex appealing. Changing gender roles may explain differences found in this study to older studies finding
the both men and women rated female-targeted jokes funnier than male-targeted jokes, and yet another study finding only women rating male-targeted
jokes funnier with men rating both similarly. However, sexist humor may continue to promote gender stereotypes regardless of societal changes.
8. Dynamics of Profanity: Social Influences and Usage
Amy Scheck & Robin Kowalski (Clemson University)
In spite of its prevalence in language, profanity is an under-researched topic in social psychology. Profanity is considered “one of the oldest forms of
spoken language” (Patrick, 1901, p. 118). However, many questions remain unanswered about this construct. Who uses profanity? What are the
effects of repeated exposure to profanity? Do people who do and do not use profanity differ from one another? Does exposure to profanity increase an
individual’s likelihood of using it? The purpose of the present study was to provide answers to some of these questions. We believed that the results
would show profanity to be a powerful tool of social influence. Forty one male and 44 female students participated. Each participant completed an
extensive survey addressing the use of and exposure to profanity. After completing a demographic measure, participants described their last
encounter with profanity and answered questions about this experience. They also answered questions related to their frequency of use of profanity,
the influence of family and friends on their use of profanity, and their attitudes toward profanity. All questions were answered using 12-point scales. 2
(condition: use/do not use profanity) x 2 (sex: male/female) ANOVAS conducted on the dependent variables revealed no differences between men
and women in relation to the use of profanity in either formal or informal settings, ps > .05. However, females were more offended by the use of
profanity than males, F(1, 83) = 6.41, p < .05. A multitude of significant main effects of condition were obtained. For example, people who did not use
profanity were more religious and compassionate than those who did, ps < .05. Nonusers of profanity were also less likely to be exposed to the use of
profanity by friends and family members, and, when exposed, less likely to be influenced to use the same type of language in their own interactions, ps
< .05. Given the paucity of research on profanity, these results shed light on a common social phenomenon. Understanding who is more likely to use
profanity and the influence of other people on the use of profanity highlights the use of language as a tool of social influence.
9. Aggression and Gender Roles
Holly R Barnhart & Deborah South Richardson (Augusta State University)
A masculine gender role has been connected with higher levels of direct aggression (Archer, Holloway, McLoughlin, 1995). Further, Walker,
Richardson, and Green (2000) explored both direct and indirect aggression in relation to gender roles in an older adult population. Although, intuitively
it would seem that indirect aggression would be related to a feminine rather than masculine gender role, they found masculinity to be positively
correlated with indirect aggression, whereas femininity was negatively correlated with direct aggression. To examine the connection between gender
role and aggression, particularly indirect aggression, in a younger population, the Richardson Conflict Response Questionnaire (RCRQ) and the Bem
Sex Role Inventory was administered to 113 participants (34 males, 79 females) at a small southern university. The RCRQ instructed participants to
answer questions in relation to how they would usually act when having a conflict or disagreement. Based on the previous research, it was
hypothesized that direct and indirect aggression would be positively related to masculinity, whereas direct aggression would be negatively related to
femininity. Contrary to the hypothesis, masculinity was not correlated with indirect or direct aggression. However, consistent with the hypothesis,
femininity was negatively correlated with direct aggression (r = -.218, p<.05). As discussed by Walker, Richardson, and Green this finding may be
connected with social desirability to the extent that using or reporting direct aggression may be perceived as particularly negative to maintaining close
relationships, a component of femininity. No significant differences were found based on participant gender for either direct or indirect aggression.
10. Non-Direct Aggression in the Workplace
Sarah R. Daniel, Heather S. Ferguson, & Deborah S. Richardson (Augusta State University)
Aggression is defined as “any behavior directed toward the goal of harming another living being who is motivated to avoid such harm (Baron and
Richardson, 1994, p. 7).” Aggressing toward another individual can be accomplished through either direct or indirect means. Direct aggression
involves openly harming another person through a face to face encounter, while indirect aggression involves circuitously attacking another individual
via someone or something else. The Richardson Conflict Response Questionnaire (RCRQ) successfully measures these constructs of direct and
indirect aggression (Richardson & Green, 1996). Buss (1961), however, has defined a third dimension of aggression, a passive type in which the
aggressor prevents another person from achieving a goal via the absence of activity. The present study attempts to measure passive aggression
further delineating it from direct and indirect aggression. Answering within the context of the workplace, participants completed the RCRQ and eleven
additional passive-aggressive items. Analysis of passive-aggressive items yielded an internal consistency of .85. Significantly more people engaged
in non-direct aggression (i.e., passive or indirect) than direct aggression within the context of the workplace (F (1, 94) =178, p<.01). In conclusion,
making the distinction between indirect and passive aggression within the context of the workplace may not be possible; their covert natures make
them less likely to produce negative consequences.
11. Ambient Darkness Moderates Negative Affect In Response to Immigrant Outgroups
Dana C. Leighton1, Karen Devries2, Rosemarie Ong2, & Mark Schaller2 (1Tri-County Technical College, 2University of British Columbia)
Humans have developed adaptive behaviors to cope with threats to personal and collective safety. One such behavior is increased vigilance in
situations that may connote danger. Individual differences, such as chronic Belief in a Dangerous World (BDW), moderate personal responses to
threatening situations. Two threatening situations were used as potential cues for threat: exposure to immigrant-relevant information, and ambient
darkness. It was expected that exposure to the doubly-threatening situation of immigrant information in the dark should result in more negative affect
and also reduced cognitive complexity, especially for higher BDW individuals as their ability to cope with dangerous world threats is challenged. Using
a sample which included Canadians of both native-born and immigrant background, it was found that neither darkness nor immigrant outgroup threat
alone affected cognitive complexity. The immigrant outgroup condition resulted in more negative affect, especially in combination with ambient
darkness. BDW and Personal Need for Structure are shown to be moderators in cognitive complexity changes when participants are under threat. As
we face a more globally integrated future, with complex sets of costs and benefits of global integration, the issues of individual responses to immigrant
outgroup threat will become more critical. It is important to know how our responses are moderated by our individual differences in danger beliefs and
needs for structure. The awareness of our propensity to make automatic attributions, and their costs and benefits, will allow us to make better
decisions about important issues like immigration policy.
12. Variation in “Promiscuous Female” Stereotype Application and Nature of Application Domain: Influences on Sexual Harassment
Judgments after Exposure to “Jerry Springer”
Jeffrey Berlin (University of North Carolina at Wilmington)
The current study explored how exposure to a stereotypical “promiscuous female” may moderate judgments towards a subsequent sexual harassment
case. Seventy two males and 67 females from a small southeastern university were told they will be participating in two separate studies. In the “first
study” participants were exposed to a “Jerry Springer” show that focused on female guests involved in either promiscuous or nonpromiscuous
behavior. In the “second study” participants read a passage involving one of three forms of sexual harassment (i.e., verbal comment, verbal request,
or physical display). It was expected that those in the promiscuous behavior condition would make greater attributions of victim promiscuity, report
perceptions of less victim trauma, and attribute greater responsibility to the victim. It was predicted that when compared to those in the physical
display condition, those in the verbal comment and verbal request conditions would report perceptions of less victim trauma and attribute greater
responsibility to the victim. We also predicted that individual variation in the promiscuous female stereotype trait application would mediate the impact
of exposure on subsequent judgments of victim trauma and responsibility. In support of the predictions, those in the promiscuity condition perceived
less victim trauma and attributed greater responsibility to the victim than those in the nonpromiscuous condition. Additionally, those in the verbal
comment condition reported less victim trauma and attributed greater responsibility to the victim than those in the physical display and verbal request
conditions. Finally, stereotype application did mediate the effect of exposure condition on victim trauma and victim responsibility. These findings
support the contention that exposure to “easily accessible” media stimuli can have significant implications for subsequent perceptual and evaluative
operations involving sexual aggression.
13. Contact as a Predictor of Attitudes Toward Homosexuals: Attitude Function as a Moderating Variable
Chad C. Cook & Thomas W. Britt (Clemson University)
Prior research has indicated a relationship between contact with homosexuals and attitudes toward homosexuals, with greater amounts of contact
being related to more positive attitudes (Herek, 1987). In the present study we tested the hypothesis that this relationship would be stronger when an
individual’s attitude towards homosexuals is serving a knowledge function, but not when an individual’s attitude is serving a value-expressive function.
381 participants completed measures assessing attitudes toward homosexuals, amount of prior contact with homosexuals, degree the attitude served
a knowledge function, and the degree to which the attitude served a value expressive function. The primary hypothesis was tested through moderated
multiple regressions. In both regressions attitudes toward homosexuals were the outcome measure. In the first regression contact with homosexuals
and the extent to which the attitude served a knowledge function were first entered as predictors, followed by the interaction between contact and
knowledge function. The results of this regression revealed the presence of a significant interaction between contact and knowledge function, t (379) =
-2.527, p <0.05. A plot of the interaction revealed that the relationship between contact and attitudes toward homosexuals was stronger when the
attitude was serving a higher knowledge function for the individual. In the second regression contact with homosexuals and the extent to which the
attitude served a value-expressive function were first entered as predictors, followed by the interaction between contact and value-expressive function.
The results of this regression did reveal an interaction between amount of contact and value expressive function, t (379) = .639, p > 0.05. The results
provide support for the hypothesis that the increased knowledge obtained through contact with homosexuals is most likely to be related to more
favorable attitudes when the individual’s attitude is serving the function of allowing the individual an adequate understanding of these individuals.
14. Exploring the Relationship between Sexual Aggression and Sexual Victimization Among College Men
Stacy Sechrist (University of North Carolina at Greensboro)
The relationship between men’s use of sexual aggression and their adult sexual victimization history has been relatively unexplored. Childhood sexual
victimization is correlated with men’s use of sexual aggression. However, other variables related to men’s use of sexual aggression suggest that as
adults, men may be less likely to be sexually victimized by females. Yet, we cannot ignore the evidence that victimization and perpetration often cooccur, and that victimization is a strong predictor of perpetration. Thus, the proposed study explores the relationship between males’ sexual
aggression and sexual victimization. 173 college males responded to the Sexual Experiences Survey to measure use of sexual aggression and to
questions asking about sexual victimization experiences perpetrated by a female since the age of 14. Fifty-one men (29.5%) reported using sexual
aggression. Fifty men (28.9%) reported being sexually victimized. Forty-four percent of men who reported sexual aggression also reported sexual
victimization. Only 23% of men with no sexual aggression history reported sexual victimization. The majority of sexually victimized men (72%),
regardless of their sexual aggression history, reported verbal pressure as the tactic used against them. A large proportion of sexually aggressive men
compared to non-sexually aggressive men reported sexual victimization. Studies suggest that men often do not have a negative emotional response
that many women experience to sexual victimization. The lack of negative emotional consequences for victimized men and the fact that they may
believe that sexual aggression is acceptable to women, may lead men to view sexual aggression as a reciprocal act that is not very harmful.
15. Stereotypes and Perceptions of Filicide
Theresa Gonzalez & Christopher Leone (University of North Florida)
Unlike other forms of aggression, filicide is perpetrated more often by females than males and victims are more often male children than female
children (Resnick, 1969). Because patterns of filicide contradict sex-role stereotypes, participants were expected to incorrectly identify perpetrators and
victims. Incorrect identification was expected to occur more often for low sex-role egalitarian than high sex-role egalitarian participants. One-hundred
and forty-five participants (20 males, 92 females) completed an ad-hoc measure of perceptions of filicide based on findings in the literature (D’Orban,
1979; Pitt & Bale, 1995). Participants also completed the Sex-Role Egalitarianism Scale (King & King, 1993) and were classified as egalitarian or nonegalitarian attitude based on a median split of the full range of scores. As expected, participants overestimated the extent to which perpetrators were
fathers and underestimated the extent to which perpetrators were mothers. Similarly, participants overestimated the extent victims were daughters and
underestimated the extent to which sons were victims. Sex-role egalitarianism was related to perceptions of filicide, but in a complex manner.
Perceptions of filicide were consistent with sex-role stereotypes about aggression. These perceptions were inconsistent with the results of research on
filicide. One implication of these results is that filicide may be misperceived by the lay public, health care professionals, and legal system workers
(Stanton & Simpson, 2002). If so, then both the lay public (e.g., family members), health care professionals (e.g., doctors, counselors), and legal
systems workers (e.g., attorneys, social workers) need to be better educated about filicide.
16. The Impact of Style of Learning about White Privilege on Awareness, Guilt, and Action
Stephanie A. Will & Kristen J. Klaaren (Randolph-Macon College)
Previous research has shown that being aware of unearned privileges that come with being white in our society is associated with feelings of “white
guilt” among those who are white, and in turn with increased support of policies and programs designed to establish equality. The present study
investigated the effectiveness of different styles of teaching about white privilege with a 2 x 2 factorial design. White participants learned about
privilege through either a passive lecture or an active exercise. These lessons were taught with either a self-focus (e.g., being in the advantaged
group of the exercise or hearing about how whites discriminate against blacks in the lecture) or an other-focus (being in the disadvantaged group or
hearing the lecture phrased in terms of how African Americans are disadvantaged). Neither style of learning nor focus significantly impacted
participants’ awareness of privilege, feelings of white guilt or support for affirmative action policies (compensatory or equal opportunity). However, as
expected, the self-focus groups did express feeling significantly more guilt-related emotions than the other-focus groups, and this difference was
largest for those in the active conditions. Focus also influenced participants’ stated belief in discrimination in the expected direction, especially when
the measure was phrased in terms of African Americans being discriminated against rather than White Americans doing the discriminating. Previously
found patterns of awareness of privilege predicting white guilt and support for affirmative action policies were replicated, as were low (at midpoint)
overall levels of white guilt.
17. Racist White Stereotypes and Physician Race: Factors Influencing Black Health Care Related Responses
Duane Thomas & James Johnson (University of North Carolina at Wilmington)
An examination of health disparities points convincingly to the fact that Blacks are overwhelmingly more likely to be stricken with numerous varying
ailments compared to the rate at which Whites come in contact with these same maladies. In addition, Whites also are more likely to receive more
thorough health care than Blacks when they seek health care treatment. The current research assesses whether Black antiWhite bias might play a role
in health care disparities. Using the Johnson-Lecci Scale (a measure of Black antiWhite bias), participants were separated into high bias and low bias
groups. They then read scenarios that involved seeking health care from a Black, White, or race-unspecified physicians. The major results showed
that bias level did not influence perceptions for those in the Black physician condition or control conditions. However, in the White physician condition,
high bias participants reported less trust and had a higher symptom threshold (i.e., the severity of symptoms needed before seeking health care) than
low bias participants. Interestingly, there was no influence of bias level or physician race on perceptions of physician competence or the importance of
health care. Further implications include empirical evidence that Blacks, regardless of their level of bias toward Whites, process stereotype unrelated
information in similar ways but have different perceptions of Whites regarding stereotype related information.
18. Preventing Youth Smoking: the Role of Smoking Bans
Nell Valentine & Robert McMillen (Mississippi State University)
Smoking is, among other things, a socially motivated behavior. Indeed, much of the social psychological research on tobacco use highlights the social
forces surrounding smoking, particularly the social influence stemming from peer groups. With regard to peer and parental practices, numerous studies
have demonstrated a significantly increased risk of smoking for adolescents with smoking parents or peers. Although the relationship of knowledge
and social influence with youth smoking is well documented, few studies have examined the role of smoking bans. In the fall of 2002, we administered
the Youth Social Climate Survey of Tobacco Control (YSCS-TC) to a representative sample of high school students. The YSCS-TC includes social
and environmental indicators of tobacco control, as well as measures of current cigarette smoking. A two-stage sample design proportional to
enrollment size was employed, and all students in randomly selected classes were eligible for participation. Logistic regression analyses revealed
significant relationships between knowledge, social influence, and smoking bans with youth smoking when controlling for sex, grade, and race.
Subsequent models investigated the relationship of smoking bans with youth smoking while also controlling for knowledge and social influences.
These analyses demonstrated that youth who do not live in homes with smoking bans are almost three times as likely to smoke than those who do and
that youth who do not work in places with smoking bans are almost twice as likely to smoke than those who do. These findings demonstrate the
importance of smoking bans as an effective means of reducing youth smoking.
19. Organ Donors and Non-Donors: How Different Are They?
Robin M. Kowalski, Melissa Redfearn, Stephanie Kerr, Laura Vernon, Jana Spearman, Heather Brown, Heather Bixby, Melinda Keith, & Kristina Lee
(Clemson University)
Every hour an average of four individuals are added to the national waiting list for organs. Although approximately 63 people receive transplants each
day, 17 people die each day (U.S. Department of Health & Human Services, 2003). “The waiting list has been growing at three times the rate of the
available supply of organs” (Morgan & Miller, 2001, p. 12). Although most people indicate that they support organ donation, significantly fewer are
willing to sign a donor card (Kowalski et al., 2003). The present research investigated differences between organ donors and nondonors to provide
more focused interventions to encourage people to become donors. One hundred twenty undergraduates completed a survey examining their attitudes
toward organ donation, their perceptions of organ donors (e.g., how altruistic they were, how courageous they were), and their ratings of variables that
might influence a person’s decision to be a donor (e.g., recipient’s age). Analyses by donor status revealed that attitudes toward donation were the
primary factor distinguishing donors and nondonors. Relative to nondonors, registered donors placed more importance on organ donation, F(1, 118) =
14.91, p < .001, rated the strength of their attitudes as greater, F(1, 118) = 9.64, p < .001, and were more certain about their attitudes toward donation,
F(1, 118) = 6.74, p < .01. Nondonors expressed more attitudinal ambivalence toward donation, F(1, 118) = 8.88, p < .004. No significant differences
were observed between donors and nondonors in their ratings of personal altruism and compassion, ps > .05. Donors and nondonors also did not
differ in how courageous they perceived living donors, cadaveric donors, or family donors to be, ps > .05. They did, however, differ in ratings of how
religious they were, with donors rating themselves as less religious than nondonors, F(1, 116) = 9.18, p < .003. Surprisingly, donors and nondonors did
not differ in their ratings of 15 variables that might influence their decision to donate, ps < .05. These results suggest that efforts to increase rates of
donation need to focus on altering people’s attitudes toward donation itself, as opposed to targeting people with particular personality characteristics or
experiences. Future research is needed in this area to increase the number of available donors.
20. Changes in Knowledge About Organ Donation Over the Last 15 Years
Robin M. Kowalski, Jennifer Turchi, Melissa Redfearn, Stephanie Kerr, Laura Vernon, Jana Spearman, Heather Brown, Heather Bixby, Melinda Keith,
& Kristina Lee (Clemson University)
In spite of people’s support for organ donation, many have yet to sign a donor card (Kowalski et al., 2003). Given the critical shortage of transplantable
organs, understanding variables moderating this discrepancy between attitudes and behavior is important. One variable of interest is knowledge of
donation and transplantation (Horton & Horton, 1990). Indeed, media campaigns to increase the number of registered donors have focused primarily
on increasing people’s knowledge about donation. Unfortunately, these campaigns have met with limited success. To investigate the possibility that
there is a ceiling effect on knowledge, knowledge scores of 120 individuals in 2004 were compared with scores on the same 16 true/false items
obtained by Horton and Horton in 1990. Participants in 2004 also completed measures of their willingness to donate, their attitude toward donation, the
strength, certainty, and importance of their attitudes, and whether or not they were a donor. Corresponding measures were used in the 1990 study. A
comparison of the percent of correct responses in the 1990 and 2004 samples showed that people’s knowledge regarding donation has changed little
in spite of compelling media campaigns. Indeed, 2004 participants were less knowledgeable about legal and ethical issues related to donation.
Contrary to data with the 1990 sample, no significant correlations between knowledge and people’s willingness to donate, their attitude toward
donation, the strength, importance, or certainty of their attitudes, or with whether or not they were currently a donor were obtained, ps > .05. These
results suggest that, indeed, a ceiling effect for knowledge may be present and that campaigns designed to increase donation willingness through
knowledge may be misdirected.
21. Alcohol Use as a Predictor of College Satisfaction: Testing the Moderating Role of Important Reference Group Alcohol Use
Jennifer A. Turchi & Thomas W. Britt (Clemson University)
Recent reports indicate the high prevalence of alcohol use on college campuses. One possibility for these high levels of alcohol use is that students
perceive drinking alcohol as a way to have a positive college experience. We could uncover no research examining the relationship between amount
of alcohol consumed in college and college satisfaction. In the present study we examined this relationship, and predicted that the emphasis placed
on alcohol use by important groups of which the student was a member would moderate the relationship, such that there would be a positive
correlation between alcohol use and college satisfaction when students indicated that alcohol use was expected by important groups to which they
belonged. Sixty undergraduate students responded to questions assessing their alcohol use, college satisfaction, personally important groups, and the
extent to which these groups emphasized the use of alcohol. Correlations between alcohol use and college satisfaction were examined separately for
students belonging to groups where alcohol was emphasized versus not emphasized. The correlation between personal alcohol use and college
satisfaction was r = .05, ns., for participants belonging to groups that did not emphasize alcohol use, whereas the correlation was r = .19, ns., for
participants belonging to groups that did emphasize alcohol use. Although neither correlation was significant, there was a trend for the correlation
between personal alcohol use and college satisfaction to be higher when the students belonged to groups that emphasized alcohol use. Additional
analyses revealed a moderate correlation (r = .49, p < .01) between personal alcohol use and the amount of alcohol consumed by groups the
individual belonged to and deemed important. A limitation of the present research is the relatively small sample size for the analyses conducted.
Future research with a larger sample size might be more likely to detect group emphasis on alcohol as a moderator of the personal alcohol use –
college satisfaction relationship.
22. Self-Presentation to Friends and Strangers Online: Expression and Activation of the “True Self”
Laura E. Buffardi1, Gwendolyn Seidman2, & Katelyn Y. A. McKenna2 (1University of Georgia, 2New York University)
Previous research has shown individuals who tend to express their “true self” (i.e., identity-important yet usually unexpressed aspects of the self) to
strangers online are more likely to form relationships online (McKenna, Green, & Gleason, 2002). In addition, strangers communicating online have
been found to access aspects of the “true self” more easily than strangers interacting face-to-face (Bargh, McKenna, & Fitzsimmons, 2002). In the
current studies, we examined whether analogous processes take place with existing friends online. In Study 1, 416 participants completed a survey
including a “Friends Real Me” scale that assessed the extent to which they felt they have revealed central aspects of their identity to friends online that
they may not have expressed to them face-to-face. As predicted, a structural equation modeling analysis of survey responses showed that a tendency
to express the “Friends Real Me” was associated with a variety of positive communication outcomes with friends. In Study 2, 162 college students
responded via a reaction time task to adjectives including self-generated words describing their “actual selves” (aspects of their persona generally
easily expressed in social settings) and their “true selves,” following either a face-to-face or online interaction with either a friend or a stranger. In
general, the true self was more accessible (i.e., faster reaction times) following an online interaction than a face-to-face interaction. However, this twoway interaction was qualified by a significant three-way interaction between self-concept, interaction mode, and relationship type, suggesting that the
above pattern only applies to those in who communicated with a stranger.
23. Cosmetics Use: Impression Effects to Implicit Association in Memory
Juliette Richetin (Universite Blaise Pascal, Clermont-Ferrand, France)
The French CNRS National Research Group, “Cosmetics and Perfumes”, in association with industrial partners and several laboratories has studied
the effects of facial make-up on impression formation. Two series of studies on similar populations were conducted. In the first one (Huguet, Croizet, &
Richetin, 2004), students from either psychology or business and aesthetic schools viewed photographs of female targets wearing or not wearing
make-up and rated them for both physical attractiveness and several personality traits. In contrast with Graham and Jouhar’s (1981) idea of a cosmetic
stereotype, make-up was associated with attractiveness and negative personality traits. The second series of studies (Richetin, Croizet, & Huguet,
2004) tested whether the use of facial make-up elicits positive or negative implicit attitudes. Students performed several Implicit Association Tasks
(Greenwald, McGhee, & Schwartz, 1998) measuring the link between previously portrayed women wearing or not wearing make-up and pleasant
versus unpleasant words, positive versus negative personality traits, and high versus low status professions. At this implicit level, make-up was
associated with positive traits and high status professions. These two sets of apparently inconsistent results emphasize the need to avoid considering
only implicit attitudes when predicting behaviors toward women wearing make-up. Therefore, this work shows the complexity of the underlying
processes involved in the social perception of such unremarkable and commonly performed behavior as the use of cosmetics.
24. Is Trespassing Allowed? Perceptions of Privacy and Laws Governing Police Searches
Kristen J. Klaaren & Catheryne M. Proulx (Randolph-Macon College)
Two studies addressed differences between perceptions of privacy and laws governing property searches. In study one, boundary markers and type
of crime were manipulated in a 4 x 2 factorial design in which participants (students and homeowners) imagined the police searching a yard they were
pretending was their own. As expected, type of marker had a significant effect--participants perceived a closed-fence yard as the most private, an
open-fence next, a “no trespassing” sign third, and property with no boundary marker as least private—despite the law regarding these searches as
the same. Neither boundary marker nor crime type impacted participants’ likelihood to let the police on to the property without a warrant, or feelings of
invasion if the police did search the property. However, overall willingness to allow searches was quite high and corresponding feelings of invasion
were quite low. Study two removed the specification in study one that the participant him or herself was not a suspect. As expected, perceptions of
privacy based on boundary markers were similar, but overall rates of willingness to allow searches were lower and feelings of invasion were higher.
And, as expected, type of crime impacted willingness such that people were more willing to let police on their imagined property to investigate a
serious crime (murder) than a less serious crime (illegal cable operation). Implications regarding gaps between people’s expectations and laws
governing searches will be discussed.