Virgin Soil Epidemics: These occurred in the US West upon the arrival of the first
Europeans. Europeans cultivated lots of disease but had immunities, while the natives
did not. We see smallpox showing up often in various Winter Counts, as disease killed
79% of Plains horticulturalists and 45% of Plains nomads. This form of ecological
imperialism led to crises in leadership, low birth rates, low food production, and
ultimately made it more difficult for the Indians to fight back against the Europeans.
Cabeza de Vaca: early Spanish explorer. De Vaca showed how Europeans were quite
confused and disorganized at first, as he got lost in the forest, was shipwrecked, and even
set himself on fire. He didn’t know where he was, but chased myths and wealth,
showing the importance of wealth (such as gold and spices) in Spanish exploration. De
Vaca depicts the meandering process through which people learned about the West, and
emerged out of the Southwest with stories of fabled cities of gold.
Francisco Vasquez de Coronado: explored the West from 1540-1542 and searched for de
Vaca’s rumored “cities of gold.” Coronado rolled in, told natives they must pay tributes,
and send out several side expeditions. Unfortunately for him, he ended up chasing
myths but finding very little. Coronado is significant for the incredible legacy and
constant threat of violence that he brought to the Southwest, and for showing how myths
of great wealth were most often untrue.
Louisiana Purchase, 1803: Here, the US makes its first big footprint in the West. France
was preoccupied with its own affairs at this time, and Napoleon decided to sell the
enormous Louisiana territory to Jefferson for $15 million. Jefferson purchases it for
strategic and defensive purposes, and to control the Mississippi. The purchase is
indicative of the rising notion of the American dream, that every man needs to be
independent and have his own land and farm to make democracy work. This shows our
rising feeling of Manifest Destiny and lack of concern for Indians in the expansion
process. It is also important, obviously, because it gave us a crap load of land.
Lewis & Clark Expedition, 1804-1806: After the LP, Jefferson sent out this expedition of
45 men to map and explore the land. They symbolize the expansionist spirit of the
young United States, and found that there really is no Northwest Passage. Sacajawea
represented how Lewis and Clark drew upon pre-existing routes, knowledge, and kinship
networks on their trip, and is also an example of how women would become go-betweens
and power brokers during this time period. They also laid out the path for the Oregon
Trail, which is an awesome game.
Fur trade: This was the most important factor at the beginning of the 19th century.
Because of the beaver hat fad in Europe, beaver fur became crucial. This trade
transformed relations in the early US West. Europeans now had a strong motive to
involve themselves in trade with the natives, and this led to a good degree on dependency
on the Indians’ part. The British claim Puget Sound and move into the interior, laying
the groundwork for mapping and more extensive knowledge. A new caste of American
fur traders rises, and Indians become power brokers in the process, which essentially
totally remakes the West. The trade, however, was extremely violent and at times quite
insecure. Women also produced the fur, making them a key part of the business.
Zebulon Pike: He was sent on an expedition to explore the southern boundary of the
Louisiana Purchase. He moves into Colorado and drops as somewhat of a spy into
Spanish territory, and is captured in Santa Fe. However, the Spanish give him a guided
tour of the major trading city, and he ends up returning to the East. He is important
because he spurs American interest in Santa Fe and the silver trade.
Santa Fe trail: This trail was created by Becknell in the 1820’s and runs from Missouri to
Santa Fe. While most trade at the time had moved between the North and the South, this
trail allows it to be linked with the East/West trade networks. Now US and Mexican
goods can be traded, and American goods move into the Southwest. As a result of the
trail, people become more attached to the US, as it is very advantageous.
Manifest Destiny: Idea that it is the US’s destiny to expand and control. When in
conflict with Mexico, this idea plays a great role in discussions of what to do with Texas.
James Polk was also a big expansionist and proponent of Manifest Destiny, and this can
be seen in his attempts to secure California as an American territory. Manifest Destiny
can be seen symbolized in the “American Progress” painting we have seen several times
this year. Ultimately, it is important because it led to our expansion into the West and
our perhaps “unfair” treatment of native peoples. It also leads to the typical
characteristic of rugged individualism that we see as defining Western identity.
Mexican-American War, 1846-1848: Shows US’s expansionist desires and gives us the
California territory. Polk wants California and seeks it through negotiations, but makes a
great stir when there is a skirmish in a “disputed area.” Polk sees this as a great excuse to
declare war and does so. The war is quick, and the US takes Mexico City in 1848. The
war is ended with the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. This war gives us California,
Nevada, Utah, most of Arizona, and parts of a few other Southwestern states. It also
gives us all the gold that lies therein.
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, 1848: Ends the Mexican-American War. We obtain the
large territory above, which is a crushing blow for young Mexico. It is a big victory for
the US, however, as it allows us to expand and establish our identity, thus providing a
great sense of pride. The treaty also entitles us to all the gold in the area, allowing for
the subsequent gold rushes of the mid-1800’s. Ironically, the acquisition of this territory
almost tears the US apart, as it exacerbates tensions between the North and South in the
decade before the Civil War.
Marcus & Narcissa Whitman: Individual settlers picked up their stuff and moved West
beginning in the 1830’s. This couple shows us America’s new frontier tradition. They
established an outpost in Oregon, which became a crucial waystation for immigrants.
The Whitman letters show how relations with natives were sometimes helpful but often
upsetting, and ultimately downright fatal. The Whitmans are a perfect example of the
missionary spirit, the effects of the new overland trails, and the contentious relation
between settlers and natives.
Overland trails: The establishment of these trails allowed more settlers to move west.
Trails like the Oregon allow regular Americans to start over in the West, and help create
the “covered wagon” image. Again, recall the “American Progress” painting.
Missionaries move in to convert Indians, and trade is rapidly expanded.
Donner-Reed Party: This party’s experience shows the lack of information and
experience in early trail life. When Hastings recommends a shortcut, the Donner-Reed
party rushes across the Sierras right before winter and suffers under the immense forces
of nature. 87 begin the trip, but only 46 survive, after resorting to cannibalizing the
dead. This shows how the amount of money you have drastically alters your experience
of the trails, and shows how promotion of trails was a very lucrative yet corrupt business.
By the 1850’s, however, there was better information, infrastructure, and forts to assist
these people in their travels across the trails.
Brigham Young: As the new prophet of the Church of Mormon, Young declares that his
people need to flee to Utah to escape the US and practice their religion (and polygamy)
freely. This leads to the creation of the Mormon trail and the strong Mormon presence
that is felt in Utah to this day.
California Gold Rush: After the discovery of gold at Sutter’s Mill, the California Gold
Rush flourishes between 1848 and 1855. In the end, approximately 300,000 “fortyniners” came into California in search of gold. The gold rush shows the prevalence of
the American dream, the idea that you can make it rich simply by working hard. It also
results in rapid urbanization, as people move westward and suppliers find themselves in
an extremely lucrative position. As miners are predominantly male, men have to take on
roles that had once been reserved for women. The mining towns are also quite diverse,
leading to racial conflicts and even violence. Private property claims are eventually
established, and most of the wealth ends up going to corporate industrial mining, instead
of the miners themselves.
Bleeding Kansas: Violence before the Civil War that sought to determine whether Kansas
would enter the Union as a free or slave state. Several constitutions are shot down,
including the pro-slavery “LeCompton Constitution,” and eventually the abolitionists
triumphed. This period shows the conflict between the president and Congress and
between the North and South, and illustrates how critical the US West was in the
formation of the United States.
First Transcontinental Railroad: Linked East and West, thereby providing for the
movement of goods, information, and capital. The railroad also established a sense of
pride, but also led to the rise of unethical business practices and bankruptcies that would
eventually promote the Great Depression. Mile-by-mile, the government paid for the
planned Union Pacific and Central Pacific routes, and construction couldn’t begin until
1863 (as it couldn’t happen until the beginning of the Civil War). The railroads sold
bonds to foreigners, which proved to be terrible investments but provided loads of capital
regardless. Because a sense of a “great race” developed, the workers did a terrible job
building the rails. The Golden Spike was finally driven to mark the railroad’s
completion on May 10, 1869.
Homestead Act, 1862: The goal of this act was to get small farmers onto land. The
government would now give all claim-filers 160 acres. This amount was later increased,
as 160 acres was not quite enough. This shows the power of the American dream and
the importance that each family be independent, as hundreds of thousands of farms were
created as a result. However, a large amount of the land ended up going to corporations
instead of individual farmers. The act shows how the Fed controls a large majority of
land in the West, also.
Sand Creek Massacre, 1864: Incident where Chicago militia attacked Cheyenne and
Arapaho Indians. After the gold rush, thousands of settlers moved into Colorado,
resulting in an increasing number of skirmishes with natives. Here, Black Kettle and the
Cheyennes were willing to negotiate, but Colonel Chivington and others didn’t value
Indian lives, and engaged in a massacre of men, women, and children. The massacre
results in a major wave of violence, showing the government’s need to intervene (but
limited power to do so). Significant inconsistencies can be seen between the accounts of
Chivington and John Smith. The event also resulted in hundreds of Indians changing
their perspective and joining the militant Dog Soldiers.
Battle of Little Big Horn, 1876: Everyone knows that Custer died at Little Big Horn.
But what this book presupposes is…maybe he didn’t. Although the event has a big
cultural resonance in America, it doesn’t appear in any winter counts. The Americans
were defeated, but the battle helped justify our expansion and destroy any feelings of
guilt we may have had. It is also recognized as the beginning of the end for natives.
Reservation System: After numerous attempts to deal with Indians (ie the Indian
Removal Act of 1830 and the Treaty of Fort Laramie), the government finally decided in
the 1850’s that it would be best to adopt a reservation system. Therein, Indians were
given land by the federal government, and expected to stay on this small bit of territory.
This represented a shift from sovereignty to wardship. It also illustrates our desire to
push Indians out of the way and the dual nature of American racial thinking: we thought
we had some “white right” and that the Indians were inferior, but also felt that Indians
needed protection and a civilizing push from the government. As expected, however,
reservations weren’t a perfect system and resulted in poverty, alienation, disease, loss of
autonomy, etc.
Trail Drives: After the decimation of the buffalo population, ranchers turned to another
animal: cattle. These cattle were very sturdy and disease-resistant, and provided a good
amount of meat and juicy, juicy steak. Cowboys would move cattle north from Texas in
these cattle drives, and could bring several thousand cattle up with only 10-15 men and a
hundred horses. In the end, trail drives led to the development of new towns as holding
stations and shipping points, the commoditization of cows (beef), a new manner of
looking at the landscape, and the rise of cowboy wage labor and their wild image.
Open Range Ranching: Under the open range model (wherein lots of cows were held on
ranches), huge operations were made possible, resulting in an enormous expansion of
ranching. This led to fatter and meatier cows, lots of investment, and a new source of
employment for somewhat unskilled laborers. Unfortunately, it also led to boom and
bust cycles and, subsequently, dependence on the market and natural resources. Because
bigger ranches did better, we saw a rise in wage labor and an increasing alienation from
the means of production. Eventually, open range ranching resulted in the move for
consolidation and numerous violent conflicts between opposing groups of ranchers. It
also had moral consequences, as people felt separated from nature and no longer equated
beef with the cow from which it came.
Newlands Reclamation Act, 1902: The government believed that the development of
individual farms was the best way to use land, but also began to recognize that a good
deal of western land was naturally too arid. Because private companies were shoddy and
the land was often controlled by corporations, and because several water sources crossed
state lines, federal-run irrigation was seen as necessary. This act took all the money
accrued from land sales and put it into a fund for irrigation projects. This was essentially
a huge subsidy for farmers, although farmers often paid for it themselves. This is a good
example of federal intervention in the development of the West, but also sets the stage for
the rise of big corporate agriculture (and all the migrant/wage labor that goes with it).
Reclamation Service: Established under the act described above, the service studied
avenues for potential water development projects in the Western states with federal land.
While it engaged it approximately 30 projects in the five years after its inception, these
projects were dodged with problems. It wasn’t until the Boulder Canyon (Hoover Dam)
project, however, that the service really took off successfully. Its heyday occurred
during the depression and the 35 years after WWII. The service is significant in western
history because it provided water and employment and allowed more Americans to live
the American dream.
Dual Labor System: Under the dual labor system, there was a strong degree of
occupational segregation (often along racial lines, or between skilled and unskilled
workers). Along with this system, naturally, came the dual wage system, where different
wages were given for the same type of work. This resulted in large tensions between
races and classes and was a significant factor leading up to the populist movement.
Populists: The rise of capitalism effectively crushed the idea that western land and
resources would lead to the prosperity of every single American. After several precursor
groups, like the Grange and Farmers Alliance, the Populist Party arose to unite both
farmers and miners in the 1890’s. They demanded the nationalization of railroads,
expansion of the Homestead program, government-run warehouses, and flexible
monetary policy. They gained a fair amount of power, which peaked when William
Jennings Bryan became the presidential candidate of rural America. Soon after, however,
fusion with the Democrats led to the party’s dismantling. The Populists are a good
example of labor tensions that arose from the rise of capitalism, and also illustrate the
difference between the agenda of miners/farmers and that of other laborers.
Chinese Exclusion Act, 1882: As white laborers suffered under America’s new
capitalism, they came to scapegoat the Chinese, who were seen as a cruel work force that
was taking the jobs of “real” Americans. Dennis Kearney and the Workingman’s party
organized these laborers, and successfully lobbied for the Chinese Exclusion Act. This
was the first time that the government banned immigration on a large scale, as Chinese
were denied the right to vote and be citizens, among other things. The Chinese
population did decline as a result, although they kept coming in as illegals. This act is
significant because it shows the strength of racial tension and emphasizes the plight of
wage laborers that causes it. It also shows the increased political power of westerners,
who were able to lobby for the creation of this act
Western Federation of Miners (WFM): Like other industries, miners saw themselves as
being treated unfairly by their big-business employers. They formed small, town-based
unions at which, which were eventually consolidated into the WFM. This was the most
powerful mining union, and successfully secured the 8-hour workday in 1910. However,
the union caused a strong reaction from mining companies, who employed strikebreakers and Pinkerton detectives to bring them down. In 1911 the WFM became more
conservative and joined the AFL. The WFM is significant because it shows the class
conflict inherent in the rise of corporate mining, and also illustrates the workers will to
organize and fight.
International Workers of the World (IWW) – Wobblies: This workers organization was
very inclusive and accepted lots of industries and peoples. It had a radical edge, as it
was quite militant and class-conscious. It felt that employers were the enemy, and that
there was a need to organize workers on the move. The reaction to the Wobblies was
quite severe. In the Bisbee Deportation of 1917, ~3000 of them were marched out of
town, as their strike was seen as traitorous. Western states also made it criminal to join
such groups, and the attack on the Wobblie union in Centralia, Washington make it clear
that the tide of opinion had turned against the group.
Frontier: The idea of the frontier is a much-debated one among historians of the US West.
In 1890, the US Census claimed that there was no longer a “frontier,” by definition.
Turner believed that the frontier did once “just exist,” and that Americans interpreted it
so as to give it cultural, political, and social meaning. The frontier was associated with
masculinity and individuality, and Turner saw it as the source of American
exceptionalism and as the driving force in Western history. He believed that the land
itself had the power to shape things, and created the unique western experience.
Currently, historians debate over whether studies of the frontier should focus on process
or place.
Frederick Jackson Turner: This Wisconsin-born mega-historian celebrated expansion
with his essay “The Importance of the Frontier in American History” for the Columbian
World Exhibition. He believed that the move westward explains the development of
America. Other important points of his major essay are outlined above.
William F. “Buffalo Bill” Cody: Born in Iowa, Bill had many wild experiences in his life
as a wrangler, gold rusher, Civil War scout, and bison hunter. After the production of
cheap novels depicting his life, he became somewhat of a caricature of himself and had a
big career in show-biz. He built of actual Western events in his show and blended reality
and myth. Buffalo Bill is most important for his role in shaping notions of the “mythic
west.”
Domesticity: The notion that the home and public world are separate, and that women are
associated in the home and are more virtuous. Women relied on this to become the first
reformers, believing that they are perfect for bringing morality into the broader world.
They did this through anti-prostitution, anti-polygamy, temperance, and suffrage
movements. In dealing with Indians, they feel it is their domestic, motherly
responsibility to care for them, as they would with their children. They first saw fit to
“improve” them with Christianity. Domesticity is important because it gives women a
defining characteristic at this time, a characteristic that they use to go on a moral crusade
against hookers, booze, and other “evils” of the modern world.
Carrie Nation: This crazy bitch was a key figure in the temperance movement. She
would walk into saloons and smash them up with a hatchet, and was arrested a whopping
30 times. She is a great example of a strong woman reformer at the time (although she
doesn’t seem too domestic). Actions of determined women like her led to the
establishment of prohibition, and the subsequent rise of the smuggling industry.
Richard Henry Pratt and the Carlisle Indian School: In the wave of reform, whites
believed that it was their job to “civilize” natives. Pratt saw children as the future, and
realized education was the key. He founded the Carlisle Indian school, where young
Indians were isolated, spoke English, were severely punished, and dressed up in honky
clothing. Pratt’s belief was that you had to “kill the Indian to save the man.” However,
as was typical, the reformer’s best attempts often backfired. For example, Navajo boys
were not taught about raising sheep, so when they returned to their reservation they had
absolutely no practical skills. Pratt and his school show this tension between reformer’s
intensions and actual outcomes, and they also illustrate the weakened Indian nation and
another white attempt to deal with it.
Ghost Dance: Wovoka promised that a messiah would come to save the Indians, and
requested that they perform this dance. The Ghost Dance grew to become a pan-Indian
movement, but reformers saw it as dangerous (or at least in opposition to their desires to
turn the Indians Christian) and denounced it as a violent movement. This is an example
of a movement that could have unified the Indians, but was suppressed to prevent them
from rising to power again. It also shows how reformers often had relatively malevolent
and misinformed intentions, and was also a crucial aspect of the massacre at Wounded
Knee.
Wounded Knee, 1890: After Sitting Bull was killed, his followers attempted to leave the
reservation, resulting in the army being called in. Although the Indians were peacefully
disarmed, a shot rang out and the troops opened fire. 153 Lakota were killed, showing
the violence that typically surrounded such interactions. The massacre is seen as the last
military engagement of military people, thus indicating their final fall.
Dawes Act, 1887: Reformers also pushed to make Indians individual farmers, which is
consistent with their desire to achieve the American dream. The Dawes Act divided up
land and distributed it as private property. However, 160 acres was not enough, and the
land often couldn’t sustain a farm. Eventually, the act resulted in the transfer of Indian
lands to whites. Again, we see the inconsistency between reformer’s wishes and results,
and see the Indians screwed over yet again.
John Wesley Powell:
Gifford Pinchot:
John Muir:
Yellowstone National Park Act, 1872:
Owens Valley:
Hoovervilles: President Hoover’s immediate response to the Great Depression was that
the government should help a little, but should not directly intervene with economics.
Private institutions, on the other hand, should provide charity. Hoovervilles were crappy
shanty-towns, and were seen as signs of poverty and blame. They showed that Hoover’s
hands-off policy was inadequate, a belief reflected in Grapes of Wrath. In these towns,
you saw families bear the brunt of the economic decline, as spending was restricted,
women joined the workforce, and traditional family structure broke down.
Mexican Repatriation: In the early 1900’s, thousands of Mexicans moved into the United
States to work. When whites couldn’t find jobs during the Depression, they blamed
Mexicans and felt it was time for them to go home. In 1929, the US started enforcing
immigration restrictions, and were quite successful. Tactics differed, but some places
engaged in policies of Mexican Repatriation, where Mexicans were simply sent “back” to
Mexico. Ironically, many of these Mexicans had been in the US longer than the whites
who kicked them out. This shows the typical American scapegoating response and the
racial tensions that had existed for generations.
Dust Bowl: This term refers to the plains area where massive drought resulted in dust
storms and arid land. By putting land to work, wheat and new grasses were unable to
deal with drought, and was unrooted and hurt the soil. Drought made the dirt loose and
dry, leading to dust storms and extreme wind erosion. This ecological phenomenon, tied
with economic decline and the consolidation of properties, made it near impossible to
farm in places like Oklahoma, and drove people westward from the Great Plains. The
Dust Bowl shows the symbiotic relationship between farmers and the land, as farmers can
change the land, but the land can also affect them. It also causes the Okies to move west
during the depression.
“Okies”: These were poor farmer families from Oklahoma who moved west to find work
during the Depression. Family farming had been displaced by big business, so these
people went to places like California to engage in wage labor. They suffered terrible
working conditions, as depicted in Grapes of Wrath, and also fell prey to blame like the
Mexicans did. They were important because they represent a people betrayed by the
American dream, but are still ideal westerners as they are persevering, individualistic,
and willing to work to advance themselves.
John Steinbeck: Author who sought to create a national sympathy for the Okies. He
thought that more government intervention was necessary to help the downtrodden, and
claimed that their state was the result of their being betrayed by the system. He played
on the fact that Okies were white to get them more support. He claimed that the labor
system must change, because white workers won’t stand to be peons. He is important
because he assisted the Okies and took a moderately socialist standpoint during the
Depression.
Dorothea Lange: Wife of John Steinbeck. She was a photographer, and her pictures
became the dominant images of the depression. In photos like that of the migrant
mother, she depicted people beaten down by circumstance, and essentially did what
Steinbeck did but through photographs instead of literature.
Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC): One of the New Deal administrations that sought to
bring the US out of the depression. It created work for young men, and paid them a fair
wage while sending a good amount of money home, too. It was quite popular and gave
men good skill training. At the same time, it got young men out into nature and provided
a sense of masculinity for them. It employed around 2.5 million men, and was most
active in the mountain states of the West.
Works Progress Administration (WPA): The biggest and most important of the New Deal
agencies, the WPA spend over two billion dollars and employed almost ten million
people. Created by Roosevelt, it is a good example of his Keynesian perspective that a
government should go into deficit during times of economic crisis. It built bridges,
schools, channels, and more. The WPA is important because it helped redeem a nation’s
collective psychology while also providing a wholesale transformation of the West.
Boulder Dam, aka Hoover Dam: One of the largest New Deal construction projects, this
damn is situated in the Black Canyon of the Colorado river. It employed hundreds of
people, and it also established a massive lake and tons of power. The Hoover dam is the
perfect example of a public works project that transformed the western landscape, and is
now a powerful American icon.
Grand Coulee Dam: This impressive dam is a mile long and twice as high as Niagara
Falls. It crosses the Columbia River in Washington, and Henry Kaiser played a large
role in its construction. The dam also provides water and feeds into electrification.
Like the Hoover dam, it is another example of the government transforming the west
while trying to give its people jobs and drag them out of the depression.
Indian Reorganization Act, 1934: Reservations at this time were full of poverty, useless
land, and dead babies, and there was a great sense that the Bureau of Indian Affairs had
failed. This act reorganized tribal governments on reservations, but ends up being very
divisive. It reverses the Dawes Act and results in years of controversy and confusion.
However, its intension shows a rejection of assimilation and an embrace of native culture,
which is a very different perspective on Indians in America. Later on, however, Indians
did gain more power, freedom, and autonomy.
Attack on Pearl Harbor, December 7, 1941: Caused the biggest transformation of the
West since the arrival of the Europeans. Notions of empire in the Pacific were
conflicting, and the Japanese sent fighters to bomb this Hawaiian base. 12 warships and
188 aircraft are damaged, causing great shockwaves in the US public. Fears of attack and
vulnerability rapidly diminish and we see a shift to mobilization and defense. Texas and
California become huge staging areas for WWII. Troops flood into the West, and the
government asserts itself more powerfully in the West, expanding federal spending
greatly. The entire nature of the Western economy changes, as workers move in and
take new jobs, ships are built, atomic bombs are researched and produced, etc.
Wholesale change. Yeah.
Henry J. Kaiser: Entrepreneur who started as a road contractor and moved into shipbuilding and several other industries. At one point, his shipyards made 27% of all ships
during WWII. He sped up the building process, pumping out ships in a matter of days.
He also transformed the work process by using big-time division of labor and employing
many people. Kaiser is crucial in this period because he fueled the war machine while
also providing high-paying jobs that helped pull the US out of the depression.
Emergency Farm Labor Program (Bracero Program): When many farm workers moved
into the war industry, someone had to take their place. Starting in the early 1940’s, the
US embarks on its biggest guest worker program ever, using Mexico as a source for
agricultural laborers. In the Bracero Program, the Mexican government would recruit
workers and negotiate for standard conditions. The US would then provide
transportation into the country and guarantee good treatment. These people did good
and necessary work, but their arrival came with a large influx of illegal immigrants, too.
This program shows the changing (and somewhat hypocritical) stages of government
policy, as Mexicans had been repatriated a mere decade earlier.
Sleepy Lagoon, 1942: In the 1940’s, tens of thousands of Mexicans had flooded into Los
Angeles. After a Mexican gang fight in the summer of 1942, one man is found dead, and
the police use this as an excuse to target the entire Mexican American community.
Around 300 are arrested, and the entire 38th Street gang is put on trial for murder. 12 are
sent to jail, although the entire Mexican American community is essentially put on trial.
This shows the racism of the LAPD that arguably exists to this day and shows the racial
tensions that arose due to the influx of minorities.
Zoot Suit Riots, 1943: Another example of racial clashes. Tension between white
soldiers and Mexican Americans climax as soldiers begin targeting zoot suit-sporting
teenagers. For 10 days in June, soldiers search out and attack zoot suiters. Their focus
was upon beating and downright humiliation.
Nisei: Term used to designate American-born children born to parents who came over
from Japan. Monica Sone, author of “Nisei Daughter,” was Nisei, for example. These
people had a difficult time wrestling with different aspects of their identity during WWII.
This ties in with themes of American identity, race, blame, etc.
Japanese Internment: Following Pearl Harbor, Japanese in the US were seen as a possible
threat, so the government thought it best to put Japanese Americans in camps where they
could do no harm. The Japanese generally didn’t resist, and were put in 10 different
relocation camps. They were in bleak and desolate areas, and became much like Indian
reservations. Japanese Internment represents a period of American history that most of
us would rather forget, but shows the racial blame that has been a recurring theme
throughout our study of the West.
Executive Order 9066: Issued on February 19, 1942, Roosevelt exercised his war powers
and used this order to institute Japanese American internment. It affected around
120,000, two-thirds of whom were US citizens. The order caused many to question the
values of America, as they seemed to have no rights as citizens. Interestingly, as the
order referred to those with “Foreign Enemy Ancestry,” several thousand Americans with
German and Italian ancestry were also interned.
Restrictive Covenants: Although the African and Mexican American populations were
surging in places like L.A., restrictive covenants kept them out of many white
communities. For example, 80-90% of Bay Area housing was off-limits to blacks.
Although Shelley vs. Kramer eventually outlawed these in 1947, they persisted and again
showed the racial tensions and discrimination present in the new West.
National Interstate and Defense Highway Act, 1956: After WWII there was a large fear
of economic decline, but the government surprisingly just decided to keep on spending.
This act created an immense interstate highway system, and resulted in a huge flow of
federal funds into western states. Because of easier access to the West, you saw a huge
boom in western automobile tourism. The highways also connected supply and training
bases, which was seen as crucial in the Cold War era.
Hanford, Washington: Town where plutonium was mined that becomes the United
States’ single largest producer. The town represents the boom psychology that existed in
the during the early stages of the Cold War build-up, and used nuclear energy as its
source of identity. It even had “Nuclear Frontier Days,” and “the Bombers” were their
high school team.
Nevada Test Site: Area of 1500 acres northwest of Las Vegas which is the most-bombed
site in the US. In the span of four decades, 928 atomic tests were performed, all of
which were atmospheric in the first ten years. The area became incredibly contaminated,
and caused an unprecedented number of cancer cases. Loyal and patriotic Mormons
were screwed over, as depicted in “The Clan of One-Breasted Women.” Although the
government said everything would be fine, egregious amounts of radioactive material
were found there in 1997. This ID is important because it shows the costs of military
build-up, and gives us the sense that often it is the most loyal Americans who eventually
get screwed.
Frontierland: At Disneyland, built in the 1950’s, Walt Disney created images of the West
that reflected values he saw as important. Frontierland presented an older version of the
West, rugged and unchanged and drawing on Turnerian ideas. It also drew upon
countless stereotypes and sanitized them. During the Cold War era, it embraced the idea
of necessary violence and the good guy with the gun. It also presented an idea about
what Indian authenticity was, as natives paddled visitors around in canoes. However,
these Indians would take you around burning cabins, thus presenting a glaringly
inconsistent juxtaposition.
The Sun Belt: This area of the country, essentially stretching across the entire South, saw
a huge rise in population after WWII thanks to better weather, federal spending, and the
invention of air-conditioning. Decentralization boomed and led to the rise of the modern
American suburb. These suburbs were seen as sites of consumption, and helped confirm
one’s middle class status. Now more Americans could own homes, too. However, a
sentiment of suburban dystopia arose thanks to confining gender roles, unfulfilled
dreams, conformity, etc. Racial segregation still persisted in the Sun Belt, too.
Watts Riot, 1965: This riot occurred in the majority-black Watts area of South Central
Los Angeles. It was the first major race riot of the 1960’s and lasted for five days as
thousands were arrested and white businesses were targeted. This riot signals the
amount of racial tension and discontent in such neighborhoods, and also provides fuel for
the new Right.
Sagebrush Rebellion: The government continued to own the majority of the land in the
West, and used it to provide massive subsidies to the large agribusinesses. In this
rebellion, inter-mountain states opposed the government’s control of all this land. The
movement becomes very popular; even Reagan declared himself a sagebrush rebel in
1981. State officials saw it as a way of opening up lands for private development, which
would lead to a huge economic boom.
Cesar Chavez: Famous Chicano labor organizer. After leading the CSO in the 1950’s,
he organized “La Huelga” in September, 1965 for Delano grape workers. This struggle
lasted 5 years, but was ultimately successful. Chavez saw his strikes as a moral struggle
built on religious principles. He also employed boycotts, hunger strikes, and other
methods of non-violence to get what he wanted. Caesar saw that growers controlled the
government process, and stood up for the under-privileged Chicano worker.
Chicano Movement: During Vietnam, people believed that the war was causing a cutback
in social spending, and the Mexican American community initially rose up against it.
They united around a Chicano identity, as Mexican Americans without Anglo views of
themselves. The Chicano movement as a whole consisted of movements for labor,
cultural nationalism, and land. These movements had some material impact but more
importantly led to the creation of a new sense of self.
Ronald Reagan: The New Right emerged in the West in the 1960’s, drawing on rugged
individualism and defending values against undeserving deviants and special interest
groups. They tended to tap into the white middle-class suburbs and the rich. Ronald
Reagan was an ex-actor who became governor of California in 1966, criticizing the Watts
Riot and the free speech movement with Goldwater-like rhetoric to validate the New
Right. In 1980 he became President, and his legacy is well known and I’d really rather
not get into it.