History of Foreign Exchange
Foreign Exchange Transactions
Foreign Exchange Quotations
Interpreting Foreign Exchange Quotations
Forward, Futures, and Options Markets
Origins and Development
Money Market Interest Rates Among Countries
Standardizing Global Bank Regulations
Syndicated Loans
Impact of the Credit Crisis on the Credit Market
Eurobond Market
Development of Other Bond Markets
Issuance of Stock in Foreign Markets
Issuance of Foreign Stock in the U.S.
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2  International Financial Markets
This chapter identifies and discusses the various international financial markets used by MNCs. These markets facilitate day-to-day operations of MNCs, including foreign exchange transactions, investing in foreign markets, and borrowing in foreign markets.
1. Why do international financial markets exist?
2. How do banks serve international financial markets?
3. Which international financial markets are most important to a firm that consistently needs short-term funds? What about a firm that needs long-term funds?
POINT: Yes. When a U.S. firm issues stock to the public for the first time in an initial public offering
(IPO), it is naturally concerned about whether it can place all of its shares at a reasonable price. It will be able to issue its stock at a higher price by attracting more investors. It will increase its demand by spreading the stock across countries. The higher the price at which it can issue stock, the lower is its cost of using equity capital. It can also establish a global name by spreading stock across countries.
COUNTER-POINT: No. If a U.S. firm spreads its stock across different countries at the time of the IPO, there will be less publicly-traded stock in the U.S. Thus, it will not have as much liquidity in the secondary market. Investors desire stocks that they can easily sell in the secondary market, which means that they require that the stocks have liquidity. To the extent that a firm reduces its liquidity in the U.S. by spreading its stock across countries, it may not attract sufficient U.S. demand for the stock in the U.S.
Thus, its efforts to create global name recognition may reduce its name recognition in the U.S.
WHO IS CORRECT? Use the Internet to learn more about this issue. Which argument do you support?
Offer your own opinion on this issue.
ANSWER: The key is that students recognize the tradeoff involved. A firm that engages in a relatively small IPO will have limited liquidity even when all of the stock is issued in the U.S. Thus, it should not consider issuing stock internationally. However, firms with larger stock offerings may be in a position to issue a portion of their shares outside the U.S. They should not spread the stocks across several countries, but perhaps should target one or two countries where they conduct substantial business. They want to ensure sufficient liquidity in each of the foreign countries where they sell shares.
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International Financial Markets  3
1. Motives for Investing in Foreign Money Markets. Explain why an MNC may invest funds in a financial market outside its own country.
ANSWER: The MNC may be able to earn a higher interest rate on funds invested in a financial market outside of its own country. In addition, the exchange rate of the currency involved may be expected to appreciate.
2. Motives for Providing Credit in Foreign Markets. Explain why some financial institutions prefer to provide credit in financial markets outside their own country.
ANSWER: Financial institutions may believe that they can earn a higher return by providing credit in foreign financial markets if interest rate levels are higher and if the economic conditions are strong so that the risk of default on credit provided is low. The institutions may also want to diversity their credit so that they are not too exposed to the economic conditions in any single country.
3. Exchange Rate Effects on Investing.
Explain how the appreciation of the Australian dollar against the U.S. dollar would affect the return to a U.S. firm that invested in an Australian money market security.
ANSWER: If the Australian dollar appreciates over the investment period, this implies that the U.S. firm purchased the Australian dollars to make its investment at a lower exchange rate than the rate at which it will convert A$ to U.S. dollars when the investment period is over. Thus, it benefits from the appreciation. Its return will be higher as a result of this appreciation.
4. Exchange Rate Effects on Borrowing. Explain how the appreciation of the Japanese yen against the U.S. dollar would affect the return to a U.S. firm that borrowed Japanese yen and used the proceeds for a U.S. project.
ANSWER: If the Japanese yen appreciates over the borrowing period, this implies that the U.S. firm converted yen to U.S. dollars at a lower exchange rate than the rate at which it paid for yen at the time it would repay the loan. Thus, it is adversely affected by the appreciation. Its cost of borrowing will be higher as a result of this appreciation.
5. Bank Services. List some of the important characteristics of bank foreign exchange services that
MNCs should consider.
ANSWER: The important characteristics are (1) competitiveness of the quote, (2) the firm’s relationship with the bank, (3) speed of execution, (4) advice about current market conditions, and
(5) forecasting advice.
6. Bid/ask Spread.
Utah Bank’s bid price for Canadian dollars is $.7938 and its ask price is $.81.
What is the bid/ask percentage spread?
ANSWER: ($.81 – $.7938)/$.81 = .02 or 2%
7. Bid/ask Spread. Compute the bid/ask percentage spread for Mexican peso retail transactions in which the ask rate is $.11 and the bid rate is $.10.
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4  International Financial Markets
ANSWER: [($.11 – $.10)/$.11] = .091, or 9.1%.
8 . Forward Contract.
The Wolfpack Corporation is a U.S. exporter that invoices its exports to the
United Kingdom in British pounds. If it expects that the pound will appreciate against the dollar in the future, should it hedge its exports with a forward contract? Explain.
ANSWER: The forward contract can hedge future receivables or payables in foreign currencies to insulate the firm against exchange rate risk. Yet, in this case, the Wolfpack Corporation should not hedge because it would benefit from appreciation of the pound when it converts the pounds to dollars.
9. Euro. Explain the foreign exchange situation for countries that use the euro when they engage in international trade among themselves.
ANSWER: There is no foreign exchange. Euros are used as the medium of exchange.
10. Indirect Exchange Rate.
If the direct exchange rate of the euro is worth $1.25, what is the indirect rate of the euro? That is, what is the value of a dollar in euros?
ANSWER: 1/1.25 = .8 euros.
11. Cross Exchange Rate.
Assume Poland’s currency (the zloty) is worth $.17 and the Japanese yen is worth $.008. What is the cross rate of the zloty with respect to yen? That is, how many yen equal a zloty?
ANSWER: $.17/$.008 = 21.25
1 zloty = 21.25 yen
12. Syndicated Loans. Explain how syndicated loans are used in international markets.
ANSWER: A large MNC may want to obtain a large loan that no single bank wants to accommodate by itself. Thus, a bank may create a syndicate whereby several other banks also participate in the loan.
13. Loan Rates.
Explain the process used by banks in the Eurocredit market to determine the rate to charge on loans.
ANSWER: Banks set the loan rate based on the prevailing LIBOR, and allow the loan rate to float
(change every 6 months) in accordance with changes in LIBOR.
14. International Markets. What is the function of the international money market? Briefly describe the reasons for the development and growth of the European money market. Explain how the international money, credit, and bond markets differ from one another.
ANSWER: The function of the international money market is to efficiently facilitate the flow of international funds from firms or governments with excess funds to those in need of funds.
Growth of the European money market was largely due to (1) regulations in the U.S. that limited foreign lending by U.S. banks; and (2) regulated ceilings placed on interest rates of dollar deposits in
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International Financial Markets  5 the U.S. that encouraged deposits to be placed in the Eurocurrency market where ceilings were nonexistent.
The international money market focuses on short-term deposits and loans, while the international credit market is used to tap medium-term loans, and the international bond market is used to obtain long-term funds (by issuing long-term bonds).
15. Evolution of Floating Rates. Briefly describe the historical developments that led to floating exchange rates as of 1973.
ANSWER: Country governments had difficulty in maintaining fixed exchange rates. In 1971, the bands were widened. Yet, the difficulty of controlling exchange rates even within these wider bands continued. As of 1973, the bands were eliminated so that rates could respond to market forces without limits (although governments still did intervene periodically).
16. International Diversification. Explain how the Asian crisis would have affected the returns to a
U.S. firm investing in the Asian stock markets as a means of international diversification. [See the chapter appendix.]
ANSWER: The returns to the U.S. firm would have been reduced substantially as a result of the
Asian crisis because of both declines in the Asian stock markets and because of currency depreciation. For example, the Indonesian stock market declined by about 27% from June 1997 to
June 1998. Furthermore, the Indonesian rupiah declined again the U.S. dollar by 84%.
17.
Eurocredit Loans.
a.
With regard to Eurocredit loans, who are the borrowers?
b. Why would a bank desire to participate in syndicated Eurocredit loans?
c. What is LIBOR and how is it used in the Eurocredit market?
ANSWER: a. Large corporations and some government agencies commonly request Eurocredit loans. b. With a Eurocredit loan, no single bank would be totally exposed to the risk that the borrower may fail to repay the loan. The risk is spread among all lending banks within the syndicate. c. LIBOR (London interbank offer rate) is the rate of interest at which banks in Europe lend to each other. It is used as a base from which loan rates on other loans are determined in the Eurocredit market.
18. Foreign Exchange. You just came back from Canada, where the Canadian dollar was worth $.70.
You still have C$200 from your trip and could exchange them for dollars at the airport, but the airport foreign exchange desk will only buy them for $.60. Next week, you will be going to Mexico and will need pesos. The airport foreign exchange desk will sell you pesos for $.10 per peso. You met a tourist at the airport who is from Mexico and is on his way to Canada. He is willing to buy your C$200 for 1,300 pesos. Should you accept the offer or cash the Canadian dollars in at the airport? Explain.
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6  International Financial Markets
ANSWER: Exchange with the tourist. If you exchange the C$ for pesos at the foreign exchange desk, the cross-rate is $.60/$10 = 6. Thus, the C$200 would be exchanged for 1,200 pesos (computed as
200 × 6). If you exchange Canadian dollars for pesos with the tourist, you will receive 1,300 pesos.
19. Foreign Stock Markets. Explain why firms may issue stock in foreign markets. Why might U.S. firms issue more stock in Europe since the conversion to the euro in 1999?
ANSWER: Firms may issue stock in foreign markets when they are concerned that their home market may be unable to absorb the entire issue. In addition, these firms may have foreign currency inflows in the foreign country that can be used to pay dividends on foreign-issued stock. They may also desire to enhance their global image. Since the euro can be used in several countries, firms may need a large amount of euros if they are expanding across Europe.
20. Financing With Stock.
Chapman Co. is a privately owned MNC in the U.S. that plans to engage in an initial public offering (IPO) of stock, so that it can finance its international expansion. At the present time, world stock market conditions are very weak but are expected to improve. The U.S. market tends to be weak in periods when the other stock markets around the world are weak. A financial manager of Chapman Co. recommends that it wait until the world stock markets recover before it issues stock. Another manager believes that Chapman Co. could issue its stock now even if the price would be low, since its stock price should rise later once world stock markets recover. Who is correct? Explain.
ANSWER: Chapman Co. should wait until the world stock markets recover, and the U.S. stock market conditions have improved. If it issues stock now when the price is low, it would receive a lower dollar amount of proceeds to use for its expansion. If its stock price rises later, it would not benefit because it already sold the shares (only its shareholders who originally purchased the shares would benefit if the stock price increased).
21. Effects of September 11. Why do you think the terrorist attack on the U.S. was expected to cause a decline in U.S. interest rates? Given the expectations for a potential decline in U.S. interest rates and stock prices, how were capital flows between the U.S. and other countries likely affected?
ANSWER: The attack was expected to cause a weaker economy, which would result in lower U.S. interest rates. Given the lower interest rates, and the weak stock prices, the amount of funds invested by foreign investors in U.S. securities would be reduced.
22. International Financial Markets.
Recently, Wal-Mart established two retail outlets in the city of
Shanzen, China, which has a population of 3.7 million. These outlets are massive and contain products purchased locally as well as imports. As Wal-Mart generates earnings beyond what it needs in Shanzen, it may remit those earnings back to the United States. Wal-Mart is likely to build additional outlets in Shanzen or in other Chinese cities in the future. a. Explain how the Wal-Mart outlets in China would use the spot market in foreign exchange.
ANSWER: The Wal-Mart stores in China need other currencies to buy products from other countries, and must convert the Chinese currency (yuan) into the other currencies in the spot market
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International Financial Markets  7 to purchase these products. They also could use the spot market to convert excess earnings denominated in yuan into dollars, which would be remitted to the U.S. parent. b. Explain how Wal-Mart might utilize the international money market when it is establishing other
Wal-Mart stores in Asia.
ANSWER: Wal-Mart may need to maintain some deposits in the Eurocurrency market that can be used (when needed) to support the growth of Wal-Mart stores in various foreign markets. When some Wal-Mart stores in foreign markets need funds, they borrow from banks in the Eurocurrency market. Thus, the Eurocurrency market serves as a deposit or lending source for Wal-Mart and other
MNCs on a short-term basis. c. Explain how Wal-Mart could use the international bond market to finance the establishment of new outlets in foreign markets.
ANSWER: Wal-Mart could issue bonds in the Eurobond market to generate funds needed to establish new outlets. The bonds may be denominated in the currency that is needed; then, once the stores are established, some of the cash flows generated by those stores could be used to pay interest on the bonds.
23.
Interest Rates. Why do interest rates vary among countries? Why are interest rates normally similar for those European countries that use the euro as their currency? Offer a reason why the government interest rate of one country could be slightly higher than the government interest rate of another country, even though the euro is the currency used in both countries.
ANSWER: Interest rates in each country are based on the supply of funds and demand for funds for a given currency. However, the supply and demand conditions for the euro are dictated by all participating countries in aggregate, and do not vary among participating countries. Yet, the government interest rate in one country that uses the euro could be slightly higher than others that use the euro if it is subject to default risk. The higher interest rate would reflect a risk premium.
24. Interpreting Exchange Rate Quotations . Today you notice the following exchange rate quotations:
*$1 is equal to 3.00 Argentine pesos
*1 Argentine peso = 0.50 Canadian dollars
* You need to purchase 100,000 Canadian dollars with U.S. dollars. How many U.S. dollars will you need for your purchase?
ANSWER: Value of AP = $.333
Value of C$ in AP = 2
Value of C$ in $ = $.666
So you need $66,666 to purchase C$100,000.
25. Pricing ADRs. Today, the stock price of Genevo Company (based in Switzerland) is priced at
SF80 per share. The spot rate of the Swiss franc (SF) is $.70. During the next year, you expect that the stock price of Genevo Company will decline by 3%. You also expect that the Swiss franc will depreciate against the U.S. dollar by 8% during the next year. You own American depository receipts
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8  International Financial Markets
(ADRs) that represent Genevo stock. Each share that you own represents one share of the stock traded on the Swiss stock exchange. What is the estimated value of the ADR per share in one year?
ANSWER: Expected value of Swiss stock in 1 year = SF80 x (1 - .03) = SF77.6.
Expected value of Swiss franc in 1 year = $.70 (1 - .08) = $.644
Expected value of ADR in 1 year = SF77.6 x ($.644 per franc) = $49.97.
26. Explaining Variation in Bid-Ask Spreads. Go to the currency converter at http://finance.yahoo.com/currency and determine the bid-ask spread for the euro. Then determine the bid-ask spread for a currency in a less developed country. Why do you think is the main reason for the difference in the bid-ask spreads between these two currencies?
ANSWER: The percentage spread is estimated as:
(Ask quote – Bid quote)/Ask quote.
A key part of this question is to ensure that students can obtain bid and ask quotations.
Thus, foreign exchange dealers are more willing to hold an inventory in the euro, because they do more business in euros. Also, there is less chance for a major loss from holding an inventory of euros versus currencies of less developed countries because there the euro is less likely to experience an abrupt decline in the value of the euro than to a decline in the value of a currency in a less developed country.
27. Direct Versus Indirect Exchange Rates. Assume that during this semester, the euro appreciated against the dollar. Did the direct exchange rate of the euro increase or decrease? Did the indirect exchange rate of the euro increase or decrease?
ANSWER: The indirect exchange rate is the reciprocal of the direct exchange rate. Thus, as the euro appreciates against the U.S. dollar over time, this means that the direct rate of the euro increases while the indirect rate of the euro decreases.
28. Transparency and Stock Trading Activity. Explain the relationship between transparency of firms and investor participation (or trading activity) among stock markets. Based on this relationship, how can governments of countries increase the amount of trading activity (and therefore liquidity) of their stock markets?
ANSWER: In general, stock market participation and trading activity is higher in countries where managers of firms are encouraged to make decisions that serve shareholder interests, and where there is greater transparency so that investors can more easily monitor firms. An active stock market requires the trust of the local investors.
29. How Governance Affects Stock Market Liquidity. Identify some of the key factors that can allow for stronger governance and therefore increase participation and trading activity in a stock market.
ANSWER: Governance is stronger when:
*shareholders have voting power,
*shareholders are allowed to sue companies that do not serve their interests,
*security laws are strong,
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International Financial Markets  9
*corruption is low, and
*financial disclosure requirements for companies are high.
30. International Impact of the Credit Crisis. Explain how the international integration of financial markets caused the credit crisis to spread across many countries.
ANSWER: Since financial markets are integrated, they allow institutional investors in one country to invest in securities in other countries. Thus, the problems in the U.S. and U.K. financial markets spread to other markets. Some financial institutions based in Asia and Europe countries were common purchasers of subprime mortgages that were originated in the U.S. and U.K. Furthermore, the weakness of the U.S. and other European economies caused a reduction in their demand for imports in other countries.
31. Issuing Stock in Foreign Markets. Bloomington Co. is a large U.S.-based MNC with large subsidiaries in Germany. It has issued stock in Germany in order to establish its business. It could have issued stock in the U.S. and then used the proceeds in order to support the growth in Europe.
What is a possible advantage of issuing the stock in Germany to finance German operations? Also, why might the German investors prefer to purchase the stock that was issued in Germany rather than purchase the stock of Bloomington on a U.S. stock exchange?
ANSWER: By issuing stock in Germany, Bloomington can use the euro proceeds to support its growth in Germany. It can establish a secondary market in Germany by listing the stock on an exchange there, and this will make it easier for it to engage in a secondary stock offering there in the future. If German investors can purchase the stock and sell the stock on a German stock exchange, they will not have to worry about exchange rate risk.
1.
One point of concern for you is that there is a tradeoff between the higher interest rates in Thailand and the delayed conversion of baht into dollars. Explain what this means.
ANSWER: If the net baht-denominated cash flows are converted into dollars today, Blades is not subject to any future depreciation of the baht that would result in less dollar cash flows.
2.
If the net baht received from the Thailand operation are invested in Thailand, how will U.S. operations be affected? (Assume that Blades is currently paying 10 percent on dollars borrowed, and needs more financing for its firm.)
ANSWER: If the cash flows generated in Thailand are all used to support U.S. operations, then
Blades will have to borrow additional funds in the U.S. (or the international money market) at an interest rate of 10 percent. For example, if the baht will depreciate by 10 percent over the next year, the Thai investment will render a yield of roughly 5 percent, while the company pays 10 percent interest on funds borrowed in the U.S. Since the funds could have been converted into dollars immediately and used in the U.S., the baht should probably be converted into dollars today to forgo the additional (expected) interest expenses that would be incurred from this action.
3.
Construct a spreadsheet that compares the cash flows resulting from two plans. Under the first plan, net baht-denominated cash flows (received today) will be invested in Thailand at 15 percent for a
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10  International Financial Markets one-year period, after which the baht will be converted to dollars. The expected spot rate for the baht in one year is about $0.022 (Ben Holt’s plan). Under the second plan, net baht-denominated cash flows are converted to dollars immediately and invested in the U.S. for one year at 8 percent. For this question, assume that all baht-denominated cash flows are due today. Does Holt’s plan seem superior in terms of dollar cash flows available after one year? Compare the choice of investing the funds versus using the funds to provide needed financing to the firm.
ANSWER: (See spreadsheet attached.) If Blades can borrow funds at an interest rate below 8 percent, it should invest the excess funds generated in Thailand at 8 percent and borrow funds at the lower interest rate. If, however, Blades can borrow funds at an interest rate above 8 percent (as is currently the case with an interest rate of 10 percent), Blades should use the excess funds generated in Thailand to support its operations rather than borrowing.
Calculation of baht-denominated revenue:
Price per pair of "Speedos"
× Pairs of "Speedos"
= Baht-denominated revenue
Calculation of baht-denominated cost of goods sold:
Cost of goods sold per pair of "Speedos"
× Pairs of "Speedos"
= Baht-denominated expenses
Calculation of dollar receipts due to conversion of baht into dollars:
Net baht-denominated cash flows now (826,920,000 – 206,712,000)
Interest earned on baht over a one-year period (15%)
Baht to be converted in one year
× Expected spot rate of baht in one year
= Expected dollar receipts in one year
Calculation of baht-denominated revenue:
Price per pair of "Speedos"
× Pairs of "Speedos"
= Baht-denominated revenue
Calculation of baht-denominated cost of goods sold:
Cost of goods sold per pair of "Speedos"
× Pairs of "Speedos"
= Baht-denominated expenses
Calculation of dollar receipts due to conversion of baht into dollars:
Net baht-denominated cash flows to be converted (826,920,000 – 206,712,000)
× Spot rate of baht now
2,871
72,000
206,712,000
620,208,000
$ 0.024
4,594
180,000
826,920,000
2,871
72,000
206,712,000
620,208,000
93,031,200
713,239,200
$ 0.022
$ 15,691,262
4,594
180,000
826,920,000
= Dollar receipts now $ 14,884,992
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International Financial Markets  11
Interest earned on dollars over a one-year period (8%) 1,190,799
= Dollar receipts in one year $ 16,075,791
Plan 1 $ 15,691,262
Plan 2
Dollar difference
16,075,791
$ (384,529)
Thus, the cash flow generated in one year by Plan 1 exceed those generated
$384,529. Therefore, Ben Holt's plan should not be implemented. by Plan 2 by approximately
a. Citicorp could facilitate the following financial transactions:
1. Foreign Exchange. Citicorp could provide whatever currency was needed by Gretz in the foreign exchange market.
2.
Short-Term Financing. Citicorp could provide short-term loans to Gretz in whatever currency is desired through the international money market. (Citicorp would be the creditor here.) Citicorp could also accept short-term deposits in various currencies through the international money market.
3. Medium-Term Financing. Citicorp could provide medium-term loans to Gretz in whatever currency is desired through the international credit market (Citicorp would be the creditor here).
4. Long-Term Financing. Citicorp could place bonds issued by Gretz in the international bond market (Citicorp would normally serve as an intermediary rather than the creditor here). Citicorp could also help Gretz place newly issued stock in foreign stock markets. b. Normally, a subsidiary would prefer to borrow the currency that it uses to invoice its products. Thus, the future cash inflows would be in the same currency that is needed to pay back the loan, and exchange rate risk is avoided. Since the British subsidiary probably invoices its products in British pounds, this is the logical currency to borrow.
However, the high interest rate on the British pound may cause the subsidiary to consider borrowing a different currency. Yet, it must recognize the risk involved. The currency borrowed would initially be converted to pounds. At a future point in time, pounds will be converted to that currency to repay the loan. Thus, the risk is that the currency borrowed appreciates against the franc over the period of concern. This concept is covered in detail in later chapters. At this point, the objective is to simply make the student aware of the possible alternatives and the risk-return tradeoff involved.
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12  International Financial Markets
1. Explain how the Sports Exports Company could utilize the spot market to facilitate the exchange of currencies. Be specific.
ANSWER: The Sports Exports Company would have an account with a commercial bank. As it receives payment in pounds each month, it would deposit the check at a bank that provides foreign exchange services. Each month, the bank would cash the check, and then convert the British pounds received into dollars for the Sports Exports Company at the prevailing spot rate.
2. Explain how the Sports Exports Company is exposed to exchange rate risk and how it could use the forward market to hedge this risk.
ANSWER: The Sports Exports Company is exposed to exchange rate risk, because the value of the
British pound will change over time. If the pound depreciates over time, the payment in pounds will convert to fewer dollars.
The Sports Exports Company could engage in a forward contract in which it would sell pounds forward in exchange for dollars. For example, if it anticipated receiving a payment in pounds 30 days from now, it could negotiate a forward contract in which it would sell pounds in exchange for dollars at a specific forward rate. This would lock in the forward rate at which the pounds would be converted into dollars in 30 days, thereby removing any concern that the pound could depreciate against the dollar over that 30-day period. This hedges exchange rate risk over the short run, but does not effectively hedge against exchange rate risk over the long run.
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