Greco-Roman world Glossary
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A
abnocto - (Latin) to spend the night away, to stay out all night.
Academia - the Academy; the school in Athens where Plato instructed students.
accursus - (Latin) a place to run, a concourse.
Achaean Confederacy - a group of ancient Greek city-states who united against
invading forces; the union fought against the attacking Persians in the Peloponnesian
War, later fought in the Social Wars,and eventually was defeated by Rome in 146
BCE, ending Greek independence and making the territory a province of Rome.
Achaeans (Achaians) - the aboriginal inhabitants of the Peloponnese who were
conquered by the Dorians.
Achilles (Achilleus, Akhilleus) (see entry (2) in Perseus Encyclopedia) - son of
Peleus and Thetis, a goddess; bathed in the river Styx as a baby by his mother,
Achilles' heel did not enter the water that makes whomever bathes in it invulnerable;
one myth says that an arrow shot by Paris hit Achilles in his vulnerable heel and
caused his death; his parents put him in the care of the Centaur Chiron as a young
boy; originally known as Ligyron, Chiron named him Achilles and fed him nothing
but the entrails of wild boars and lions to give him strength, bear's marrow, and honey
to make him gentle and persuasive; Achilles is the hero of the Iliad; he was the best
friend of Patroclus who was killed by Hektor with the aid of Apollo during the Trojan
War; Achilles killed Hektor and held funeral games in honor of Patroclus; to learn
more about Achilles following the Trojan War, see The Aftermath: Post Iliad through
the Odyssey.
Troy
Netshot: Homer's Iliad
The Aftermath: Post Iliad through the Odyssey
acontist - javelin thrower; for an example, see Boston 01.8033.
acroama - an event that entertains people or the person who entertains, such as
actors,singers and musicians.
Actaeon - son of Aristaeus and Autonoe; he was walking in the forest one day when
he mistakenly came upon Artemis bathing in a pond; Artemis became furious at this
discovery and turned Actaeon into a stag, who later was hunted down and ripped apart
by his own dogs; this image of Actaeon being torn apart by his dogs was a famous
one and appears on Classical artwork.
Actium - a promontory on the northwestern coast of Greece off which Octavian
defeated Antony and Cleopatra in a naval battle (31 BCE) (Aeneid).
ad hoc - (Latin) literally “for this”; something that is ad hoc was created for a specific
purpose; a committee can be ad hoc if it was implemented to deal with a specific
purpose.
ad hominem - (Latin) literally “to the man”; if two political candidates come together
to debate an issue, but one of the two attacks his opponent instead of discussing the
problem, that is described as an ad hominem attack; the focus of the speech would be
on the person rather than on the topic at hand.
ad interim - (Latin) literally “in the meantime”.
ad libitum - (Latin) literally “as it agreeable”; the word “libitum” is tied to the verb
libet, meaning “it is pleasing”; this phrase in English is abbreviated to ad.lib., which
means improvised dialogue.
ad nauseam - (Latin) literally “to nausea”; an action repeated ad nauseam is repeated
so often that it figuratively makes one nauseated.
addo - (Latin) To add.
Adeimantus - brother of Plato and one of the interlocutors in the Republic.
Netshot: Plato's Republic
adfabilis - (Latin) easy to talk to, enjoyable.
adfinitas - (Latin) the relationship created by marriage between people and families.
adno - (Latin) to swim to or towards something.
adolesco - (Latin) To grow up; a young man was called an adolescens, and the word
has been adapted to the English word “adolescent”.
Adonis - in Greek mythology, a beautiful mortal born from a tree; Adonis' mother,
Smyrna, tricked her father into an incestuous relationship; her father found out about
the deception and pursued his daughter wielding a sword; when she knew she would
be overtaken and killed, Smyrna prayed to the gods to make her invisible; the gods
responded by turning her into the tree called smyrna (myrrh); ten months later Adonis
was born from the tree; one myth tells of Adonis, on account of his beauty, being
secreting away by Aphrodite who placed him in a chest which she entrusted to
Persephone; overcome by Adonis' beauty, Persephone would not return him to
Aphrodite; as the result of the impasse, Zeus judged that Adonis should spend one
third of the year with Aphrodite, one third with Persephone, and one third by himself;
another myth tells that Zeus selected the Muse Calliope to judge of the dispute;
Calliope decided that Adonis should spend half a year with Persephone and half with
Aphrodite; displeased with this decision, Aphrodite sought her revenge by inciting the
Thracian women against Calliope's son, Orpheus, whom they tore him limb from limb
while entranced.
adoptio - (Latin) the adoption of a child; in Rome, men with no male heirs would
adopt relatives to inherit their wealth; for example, Augustus adopted Tiberius as his
heir, and in turn Tiberius adopted Germanicus to be his heir.
advocatus - (Latin) lawyer; the term advocatus is related to the Latin verb advoco,
which means in legal terminology to act as a legal councilor or witness.
aedile - Roman magistrate who oversaw public games, public places, and the grain
supply in the city of Rome; there were four (4) aediles, two (2) were plebian and two
(2), called curule aediles, were from either the plebian or the patrician orders.
Roman Cursus Honorum
Aeger - (Latin) sick, can be used to refer to either physical or mental illnesses.
Aegina - a Greek island in the Saronic gulf; formerly called Oenone, the island is
difficult to access because it is surrounded by sunken rocks and reefs; Aegina, located
in a key maritime position, traded closely with mainland Greece and other islands;
repopulated in the 10th century BCE by people from mainland Greece, Aegina was
independent of mainland ties by the 8th century BCE; Aegina was known for its
pottery and bronze and its trade reached from Egypt to Spain; the island adopted
coinage before any other Greek city state; Aegina's relationship with Athens was poor
during the 6th century although it was an ally to the Greeks at the Battle of Salamis;
in 487 BCE, Aegina began its first war with Athens that lasted until 483; Athens and
Aegina fought again in 458 BCE and the Athenians expelled the inhabitants of Aegina
and established an Athenian "cleruchy"; having lost its power and many of its
inhabitants, Aegina came under Macedonian control and passed to the rule of
Pergamon in 210 BCE.
aegis - a sash or breastplate worn by Athena or Zeus that may bear the head of a
gorgon; the aegis was made from goat skin and its name is derived from the ancient
Greek word for goat, aisk; for an example, see RISD 25.079 (image).
Aegisthus - son of Thyestes and his daughter Pelopia; Hhe was the consort of
Clytemnestra while Agamemnon fought at Troy; he murdered - or conspired to
murder with Clytemnestra - Agamemnon after his return home from the Trojan War.
Aegreo - (Latin) to be sick.
Aeneas (see entry (2) in Perseus Encyclopedia) - son of Anchises and Venus
(Aphrodite); hero of the Vergil's Aeneid; Aeneas survives the Trojan War and is first
presented in Homer's Iliad; he is a descendant of the Trojan royal house; Aeneas
estabishes the city of Rome according to mythology; Vergil highlights the lineage link
from Aeneas and Venus to Julius Caesar and Augustus; this family link is critical for
Vergil to establish because it solidifies the claim to power of the Augustan house;
Aeneas embodies Stoic philosophy except for a few critical moments in the epic when
furor (fury) takes over; one example of furor taking Aeneas over is the final moment
of the epic in which Aeneas kills Turnus; Aeneas as a hero is strong at times and weak
at others; ruled by pietas and his devotion to his familial, religious and political duties,
Aeneas admirably puts others' needs before his own; however, this tendency can also
hurt others, as when he puts the future city he will found ahead of Dido, who kills
herself when he abandons her.
Troy 12: Warriors' Fate
Bullfinch's Mythology: Adventures of Æneas
Encyclopedia Mythica: Aeneas
Longman's Classical Mythology online: Map of the voyage of Aeneas
Aeolus - (1) son of Hellen and Orseis; king of Magnesia in Thessaly; his descendants
became known as the Aeolians; (2) son of Arne and Poseidon, grandson of Aeolus
(1); king of the Aeolian Islands; Aeolus is often identified with the Lord of the Winds;
in Homer's Odyssey, Odysseus visits king Aeolus on the Aeolian Islands (Isole Eolie
in Italian), located in the Tyrrhenian Sea, northeast of Sicily; Aeolus gives Odysseus
an oxhide bottle containing all the winds except the one that will blow him to Ithaca;
while he sleeps, Odysseus' men open the bottle releasing the winds; Odysseus returns
to Aeolus and tells him what has occurred; Aeolus sends Odysseus away thinking him
the victim of a divine wrath. [Contributor: Eugene Biancheri.]
aer - (Latin) air, weather.
Aeschylus (see entry (4) in Perseus Encyclopedia) - earliest of the three great
Athenian tragedians; author of the Oresteia.
Netshot: Introduction to Greek Tragedy
Aesop - ancient Greek author of fables; born ca. 620 BCE in Thrace and died ca. 560
BCE; Aesop's name is attributed to a collection of moral animal fables passed down
through oral tradition; Aesop's animal fables and fables like them are a common part
of Indo-European culture; the author Babrius rewrote Aesop's fables in Greek verse
and the Roman author Phaedrus rewrote them in Latin verse around the first century
of the common era.
The Fables of Phaedrus
Aesop's Fables
Aesop's Fables: Traditional and Modern (illustrated)
aestas - (Latin) summer; the opposite season from hiems, or winter.
aeternus - (Latin) eternal, without end.
affinitas - (Latin) relationships created when a marriage takes place between members
of the two families.
Africa - the ancient Roman province of Africa was established in 146 BCE after the
destruction of Carthage in the Punic Wars; in 46 BCE, Julius Caesar fought in Africa
against Juba of Numidia and added his territory to the Roman empire; Caesar called
the newly won territory Africa Nova as opposed to Africa Vetus; Africa was
especially useful to Rome because of its agricultural production.
Agamemnon - leader of Greek (Achaean) expedition against Troy; brother of
Menelaus and member of the House of Atreus; a seer told Agamemnon that, if he
wanted to ensure a favorable wind for his army's travel to Troy, he had to sacrifice his
daughter, Iphigenaia; Agamemnon misled the girl about why she had to come to the
altar and then sacrificed her to Artemis; Agamemnon was a fiery-tempered but
respected military leader; he quarrelled with Achilles at the beginning of Homer's
Iliad, causing Achilles to withdraw from fighting; after the fall of Troy, Agamemnon
took Cassandra, princess of Troy, as a captive and brought her home with him;
Agamemnon was killed by his wife Clytemnestra and her lover Aegisthus when he
returned home after the Trojan War; Clytemnestra killed Agamemnon as revenge for
her murdered daughter and Aegisthus killed Agamemnon because of a grudge against
the House of Atreus.
Troy 12: Warriors' Fate
Agathocles - (361 BCE-288 BCE) tyrant of Syracuse; he was a strong military leader
but a violent political leader; he took power in Syracuse by either murdering or
banishing thousands of citizens and was able to compel people to follow his orders
because of the large mercenary force he brought with him; in the late 300s, he went to
war with Carthage; after this war, he settled down in Sicily and led a more peaceful
reign until his death in 288 BCE.
Agave (see entry (2) in Perseus Encyclopedia) - mother of Pentheus in Euripides'
Bacchae.
Netshot: Euripides' Bacchae
ager - (Latin) a field or plot of land with definite boundaries; opposed to "terra",
which is land that does not necessarily have definite boundaries.
agger - (Latin) a rampart; materials or earth amassed to form a tall mound of up to
sixty feet; a rampart supposedly constructed by Tarquinius Superbus to protect Rome.
agon - a "contest", argument, struggle, or assembly of people; in ancient Greek agon =
contest; in drama, an agon is a debate between characters; specifically in Old
Comedy, it is a debate between two characters in which each side of the debate would
be introduced and commented on by choral songs..
agora - (Latin) a place of business, a marketplace, a meeting place.
agricola - (Latin) farmer; this word is tied to ager or “field” as an agricola is the
person who works in the field.
Agrippa - Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa; born 63 BCE; Roman general and statesman;
served Octavius (Augustus) as an adviser and provincial commander and later as a
junior co-ruler and heir; by defeating Sextus Pompeius in the naval battles of Mylae
and Naulochus in 36 BCE, Agrippa helped secure Octavius' power; Agrippa was
appointed aedile in 33 BCE by Octavius and oversaw the restoration of many city
services, including the sewer system and water supply; Agrippa defeated the forces of
Mark Antony and Cleopatra at Actium in 31 BCE; when Octavius fell seriously ill in
23 BCE, he made Agrippa his heir; Agrippa was married to Octavius' daughter, Julia;
he died in 12 BCE.
Ajax (Aias) - son of Telamon; second greatest warrior of the Greeks at Troy and
member of the embassy to Achilles in book nine of the Iliad.
The Aftermath: Post Iliad through the Odyssey
Encyclopedia Mythica: Ajax
Aker -an ancient Egyptian earth-god, Aker guarded the gates of dawn and sunset
through which the sun rose every morning and set every evening; depictions showed
Aker as a double-headed lion or two lions sitting back-to-back with the sun and sky
appearing between them.
Ancient Egyptian Gods: Aker
alabastron - refers to a vase shape; see the Perseus Encyclopedia entry for alabastron
an image.
Albunea - a Roman water goddess; she was mentioned by Varro as being a prophet.
albus - (Latin) white; in Roman history and literature, the first city that Aeneas founds
upon arrival in Latium, Italy is Alba Longa, referring to the white, snowy mountain
(Mons Albanus) that was located there.
Alcibiades (see entry (2) in Perseus Encyclopedia) - general of Athenian expedition
against Sicily who, when charged with impiety, went over to the Spartans
(Thucydides); a character in Plato's Symposium.
Alcmene - (Alcmena) mother of Herakles by Zeus; Alcmene, having just married
Amphitryon, was seduced by Zeus who appeared to her in the form of her husband;
when Amphitryon learned what had occurred, he tried to burn Alcmene on a funeral
pyre, but Zeus sent a rainstorm to put out the fire; Amphitryon forgave Alcmene;
Alcmene had twins, Herakles, the son of Zeus, and Iphicles, the son of Amphitryon.
Family Portrait: Herakles, Iphicles, Alcmene and Amphitryon (image)
Encyclopedia Mythica: Alcmene
aleiptes - the 'anointers', ancient Greek athletic trainers who anointed athletes bodies
with oil for muscle massages.
The Ancient Olympics
Alexander the Great (see entry (4) in Perseus Encyclopedia) - Macedonian king who
by conquest brought Greek civilization to the East as far as India; following his
father's plan; Alexander was the son of Phillip of Macedon and his wife Olympias; he
studied under Aristotle; Alexander became king at the age of twenty, after the
assassination of his father; Alexander’s mighty army conquered territory in Greece,
Persia, Mesopotamia and even went as far as India in 326 BCE; he married twice,
both times to non-Macedonian women; while he was initially adored by the soldiers
he fought with, his adoption of Persian customs - including proskynesis which
required that all people prostrate themselves before Alexander - somewhat soured the
good feeling towards the young leader; Alexander died on the march home with his
army in 323 BCE; Alexander invaded the Persian empire and within 12 years he had
conquered as far as Russia, Punjab, and Afghanistan; See the chart below for more on
Alexander's conquest.
Year
Event
357 BCE
Marriage of Philip and Olympias
356 BCE
Birth of Alexander
343 BCE
Aristotle begins work as Alexander's tutor
342 BCE
Alexander tames Bucephalos
338 BCE
Battle of Chaeronea, Philip controls Greece
336 BCE
Death of Philip and accession of Alexander
335 BCE
Alexander sacks Thebes.
334 BCE
Alexander crosses into Asia and begins his conquest of Asia Minor,
Battle of Granicus.
333 BCE
Alexander defeats Darius at the battle of Issus, Alexander captures the
Family of Darius.
332 BCE
Alexander lays siege to Tyre and enters Egypt.
331 BCE
Alexander founds Alexandria in Egypt; defeats Darius at the battle of
Guagamela, takes Mesapotamia, and enters Babylon, Persepolis, and Pasargadae.
330-328 BCE Alexander burns Persepolis and campaigns in Sogdiana and Bactria;
Death of Cleitus.
327 BCE
Alexander marries Roxane and enters India.
326 BCE
Alexander crosses the Indus River and wins the battle of Hydaspes;
sails down the Indus River to the India Ocean; Burcephalos dies.
325 BCE
Alexander returns through Baluchistan and suffers great hardships.
323 BCE
Alexander dies of a fever at the age of 32.
Alexander the Great
Alexander the Great Website
Alexandros - see Paris.
Allecto - one of the three Furies, goddesses who hunted down unpunished criminals;
the Furies are depicted in Aeschylus’ play The Eumenides; in Book Seven of the
Aeneid, Juno sends Allecto among the Trojan enemies to cause conflict and start a
war.
allegory - literally, 'saying something else'; a story in which characters, objects, and
actions have metaphorical meaning.
allusion - a reference to an idea, place, person or text (or part of a text) existing
outside the literary work. [Contributor: Dr. Ismail S. Talib, National University of
Singapore.]
alphabet - see Greek alphabet.
alumno - student or disciple.
alytarches - at the ancient Olympics, a special police force who assisted the
Hellanodikai to impose fines on athletes who did not obey event rules and regulations.
The Ancient Olympics
Amata - Latin queen who favored Turnus over Aeneas as her son-in-law (Aeneid).
Amazons - female warriors who dwelt on the river Thermodon in Cappadocia;
Amazons had their own government and were ruled by a queen; see Louvre Ma 552
(image).
Amazonomachy - a battle scene in which Amazons fight Greeks on foot and mounted
on horses; for an example see, Toledo 1955.225 (image).
ambulo - (Latin) to walk.
amicus - (Latin) friend.
amifer - (Latin) bearing arms, ready for war.
Ammut - an ancient Egyptian soul-eating monster; Ammut witnessed the judgment of
the dead in the "Hall of the Two Truths,” Maaty; Ammut was depicted with the head
of a crocodile, the forequarters of a lion, and the hindquarters of a hippopotamus.
Ancient Egyptian Gods: Ammut
Amor - (Latin) Love; Amor became personified into the God of Love, the counterpart
of the Greek god “Eros”.
amphitheatre - a large open-air theatre with rings of seats; the biggest ancient Roman
amphitheatre is the Roman Colosseum, which could hold up to 50,000 people; shows
such as gladiatorial games, staged naval battles and animal fights took place at an
amphitheatre; the Romans built many of them throughout the empire as standardized
fixtures of Romanized towns.
Aburbe-Suburbe Amphitheater
amphora - two-handled clay jar used to store liquids by ancient Greek and Roman
traders.
Amon - ancient Egyptian god of creation, his name means, “what is hidden or cannot
be seen"; Amon’s wife was Mut and his son Khonsu (the moon); Amon was depicted
as a man seated on a throne holding an ankh in one hand and a specter in the other;
Amon was also depicted with the head of a cobra or frog.
Ancient Egyptian Gods: Amon
amyetos - small, winged beings, male and unbearded; for an example, see Munich
1493.
anagnorisis - variously translated as "discovery" or "recognition"; an important
element of tragedy according to Aristotle's Poetics whereby a tragic protagonist gains
information previously unknown leading to important insight.
What Happened to Deus ex Machina after Euripides?
Anchises - loved by Aphrodite, father of Aeneas (Aeneid).
ancient novel - genre of ancient literature; ancient Greek and Roman novelists
flourished especially in the 1st – 4th centuries CE; Greek novels in particular were
extremely popular and wide-read; these texts generally chronicled contrived plots
involving mistaken identity, separated lovers and witchcraft; some of the famous
known Greek novelists were Heliodorus and Iamblichus and the Roman novelists
were Petronius and Apuleius.
ancillus - (Latin) male servant; an ancillus could also be referred to in Latin as a
servus.
Andromache - wife of Hektor, taken prisoner after the fall of Troy (Iliad).
Anna - Dido's sister (Aeneid).
annis - (Latin) year.
annona - (Latin) the public food supply; hoping to reduce poverty in Rome, officials
gave about one-third of the population free grain, a policy that forced Romans to look
for additional sources of food.
anthesteria - festival celebrated in autumn attended by maenads, women, and satyrs;
see Berlin F 2589 (image).
Teacher's Companion: Dionysus
anthropomorphic - ascribe human attributes to a thing or being that is not human, such
as a deity.
Antigone (see entry (2) in Perseus Encyclopedia) - daughter of Oedipus and Jocasta;
heroine of the Antigone.
Netshot: Sophocles' Antigone
antistrophe - literally a turning about or opposite turning, one part of a stasimon; in
ancient Greek theatre, the term applied to a part of a stasimon that corresponds
metrically to a previously sung part (the strophe); the term is used because of the
dancing movements of the chorus, which would be opposite to those performed with
the strophe.
Anthesteria - an important Dionysian festival celebrated in the winter in different
areas of Greece; the Anthesteria involved drinking-parties and honoring the dead;
during this festival, the wife of the leader (the basileus) would engage in a “sacred
marriage” with Dionysus.
Antium - a region in Latium that resisted becoming part of Rome until 338 BCE when
it was taken over by C. Maenius; eventually it became a vacation town where
Augustus had a home; Nero rebuilt its harbor.
Antony, Mark - (also Marc Antony) Marcus Antonius, a Roman general, who along
with Cleopatra, was defeated by Agrippa at the battle of Actium in 31 BCE; he was
made co-consul in 44 BCE; he married a politically active woman, Fulvia, who died
in 40 BCE; Antony was part of the second triumvirate with Marcus Aemilius Lepidus
and Octavian from 43-30 BCE.
Mark Antony (Encyclopedia Britanica)
Anubis - ancient Egyptian god of death, Anubis assisted in the funerary rites of the
dead used to assure admittance of the dead into the underworld; worshipped as the
god of mummification, it was said that Anubis invented the process of embalming in
order to preserve the body of Osiris who was briefly resurrected by Isis; Anubis is
portrayed as a black dog who accompanies Isis or as a man with a jackal’s head who
holds a specter.
Ancient Egyptian Gods: Anubis
apatheia - 'a lack of feeling'; the Stoic doctrine that man must learn to ignore passions
(e.g., fear, greed, grief, joy), which disturb his peace of mind.
apene - a chariot race using two mules; an Olympic event; this event was introduced
to the Oympics in 500 BCE but discontinued in either 444 or 440 BCE.
The Ancient Olympics
Aphrodite - goddess of love and beauty; she favored Paris after he chose her as the
most beautiful over Hera and Athena (Iliad); married to Hephaestus but loved Ares;
mother of Aeneas by Anchises; identified with Venus in Rome;
Read the Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite to learn more.
Encyclopedia Mythica: Aphrodite
Bullfinch's Mythology: Venus and Adonis
apobasis - an ancient contest in which a fully armed warrior jumped in and out of a
moving chariot.
Apollo - ancient Greek god of light, music, prophecy, and healing; son of Leto and
Zeus, brother of Artemis; read the Homeric Hymn to Delian Apollo and Pythian
Apollo to learn more.
Encyclopedia Mythica: Apollo
apodyterium - changing room at a Roman bath; the first room that people went into.
apology - in a literary sense, a formal statement of justification or defense speech,
such as Plato's Apology.
Netshot: Plato's Apology
apotheosis - the metamorphosis of a human into a god; the deification of a person; see
the story of Herakles' apotheosis and see the vase Toledo 1956.69 (image).
apotropaic eye - an eye painted on an object to ward off evil; see Munich 2044
(image).
Appius Claudius - a powerful political figure in the Roman Republic, Appius
Claudius left behind two major monuments to his political career: the Aqua Appia and
the Via Appia; the Via Appia was the most significant road through south Italy and
the Aqua Appia was the first major aqueduct in Rome; he was censor in 312 BCE,
consul in 307 and 297 and praetor in 295; Appius Claudius worked to include poorer
people in the different tribes of Rome to increase their influence in the tribal
assembly, although this work was repealed in 304 BCE; however, he also opposed the
entry of plebeians to two major priesthoods.
Apuleius - a writer and orator who was born in Northern Africa around 125 CE; his
most famous text is a long novel entitled Metamorphoses, which is also translated as
the Golden Ass; this long novel follows its protagonist, Lucius, as he is magically
transformed into a donkey and has to undergo many trials before he can eat roses and
become human again; at the end of the novel, Lucius converts to the worship of Isis.
Aqua Appia - Roman aqueduct built in 312 BCE; the first of the major Roman
aqueducts; named for Appius Claudius who also constructed and gave his name to the
Via Appia.
ABurbe-Suburbe Aqueduct
Aquarius - also known as Ganymede; a constellation; Aquarius was closely associated
with water in many ancient cultures, including Babylonian, Egyptian, and Ethiopian,
in which he was the "water-bearer."
aqueduct - originally invented by the Etruscans and modified by the Romans, the
aqueduct is a channel or conduit the conducts water over long distances usually by
means of gravity; click on the links below to learn more about Roman aqueducts.
Roman Living
Roman Aqueducts
Ara - (Latin) "the altar," a constellation commemorating sacrifices made by the
Greeks and Romans to the gods; the Romans called the constellation Ara Centauri.
Ara Pacis Augustae - (Latin) "Altar of the Peace of Augustus"; an altar in Rome on
the Campus Martius that was completed and dedicated in 9 CE by Augustus; the altar
celebrated peace after the many wars Rome had fought.
Maecenas Image of the Ara Pacis
Maecenas Image of the Ara Pacis
aratrum - (Latin) a Greek plow used by the ancient Greeks and Romans.
arboreus - (Latin) something about or similar to trees
Archaic - a period of ancient Greek history from approximately 750 to 500 BCE.
architectural-pediment - the triangular facing along the front or side of a building
which often included a sculpture scene (image).
arcularius - (Latin) carpenter; an arcularius made boxes and/or jewel-cases, in Latin,
arculae.
Ares - Greek god of war, son of Zeus and Hera; read the Homeric Hymn to Ares to
learn more; identified by Romans as Mars.
aretê - goodness, excellence.
Argeiphontes - See Hermes.
argenteus - (Latin) silver; this word is derived from the Latin word for silver,
argentum.
Argives - names for the original inhabitants of Greece; also called Danai.
Argonaut - a sailor who sailed on the Argos with Jason.
Argos - the name of Odysseus' favorite hunting dog, who having grown old and
useless during Odysseus' twenty year absence from Ithaca, dies upon seeing his
master again after waiting faithful for him to return; (2) the builder of the Argo, the
shipped sailed by Jason and the Argonauts; (3) the son of Zeus and Niobe who
introduced the practice of tilling the soil and planting corn to Greece.
argumentum - (Latin) argument.
aries - an ancient battering-ram that could shake or break through the walls of a
besieged city; the aries was made out of a tree-trunk that had metal attached to one
end of it.
aristeia - (Greek) “excellence”; often epics include an aristeia of a character; for
example, in the Iliad, there is an aristeia of Diomedes that demonstrates his excellence
as a warrior.
aristocracy - a government or state ruled by an elite or privileged class; from the
Greek word meaning rule of the best, aristokratia.
Aristogeiton - conspirator against the Greek tyrants Hippias and Hipparchus; he and
his friend Harmodius hatched a plan to kill the two tyrants in 514 BCE, however they
were only successful in the killing of Hipparchus; Thucydides recounts their plan and
its outcome in his history text.
Aristophanes (see entry (2) in Perseus Encyclopedia) - a Greek comic playwright of
the 4th century BCE; his plays include a skewering of Socrates and the sophists in
The Clouds, the gender power reversal play Lysistrata and the pro-peace play The
Acharnians; Aristophanes was also a character in Plato’s The Symposium, where he
suggested that people in love were two halves of the same body that had been split in
two.
Netshot: Introduction to Old Comedy
Netshot: Aristophanes' Clouds
Netshot: Aristophanes' Lysistrata
Teacher's Companion: Greek Theater
Aristophanes of Byzantium - a Greek literary scholar who became the chief librarian
of Alexandria in 194 BCE; he died in 180 BCE.
Aristotle (see entry (2) in Perseus Encyclopedia) - Athenian philosopher and a
student of Plato who was concerned with natural phenomena; tutor of Alexander the
Great; Aristotle began teaching in Athens in 335 BCE; during that same year he
founded the Lyceum (Peripatetic school); author of the Poetics, The Metaphysics,
Nicomachean Ethics, among other works; when Aristotle dies in 322 BCE,
Theophrates becomes head of the Lyceum.
Aristotle's Poetics
Aristotle, Scientist and Philosopher, Perseus Historical Overview
arma virumque cano - (Latin) the first three words of the Aeneid; generally, epicists
would place the most important words of their poems at the very beginning; the Iliad
begins with the word for “wrath” as it mostly describes the consequences of Achilles’
wrath; the Aeneid begins with “arms and a man I sing”, showing that the most
important topics of this epic will be war and Aeneas; it is important that during the
early Augustan Age, some of the most significant political and social movement
focused on wars (against Antony and civil war) and the development of a single man,
Augustus.
Arminius - leader of a Germanic tribe who led an defense against the Roman general
Varus in the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest in 9 CE.
Artemis - goddess of the hunt, eternally young and untamed; daughter of Zeus and
Leto, sister of Apollo; identified by Romans as Diana;
Read the Homeric Hymn to Artemis to learn more.
Encyclopedia Mythica: Artemis
Artium Baccalaureus - (Latin) Bachelor of Arts.
Artium Magister - (Latin) Master of Arts.
as - (Latin) a small unit of currency; the as in Rome could be roughly equivalent to a
penny in the American monetary system.
Ascanius - son of Aeneas, also known as Iulus, a name which designates him as an
ancestor of the Julian family at Rome (Aeneid).
Asklepiads - Asklepiads were members of a guild of physicians that traced its origins
to Asklepios, the god of healing; it seems likely that Hippocrates, the most famous
physician and teacher of medicine of his time, would have been an Asclepiad.
The Asclepion
Asklepios - a Greek hero, son of Apollo and Coronis, who became the god of healing
and medicine; Coronis was unfaithful to Apollo and Artemis killed Coronis to avenge
her brother; when Coronis was placed on her funeral pyre, Apollo took his unborn son
from Coronis' womb; Asklepios was sent to Chiron, the centaur, who taught
Asklepios the art of healing; Asklepios revived a slain follower of Artemis with the
blood of a gorgon given to him by Athena; angered that the ability of a mortal to
revive the dead, Zeus killed Asklepios with a bolt of lightening; regretting his actions,
Zeus made Asklepios a god, placing him in the sky as the constellation, Ophiuchus
(the serpent-bearer); worshiped throughout the Greek world, Asklepios' most famous
sanctuary was located in Epidaurus.
The Asclepion
Encyclopedia Mythica: Asklepios
astragalos - a knucklebone used in games; the Greeks originally made game pieces
from astragaloi, the knucklebones of sheep or goats; the Roman game of
knucklebones, inherited from the Greeks, is called tali and was perhaps the most
popular Roman game; for an example of what an astragalos looked like, see London E
804.
Learn how to play knucklebones
astrum - (Latin) star, constellation.
Aten - ancient Egyptian god of the sun, Aten was also called the creator of man; Aten
was born again each day; like the sun, Aten nurtured the Earth and, according to the
Book of the Dead, the deceased even called on him to nurture the living with his rays;
Aten was depicted as a sun-disk with rays falling upon the Earth.
Ancient Egyptian Gods: Aten
Athena (Athene) - goddess of wisdom, the arts, and prudent warfare; associated with
philosophy; she was also the patroness of spinning, weaving, embroidery, and other
household activities practiced by women; her mother was Metis though Athena was
born from Zeus' head because Zeus feared a prophecy that said the son Metis bore
him after Athena would dethrone him; thus Zeus swallowed Metis and just before
Athena was born, Hephaestus used an axe to split open Zeus' head and Athena
emerged in full armor; Athena favored Achilles in the Trojan war (Iliad); acted as the
protector of Odysseus in the Odyssey and Herakles during his Twelve Labors;
identified by the Romans as Minerva; Athena is depicted carrying a spear and wearing
a helmet and the aegis; the owl and the olive tree are associated with Athena; she had
a best friend, Pallas, whom she killed accidentally; Athena was brought up by the god
Triton whose daughter was Pallas; together Athena and Pallas practiced warfare but
one day, just as Pallas was about to strike Zeus feared for Athena and appeared
between the two girls; Zeus held the aegis in front of Pallas who was so frightened
that she failed to parry Athena's blow and was killed; in honor of Pallas, Athena
constructed a statue, the Palladium.
Read the Homeric Hymn to Athena to learn more.
Encyclopedia Mythica: Athena
Athens - a city in Greece, occupied from prehistoric times through the present; the
Acropolis at Athens provides a natural defense against attack; during the Persian
invasion of 480 BCE, the original fortification of Athens' Acropolis were destroyed
and were rebuilt in 478 BCE; the 5th century building program of Pericles resulted in
the classical structures for which the Athenian Acropolis is famous; in 404 BCE the
Acropolis was destroyed again by the Spartan and was rebuilt in 394 BCE.
Athens plotted on a map
Athens Site description and images
Atomism - theory originated by Leucippus, developed by Democritus and adopted by
Epicurus as a basis of his moral philosophy according to which the universe is made
up of invisible and indestructible elements called atoms.
atra - (Latin) dark, gloomy.
atrium - (Latin) in a Roman domus (house), the atrium was the central hall that
followed the fauces, the jaws or entryway of the house, and opened into the tablinum,
the reception area where guests were greeted.
Roman Living
Attalus - (269-197 BCE) ruler of Pergamum, a city in Asia Minor (modern-day
Turkey); Attalus was a skilled diplomat and he brought Pergamum to its initial
prominence.
Attica - an area in ancient Greece of approximately 1,000 square miles of which
Athens was the capital.
auctorati - (Latin) Roman citizens who were in debt and sold themselves to gladiator
schools for money; legally labled infamus, auctorati were not deprived of their
citizenship.
The Roman Gladiator
auctoritas - (Latin) spiritual authority, the idea of knowing one’s position in society
and exercising the correct amount of dignity and gravity.
augeo - (Latin) to increase.
augures - (Latin) priests who read auspices and determine whether the gods approved
or disapproved of a future deed; they could also decide where to build religious
buildings and hold religious rituals; they could read auspices based upon patterns in
clouds or smoke, birds in flight or the entrails of sacrificed animals.
Augustus - C. Octavius, born 63 BCE; son of Octavius and Atia, niece of Gauis
Julius Caesar; elected to the pontifical college in 48 BCE; campaigned with Caesar in
Spain and in 45 BCE fought the Pompeians at Munda; adopted by Caesar, he takes on
his adopted father's name becoming C. Julius Caesar Octavianus; forms the Second
Triumvirate (triumviri rei publicae constituendae) in 38 BCE with Mark Antony and
Lepidus; had one daughter, Julia, by his second wife (Scribonia), whom he married to
Marcellus; establishes the Actian Games in Greece in 27 BCE to commemorate his
victory at Actium; reigned as Roman Emperor from 27 to 14 BCE; following in the
footsteps of his adopted father, Augustus becomes pontifex maximus upon the death
of Lepidus; succeeded by his stepson Tiberius; Augustus is honorific title given by the
Roman senate to Octavius, also known as Octavian.
An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Emperors: Augustus
aulaeum - (Latin) any work that has embroidery on it; curtains, especially those found
in a theater.
aulos - (Latin) a double flute often used by a satyr to provide music in Dionysiac
scenes; see Mississippi 1977.3.88 and its view "Main panel: aulos played by satyr in
center."
Aulus Gellius - author of Noctes Atticae (Attic Nights); this text was probably
published around 180 CE; the Noctes Atticae comments on diverse subject matter and
uses dialogue, like Plato’s texts also did; later authors and students relied upon Aulus
Gellius for knowledge and as a model for an interesting writing style.
aureus - (Latin) a golden coin.
auriga - (Latin) a driver or a charioteer; an auriga refers to someone who is in charge
of a vehicle, both on the every-day roads and also inside the chariot racing course;
chariot racing was a popular sport in ancient Rome and races took place in the
Campus Martius and the Colosseum; for an example, see Dewing 877 (image).
aurora - (Latin) dawn; this word is the same as the name of a goddess of the Dawn in
Roman mythology.
autocracy - governmental or ruling authority held by a single person, an absolute
monarchy; from the Greek word meaning sole power, autokrateia.
autumnus - (Latin) autumn; the opposite season of ver, or spring.
auxilia - (Latin) additional military troops; these troops could have included cavalry,
archers, etc.
avaritia - (Latin) greed; the English word “avarice” is etymologically tied to this
word.
aveste - (Latin) a chambermaid who helped her mistress dress each day and for all
occasions.
B
Babylon - an ancient city, located about 50 miles south of modern-day Baghdad; this
city first flourished during Hammurabi's rule from 1792-1750 BCE; eventually
Babylon grew most powerful under the Persian Achaemenid and Seleucid rulers;
there have been many important excavations of Babylon, and many cuneiform tablets
have been found there.
Bacchae - female worshippers of Dionysus (Bacchus) and title of tragedy by
Euripides; see also maenad.
Netshot: Euripides Bacchae
Bacchanalia - (Latin) three-day wild festival held originally only by women in honor
of the god Bacchus; eventually men were also allowed at the festival; the Bacchanalia
was banned, except when explicitly allowed, by the Senate in 186 BCE by means of
the Senatus consultum de Bacchanalibus; see Bacchae.
Teacher's Companion: Dionysus
Bacchant[e]s - female follower of Dionysus (Bacchus); see Bacchae and maenad.
baculum - (Latin) a walking stick.
balatro - (Latin) fool, jester.
baldric - a belt or strap hung diagonally from the shoulder to the hip from which
weapons might be hung; for an example, see Toledo 1950.261 (image).
ballista - (Latin) a high powered crossbow that hurled missiles long distances and
could pierce armor.
barbarian - term used by Greeks for non-Greeks.
basilica - (Latin) a Roman public building used as an exchange and law court; the
origin of the word basilica is the ancient Greek word basileus, king; a basilica was
originally a royal palace, but for the Romans it served judicial and business purposes;
according to Vitruvius' De Architectura Libri Decem, the dimensions of the basilica
had to follow prescribed standards, for example, the width of the basilica had to be
one half to one third of its length; the earliest basilica in Roma was built by Cato the
Elder in 184 BCE; in the Roman forum, Marcus Aemilius Lepidus and Marcus
Fulvius Nobilior built the Basilica Aemilia in 179 BCE; Julius Caesar began building
the Basilica Julia in 54 BCE and Augustus finished it.
The Basilica Aemilia
The Basilica Julia
Bastet - an ancient Egyptian goddess; the daughter of Re and mother of Khonsu (the
moon), Bastet was the goddess of cats, fire, the home, and pregnant women;
appearing in myth as both submissive and belligerent, Bastet protected expecting
mothers and slaughtered enemies.
Ancient Egyptian Gods - Bastet
bater - in ancient Greek athletics, a fixed point on the side of jumping pit from which
a jump is measured.
The Ancient Olympics
Battle of Bibracte - a famous battle fought in 58 BCE between Julius Caesar's army
and the Helvetii; this battle occurred after a series of diplomatic negotiations fell
through; lasting 9 hours, this battle took place near a mountain close to the city of
Bribacte, which is found near present-day Burgundy in France; the Roman army
defeated the Helvetii and slaughtered nearly 65 % of their total population.
Battle of Mons Graupius - a famous battle fought in 83 CE (or possibly 84 CE)
between the Romans and the Caledonians; this battle took place in Caledonia, presentday Scotland; the Romans were greatly outnumbered but still managed to win the
battle, demonstrating the power of the Roman military.
BCE - abbreviation for Before the Common Era.
Belatucadrus - a native deity of Roman Britain who was associated with the Roman
God Mars and sometimes called "Mars Belatucadrus"; Belatucadrus was a war god
and also perhaps a solar deity; archaeological evidence of his worship still exists in
Britain today.
Bellerophon - son of Glaukos and Eurymede; his name means 'killer of Bellerus' who
was his brother; Bellerophon is purified by King Proteus for the killing of his brother;
after refusing to meet secretly with Stheneboea (King Proteus' wife), Stheneboea
claims Bellerophon tried to seduce her; as punishment he is sent to his father-in-law,
Iobates, king of Lycia, with a letter that says that Iobates should kill its barer; Iobates,
unwilling to kill Bellerophon, sends him to kill the chimera; Bellerophon, riding the
winged horse Pegasus, slays the chimera; Bellerophon later in life tries to ride
Pegasus up to the realm of Zeus, but Zeus hurdles him back to earth killing him.
Image: Chimaera and Bellerophon on Pegasos
Bellerophontes - grandfather of Glaukos (Iliad).
bellicosus - (Latin) warlike, from the stem word bellum, which means "war."
Bellona - a goddess of war; she was usually portrayed with weapons and armor in art;
the temple to Bellona in Rome was on the Capitoline Hill and was the site of senate
meetings about foreign wars.
bema - a raised platform or podium from which a speaker might address a court or on
which a competitor in a music contest might play; for an example see the Delos Site
Catalog (image, description) and Austin 1980.32.
beneficium - (Latin) benefit, service, right.
benignitas - (Latin) kindness; in his Fables, Phaedrus describes a watchdog as being
full of benignitas.
Link to Phaedrus Story "Canis Fidelis"
beo - (Latin) to make happy, to bless.
Berenice - the wife of King Ptolemy I of Egypt; she was made queen of Egypt in 290
BCE; she was the mother of Ptolemy II.
Bes - an ancient Egyptian male deity and protector of children, Bes was the god of
war and of music and dance; he was thought to be of African or Middle Eastern
origins.
Ancient Egyptian Gods - Bes
Bestia - consul in 111 BCE; he led military forces in Numidia; Jugurtha’s easy
agreement with Bestia raised suspicions that bribery had occurred; when Jugurtha
came to Rome, he testified in bribery cases and three important generals – and former
consuls – were convicted in 110 BCE of having accepted bribes, including Bestia,
Albinus and Opimius and sent into exile.
bestia - (Latin) an animal, one without the skills to reason or think.
bestiarius - (Latin) literally, "the hunter of wild beast in an arena"; bestiarii hunted
wild animals in an arena in the venatio during the day long gladiatorial games held in
Rome.
bibliotheca - (Latin) Study (as in room in a house); there was a bibliotheca in the
Temple of Augustus in Rome which held a large statue of Apollo, according to Pliny
the Elder.
biography - a written account of another person's life; to see the biography for the
following authors, click on their name: Aeschylus (4), Aeschines, Andocides,
Antiphon, Apollodorus (4), Aristophanes (2), Aristotle, Bacchylides, Demades,
Demosthenes, Diarchus, Diodorus Siculus, Euripides, Herodotus (3), Hesiod, Homer,
Isaeus, Isocrates, Lycurgus, Lysias, Pausanias, Pindar, Plato, Plutarch (2), Sophocles
(3), Strabo, Thucydides, Xenophon (4).
boule - Athenian council.
bouleuterion - council-house.
Bouleuterion at Olympia
brevitas - (Latin) brevity.
Briseis - daughter of Brises, also known as Hippodamia; Achilles' concubine taken by
Agamemnon.
Bronze Age - in Classical myth, this is the third of the four ages of man; the Bronze
Age lasted from 3000 BCE to 1100 BCE.
Brundisium Agreement - a pact made in 40 BCE among the triumvirate of Octavian,
Lepidus, and Mark Antony concerning land; Octavian was put in charge of the West,
Antony received the East and Lepidus was given Africa.
brutum fulmen - (Latin) literally a “insensible thunderbolt”, comes to mean an empty
threat.
Brutus - Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus; Roman politician and assassin of Julius
Caesar; an early supporter of Julius Caesar, Brutus fought on Caesar's side in the
naval Battle of Massilia and defeated Pompey's forces in 49 BCE; in 42 BCE, Brutus
and Cassius fought the armies of Mark Antony and Octavian at Philippi and lost; he
died in 43 BCE while trying to flee to Macedonia.
bulla - (Latin) an amulet a father would hang around his child’s neck on the eighth
day of the child’s life; this amulet was supposed to protect the child; during the
Liberalia festival, a young boy would take off his bulla and his toga praetexta in order
to put on more adult clothing.
C
Cacus - fire-breathing monster killed by Herakles.
Cadmus (see entry (2) in Perseus Encyclopedia) - founded Thebes with five warriors
sprung from dragon's teeth he planted; grandfather of Pentheus (Bacchae).
caduceus - the messenger's staff or wand carried by Hermes and Iris; for an example,
see Harvard 1960.347 (image).
Caere - an ancient Etruscan city located approximately 30 miles north of Rome; this
city established a peace with Rome in 273 BCE; Caere has been extensively
excavated and has provided much information and many artifacts about ancient
Etruscan civilization.
caeruleus - (Latin) dark blue; in the Aeneid, Vergil refers to the sky as caerulea.
Caesar - Gaius Julius Caesar, Roman general and statesman born in 100 BCE,
assassinated in 44 BCE; early in his career, Caesar spent time working with the
military in Asia; he first became quaestor in 69 BCE, pontifex maximus in 63, praetor
in 62 and consul in 60 BCE; he allied politically for a while with Pompey and Crassus
in 60 BCE, forming the First Triumvirate, but later jockeyed for power against
Pompey (after Crassus’ death in 53); Caesar waged massive, victorious military
campaigns against Gaul (58 BCE), Africa, Britain (55) and Spain; in 49 BCE, he
turned his military power against Rome, crossing the Rubicon and fighting a civil war
supposedly to help strengthen the power of the tribunes but also to retain his power
against people who were growing wary of it; Caesar alternately held the power of a
consul and a dictator from 49 onward; he was assassinated in 44 BCE in the Curia; he
had adopted his great-nephew, Octavian, as his heir; Caesar was a great speaker and
writer and today his texts on the civil war, the war in Gaul and the African war still
exist; author of Gallic Wars, an account of Caesar's wars against the Gauls and
Britains from 58 BCE to 49 BCE, in which he describes, among other things, the 52
BCE rebellion of Vercingetorix, king of the Gauls; wrote the "De Bello Civili" in 47
BCE; "Caesar" is also the imperial title used by Roman emperors from Augustus to
Hadrian.
The Career and Character of Julius Caesar
The Landings of Caesar in Britain, 55 and 54 BC
calamus - (Latin) pen, arrow, pipe; anything made from a reed.
calculi - (Latin) Roman checkers; this is the familiar game of "five in a row," which
was played on the same boards as the Roman game latrunculi; calculi is the Latin
word for "stones" (or "pebbles" or "counters"); the Romans referred to this game as
ludus calculorum, "the game of stones," but the references are general and unclear.
Learn how to play calculi
calda - (Latin) a drink made by mixing wine, water and spices; generally, calda was
more popular in the winter because it was served warm.
Caledonia - (Latin) Scotland; this name refers to the northern territory of the Britons;
Caledonia is the modern-day northern Scottish Highlands; Caledonia first came to the
attention of the Romans when they moved into Britain under Julius Caesar.
calidarium - (Latin) in a Roman bath, this was a sauna room heated by the
hypocausta, the under floor heating system; in this room the bath's patron would use
olive oil to cleanse themselves by applying it all over their bodies and using a strigil
to remove the excess.
calidus - (Latin) Hot; calidus means the opposite of frigidus, the Latin word for
“cold”.
caligae - hobnail soled boots with cutwork straps worn by the Roman army; the
nickname of the Roman emperor Gaius Julius Caesar Germanicus, Caligula, means
"little boots" and was bestowed upon him by his father's troops.
Caligula - Gaius Caesar Augustus Germanicus, lived from 12 to 41; reigned as
Roman Emperor from 37 to 41; born to Augustus's adopted grandson and real
granddaughter, Germanicus and Agrippina; most of what is known about Caligula
comes from accounts provided by Suetonius Paulinus and Cornelius Tacitus; as a
child, Caligula traveled with his father and lived amongst his soldiers who gave him
the nickname Caligula, meaning "little boots" from the Latin word for boots worn by
soldiers, caligae; though loved as a child, he was hated as emperor because by his
madness that resulted in acts of hostility and lunacy; Caligula was murdered by
soldiers in 41.
An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Emperors: Caligula
Calliope - the Muse of epic poetry; the Muses were nine goddesses whom artists
appealed to in order to inspire their works; epicists often called upon the Muse
Calliope or another goddess to inspire their works at the beginning of their poems.
Callisto - a nymph; Callisto was a maiden follower of Artemis and soon became one
of the goddess' favorites; Callisto's beauty caught the eye of Zeus; despite knowing
that Callisto had taken a vow of chastity, Zeus disguised himself as Artemis whom
Callisto approached openly; Zeus took advantage of this moment and raped Callisto
who became pregnant; despite her efforts to hide her pregnancy, Callisto's secret was
revealed to Artemis when all the maidens went to a spring to bathe; Artemis was
furious with Callisto and she banished her causing Callisto to have her child alone; to
make matters worse, Hera decided she would seek her revenge by throwing Callisto to
the ground and transforming her into a bear; Callisto's child was rescued by Hermes
and raised by Hermes' mother, Maia; the child was named Arcas, meaning 'bear,' and
became a hunter; one myth says Artemis herself killed Callisto the bear, another says
that upon seeing her grown son hunting in the woods one day, Callisto tried to
approach him and take him into her arms; Arcas, not recognizing his mother, took aim
with his spear intending to slay the bear; Zeus took pity on Callisto and placed
Callisto in the sky as the constellation Ursa Major, or “great bear,” and placed Arcas
in the sky near his mother as Ursa Minor, the "little bear."
Callisto and her son Arcas (story of the constellations)
campus - (Latin) field, parade ground beside each auxiliary fort used by the Roman
army; the campus was an open area of ground, cleared of vegetation and covered with
gravel, on which weapon training and military drills would be practiced.
candidus - (Latin) white, shining, happy, beautiful.
canis - (Latin) dog
cano - (Latin) to sing
canonicus - (Latin) to make according to the canons, legal, right.
canticum - (Latin) a scene in a Roman comedy that was set to music and often
included dancing.
cantor - (Latin) a singer, one who leads a song.
cantus - (Latin) song.
carmena - (Latin) poetry; the Romans were master poets and created their works in
various styles – from long epic poems to short lyric works – and subjects – history,
love, natural phenomena.
caroenum - (Latin) sweet wine that reduced to about half of its original volume and
could have honey added to it.
Cassandra - daughter of Priam and Hecuba of Troy; she was granted the ability to
prophecy by Apollo but cursed by him never to be believed because she spurned his
advances; given to Agamemnon as part of his war spoils at the end of the Trojan War,
she was murdered by Clytemnestra and Aegisthus upon arrival in Mycenae.
Cassiopeia - mother of Andromeda and wife of wife of Cepheus, the king of Joppa in
Ethiopia; Cassiopeoia promised Perseus that he could marry her daughter, but
changed her mind and asked Poseidon's son, Agenor, to disrupt the wedding
ceremony; Agenor and his army were defeated by Perseus when Perseus held up
Medusa's head turning the wedding guest and army to stone; because of her deceit,
Poseidon placed Cassiopeia in the sky as a constellation; she is seated on a thrown
and rotates around the Pole star so that for half the year the vain and treacherous
queen hands upside down.
Constellations Captured: Cassiopeia
castigatio - (Latin) punishment or reproof.
castra - (Latin) fortified Roman camp; barracks in a Roman fort; the centurio had his
own room while a soldier shared a room with seven others.
catapulta - (Latin) heavy-duty Roman crossbows that launched missiles that could cut
through armor.
caterva - (Latin) flock, group.
Catiline - (108-62 BCE) politician best known for the political conspiracy plot that
bears his name; Catiline was praetor in 68 BCE; supposedly he plotted his first
conspiracy together with Sulla in 66 BCE; he lost the consulship to Cicero in 63 BCE;
he wanted to take control of the consul position by force and concocted a plot that was
discovered by Cicero; Cicero spoke against him and his co-conspirators and had them
killed in 62 BCE, despite a speech by Julius Caesar that urged restraint.
Cato the Elder - (234-149 BCE) Marcus Porcius Cato, a politician; he came into
political life as a novus homo and served in the wars against Hannibal; he became
consul in 195 BCE and was elected censor in 184; also in 184, he had built the
Basilica Porcia in Rome; Cato continually struggled against the Scipios and their
allies throughout his political life; he was a great speaker and writer; in 168 he began
the Origines, the first historical text in Latin; his most famous text is the De agri
cultura, about agriculture and how to run an estate, which he wrote around 160 BCE.
Cato the Younger - Marcus Porcius Cato (the Younger) (95-45 BCE); a politician;
great-grandson of Cato the Elder; a political conservative with a reputation for
honesty and strict morality; Cato the Younger publicly denounced the Catalinian
conspiracy and tried to prove that Julius Caesar was involved in the plot; he sided
with Pompey against Caesar, supported Pompey’s bid for sole consul in 52 and fought
with him until after his defeat at Pharsalus; after allying himself with Scipio until his
defeat by Caesar in 46, Cato killed himself in 45 BCE.
Catullus - Gaius Valerius Catullus, Roman poet, born in 84 BCE and died in 54 BCE;
composed poems to Lesbia, whom scholars have identified as Clodia, a married
Roman matron with whom Catullus may have had an affair.
The Modern Student's Guide to Catullus
Catullus: Tuffy the Tugboat meets the Braver Little Toaster
Introduction to Catullus
cauda - (Latin) a tail, as on an animal.
causa - (Latin) on account of
caupo - (Latin) innkeeper.
causarius - (Latin) sick, ill, having an illness.
cella - (Latin) rectangular room in a Roman temple that could hold cult statues of the
gods.
cena - (Latin) for the Romans, it means dinner; the meal usually began around 4 PM
and consisted of three parts, 1) gustatio, 2) fercula or mensae primae, and 3) mensae
secundae; the gustatio started with olives, some type of small fish, and a salad; the
fercula or mensae primae, main course, usually consisted of three components: fish,
roasted meat, and vegetables; the mensae secundae, dessert course, might consist of
cheeses and fresh fruit, with the occasional sweet cake.
censor - (Latin) Roman magistrate elected every five (5) years for a 1½ year term,
first instituted in 443 BCE; as the title implies, the censor conducted the census of
Roman citizens and property for tax assessment; revised the rolls of senators and
equestrians; originally a patrician position but eventually became plebeian; came to be
in charge of the morals of the community.
centaur - a mythical being with the head, arms and torso of a man and the body and
legs of a horse; for an example, see Louvre G 186 (image) or RISD 22.215 (image).
centauromachy - fight between centaurs and men or a scene of centaurs attempting to
carry off women; for an example, see Olympia West Pediment reconstruction.
centuria - (Latin) a Roman military company of soldiers, consisting of approximately
80 soldiers.
centurio - (Latin) a centurion, the commanding officer in charge of an individual
centuria; the centurion was assisted by his subordinate officers: the signifer, the optio,
and the tesserarius; in the Roman legions, centurions had different grades of rank that
determine which century within the cohort the centurion would command; see the
chart below, for example.Century
First Cohort Other Cohorts
1st
primus pilus pilus prior
2nd princeps
pilus posterior
3rd
hastatus
princeps prior
4th
princeps posterior
princeps posterior
5th
hastatus posterior
hastatus prior
6th
.
hastatus posterior
Chaerephon - associate of Socrates (Clouds and Apology).
chariot - a light, two or four wheeled vehicle drawn by two or four horses and driven
standing up; read the sculpture description and Perseus encyclopedia entry for the
Charioteer at Delphi cast in 478 BCE; see quadriga for an example of a two wheeled
chariot.
Charybdis - daughter of Poseidon and Gaia, a monster associated with a whirlpool
who lived on a rock near Messina.
Charon - ferryman who took the dead across the river Styx or over the marsh of
Acheron, to Hades; every soul had to pay him one obol for passage which explains the
custom of placing a coin under the tongue of a corpse.
charta - (Latin) writing paper.
Cheops Boat - a boat from ancient Egypt that was 43.40 meters long and one of the
largest ancient boats found to date; the prow is formed in the shape of a papyrus
bundle and the rudder consists of two massive oars; five giant oars on either side were
used to propel the boat; on deck, the main cabin contained two rooms, one being the
captain's quarters; evidence of reed mats were found as well as ropes which were used
to bind the various parts of the boat together; no metal nails were used at all in its
building; the ancient Egyptians had placed the parts of the boat in systematic order in
13 layers making up the major parts and totaling 1224 pieces, the largest being 23
meters long and the smallest, a mere 10 cm.
A Guided Tour of Ancient Egypt: Cheops Boat
chimera - a mythical monster that breathes fire from its lion's head with a goat's body
and serpent's tail; for an example, see Dewing 1832 (image).
chirurgus - (Latin) a surgeon. For more on Roman physicians, click here.
chiton - clothing, a tunic or dress wore by men and women; for an example, see
Boston 01.8022 (image of woman wearing chiton).
chitoniskos - a short smock or tunic worn by men; a woman's slip;
chlamys - a cloak; for an example, see Harvard 1970.108 (image).
chorda - (Latin) the string of a musical instrument.
chorobate - Roman engineers used a chorobate to ensure that building, road,
aqueduct, etc., construction was level; the chorobate was a ten-foot long wooden
trough with a long grove running down its middle where water was poured; the water
indicated when something was level.
Map of Roman Roads from Britain to Asia Minor
choregia - (plural choregiai) in ancient Greek, the office of defraying the cost of the
public choruses; in Athens, the duty imposed on a wealthy citizen of financing and
organizing the training of a chorus for the public performance of a dithyramb or
drama; the date of the introduction of this institution is unknown.
choregos - (plural choregoi) in ancient Greek, the leader of a chorus; at Athens, the
citizen who performs a choregia by defraying the cost for producing a chorus.
chorus - a group of 12-15 singers and dancers in ancient Greek drama.
chresmologos - (plural chresmologoi) someone who collects and publicizes oracles.
chresterion - the site of an ancient Greek oracle; the chresterion can also refer to an
gift to an oracle.
Chryse - the priest who unsuccessfully tries to ransom his daughter back from
Agamemnon.
chryseus - (Latin) yellow; the word chryseus refers especially to golden-colored and is
related to the Greek word chruseos, yellow.
cibus - (Latin) food, both for people and for animals.
Cicero - Marcus Tullius Cicero, Roman statesman, orator and writer; born in
Arpinum in 106 BCE; Cicero held many different political offices during his service
of Rome, including quaestor, praetor, aedile and consul (63); he also became a
member of the Senate because of having been a consul; his family was not one of the
wealthy patrician families who could have ensured his position in the senate; instead,
Cicero was a novus homo, whose great abilities brought him success; in 58, Cicero
puts down Catiline's conspiracy and executes some of Catiline's fellow conspirators
without trials; he was forced to go into exile in 58 for about eighteen months when the
consul Clodius declared that it was illegal, retroactively, to kill Roman citizens
without trial; he is recalled to Rome by Pompey in 57 BCE and wrote some of his
famous works on oratory and law; in the power struggle between Caesar and Pompey,
Cicero sided weakly with Pompey, although he was pardoned for this by Caesar after
his victories; always in favor of republican rule rather than power invested in a single
individual, Cicero gave a series of speeches called the Philippics, beginning in 44
BCE after the death of Julius Caesar, denouncing Marc Antony in favor of Octavian;
however, during the Triumvirate in which Antony, Octavian and Lepidus held power,
Cicero was condemned to death by Antony; he tried to flee and evade the sentence but
was murdered in 43 BCE, after which his head and hands were displayed in the
Senate; Cicero writes his Pro Milone in 52 BCE and De Republica in 54 BCE; in 43
BCE, Cicero is executed as an enemy of the state.
The Works of Cicero in Latin
The Works of Cicero in English
The Cicero Homepage
Cimon - Athenian general and statesman; fought at Salamis, sharing command of the
fleet sent to rescue the Asian Greek cities from Persian domination with Aristides;
Cimon aided Aristides in forming the Delian League from 478 - 477 BCE; as a
general, he conquered Skíros, subdued Asia Minor, and defeated the Persian sea and
land forces on the Eurymedon River in 468 BCE; following the death of Aristides,
Cimon was Athens' chief statesman in succession to Themistocles; despite his
services to Athens, Cimon was ostracized but recalled in 451 BCE to oversee the
conclusion of peace with Sparta; he died in 499 BCE in Cyprus.
circumequito - (Latin) to ride around.
circumgredior - (Latin) to walk around, to go around.
cithara - (Latin) a stringed instrument similar to a lute.
citharista - (Latin) a man who plays the cithara.
City Dionysia - Athenian festival in honor of Dionysus at which tragedies and
comedies were performed; the first comedy was performed at the festival in 487 BCE;
for more information see the Perseus Historical Overview entry "10.2.2 The
Performance of Tragedy."
civitatem do - (Latin) To give citizenship, to enfranchise; in the process of
Romanization, the Romans would give citizenship to the elite of a newly conquered
area, thereby ensuring that the elite would feel more connected to the Roman Empire.
civitates liberae - (Latin) “free states”; these areas with which Rome came into
contact were generally already organized communities.
civitates stipendiariae - (Latin) “tributary states”; these previously organized areas had
to pay tribute to Rome.
Classical Period - a period of ancient Greek history from approximately 500 BCE to
323 BCE.
Claudius - Ti. Claudius Nero Germanicus; lived from 10 BCE to 54; he was the son of
Drusus Claudius Nero, the son of Augustus' wife Livia, and Antonia, the daughter of
Mark Antony; Claudius was born with birth defects which caused him to limp, drool,
and studder; his family thought that he was also mentally defective and kept him
hidden from public view; as a result of his seclusion as a child, Claudius spent his
time reading and became a scholar who wrote on numerous topics; following the
murder of Caligula, which he witnessed, Claudius was hailed as the new Roman
Emperor; thought a harmless old man, Claudius proved to be a worthy ruler and
administrator; in 43 CE, Claudius took control of Lycia and added it to the Roman
Empire; in 42BCE he originally returns to Rome rom fighting in Britain until
additionally, Claudius succeeded in conquering Britain in 46 CE which made him
very popular with the Roman people; Claudius was murdered presumably by his wife
Agrippina Minor in 54; Claudius reigned as Roman Emperor from 41 to 54 and was
succeed by Nero.
An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Emperors: Claudius
Cleisthenes - (Kleisthenes ) the Alkmeonid, a Greek Statesman who lived from ca.
572 - ca. 485 BCE; regarded as the founder of Athenian democracy; served as chief
archon in Athens in 525 BCE; promulgated the law of ostracism in 510 BCE; after the
fall of the tyrant Hippias, Kleisthenes established a democratic institution based on
individual political responsibility on citizenship of a city rather than on membership
of a clan.
clementia - (Latin) mercy or gentleness; a Roman virtue that Augustus stressed in
dealing fairly and justly with his enemies; the opposite of clementia is saevitia or
savagery.
Cleomenes - son of Leonidas; last king of Sparta; destroyed the power of the Spartan
senate and appointed the Council of Fathers in its place; violated a peace treaty made
with Antigonus by laying waste to Megalopolis, among other offenses; fled to Egypt
where he was killed in 490 BCE.
Cleopatra - queen of Egypt, last of the Ptolemys, who was defeated at the battle of
Actium by Octavian (Aeneid); from 51-30 BCE, she ruled alone or jointly with her
brothers or children ; she became a co-ruler with her brothers Ptolemy XIII and
Ptolemy XIV; she killed her younger brother who had been reigning with her as
Ptolemy XIV in 44 BCE; she is famous for her relationships with Julius Caesar and
Mark Antony, with both of whom she reportedly had children; she appears often in art
and literature as an outsider who disrupts the tranquility of Rome through power and
sexual appeal; she killed herself by allowing herself to be bitten by an asp in 30 BCE
after it was clear that she would be defeated by Octavian.
A Guided Tour of Ancient Egypt
Antony, Octavian, and Cleopatra: the end of the Roman Republic
clibanus - (Latin) an oven; tray for making bread.
Clio - the Muse of history; the Muses were nine goddesses whom artists appealed to
in order to inspire their works.
Cloaca Maxima - main sewer system through Rome that was first constructed in 509
BCE and later reconstructed and improved by Agrippa in 33 BCE; originally an open
channel, it was closed over in the 3rd century BCE.
Maecenas Image of the Cloaca Maxima
Clodius - Publius Clodius; born ca. 92 BCE; though a patrician by birth, Clodius is
adopted by a plebian family so that he may come tribune of the plebs; in 62 BCE,
Clodius snuck into Caesar's house dressed as a woman during the rites of Bona Dea,
an all female ritual; Clodius was found out and tried for sacrilege but gained an
acquital through bribery, despite Cicero's testimony against him; as revenge, Clodius
secured the exile of Cicero on the grounds that he had unlawfully sentenced Catiline's
conspirators to death during his consulship; Clodius was murdered by Milo in 52 BCE
during a fight between their rival gangs on the Appian Way.
Biographies: Clodius
Clytemnestra - daughter of Leda and Tyndareus; wife of Agamemnon; mother of
Iphigenia, Orestes, and Electra; consort of Aegisthus; harboring a grudge against her
husband for his sacrifice of their daughter Iphigenia before sailing for Troy,
Clytemnestra and Aegisthus murdered Agamemnon upon his return to Mycenae after
the Trojan War.
Cocidius - a god who was worshipped in Roman Britain; he was a forest god, perhaps
similar to Silvanus, and was also associated with Mars and hunting.
codex - (Latin) Book, roll of parchment.
coemptio - (Latin) a common type of marriage in ancient Roman culture that
represented a "bride purchase," as the groom paid nummus usus, a penny, and
received the bride in exchange; while this purchase was not a real sale, it symbolized
the traditional bride purchases of earlier societies; five witnesses were required and
the wedding ceremony was much less formal than other types of ceremonies.
Ancient Weddings
Coeus - a Titan, son of Gaia and Uranus; father of Asteria and Leto by Phoebe.
cognati - (Latin) people who share the same parent, whether they share the same
mother, father or both.
cohors - (Latin) cohort; a Roman military group consisting of 6 centuriae of soldiers.
collection - the art accumulated by a museum.
colonia - (Latin) a farm, a colony; eventually, the colonia came to be a major outpost
of the Roman empire; citizens of coloniae were also citizens of Rome and they were
governed by councils and magistrates.
Teacher's Companion: Colonization
colonus - (Latin) Roman colonist; the earliest colonists were members of Roman
families who lived at ports and retained Roman citizenship because the communities
they were part of were too small to be their own states; under the late Republic and
Empire, colonization expanded over a much larger territory to the east and west.
Teacher's Companion: Colonization
column - a column is a tall, circular shaft for either decoration or structural support;
there are three different kinds of columns that were used in Ancient Greece and
Rome; the Doric column is the simplest: it has no base, a simple shaft and the top of
the column – the capital – is a square on top of a circle; the Ionic column was usually
longer than a Doric one and had lines carved into them from top to bottom; the Ionic
base was big and looked like round discs set on top of each other; the Ionic capital
was scrolled; the Corinthian column was the most ornamental; the Corinthian column,
like the Ionic, had carved lines on it; the Corinthian capital had many decorations and
the base was the same as the Ionic.
The Columns of Greece, Rome, and Providence, RI
comedy - a literary work which is intended to amuse, and which normally has a happy
ending. The term is usually applied to drama, but it can also be used for other literary
kinds. Like many literary terms (tragedy and epic being prominent examples), the
term has its origin in ancient Greece, but Aristotle's discussion on comedy in his
Poetics is believed to be missing, and one consequence of this is that the term is less
rigidly defined than tragedy. [Contributor: Dr. Ismail S. Talib, National University of
Singapore.]
The Humor and Plots of Athenian Comedy, Perseus Historical Overview
Netshot: Introduction to Old Comedy
University of Victoria's electronic list of Literary and Rhetorical Terms
comes - (Latin) companion, friend.
comitia centuriata - (Latin) one of the two assemblies in Rome; this group of Roman
citizens was divided based on age and wealth; from the Roman male population,
divisions were made into 373 centuries, each of which received one vote in the
assembly; this group elected praetors, censors, and consuls.
comitia tributa - (Latin) one of the two assemblies in Rome; made up of thirty-five
tribes from the city, suburbs and countryside; each tribe had one vote in the assembly;
this group elects the quaestores and the curule aedile.
comitium - (Latin) an assembly place; the comitium was the meeting place of the
Roman people and was located in front of the curia in the Roman forum; comprising
an area of 90 meters by 90 meters, the comitium hosted the ficus ruminalis and the
rostra (a speakers stand).
commercium - (Latin) commerce or business, trade.
commilitium - (Latin) going to war with someone; a war coalition.
comoedia - (Latin) a comic play or scene in a comedy.
compotatio - (Latin) a party that included drinking alcoholic beverages.
concaedes - (Latin) a wall of trees.
concentric circles - circles that have a common center, used as vase decoration; for an
example, see Harvard 1925.30.19 (image).
condiscipulus - (Latin) a school friend, a person one goes to school with.
confector - (Latin) tanner or dyer, a confector was the person who prepared animal
skins for use.
confer - (Latin) literally means “compare”; abbreviated cf.; when this abbreviation
appears in a text, the author is pointing the reader toward a text that can be compared
with the argument put forth by the author.
conflict of orders - a struggle between the patricians and the plebeians of Rome for
power that ended in 287 BCE; after the conflict of orders, power is not only hereditary
but instead based on political office and wealth, especially how much property one
has.
congregatio - (Latin) assembly, union.
coniugium - (Latin) literally, a joining together; comes to mean marriage or any close
relationship.
connubium - (Latin) marriage; the Latin word coniunx (spouse) is derived from
connubium.
consanesco - (Latin) to get better after being sick.
consensus omnium - (Latin) the agreement of all/everyone.
consitor - (Latin) someone who plants seeds or plants.
Constantine - born in 272, Constantine assumed his father's position as one of four
Roman emperors in Diocletian's continuing tetrarchy in 306; after a series of battles
with rivals, he became sole emperor of the Empire in 323; perhaps his most famous
battle was against his rival Maxentius at the Milvian bridge near Rome in 312; there,
legend has it he saw the sign of the cross in the sky and had it painted on his soldiers'
shields; after he won the battle, he converted to Christianity; it was under him that
Christianity became the principle religion of the Empire; Constantine died in 337.
consul - (Latin) chief Roman magistrate who presided over the senate and assemblies
and Rome's foreign affairs; consuls served as Rome's generals on military campaigns;
following a consulship, the outgoing consul served as a proconsul.
Roman Cursus Honorum
consulto - (Latin) to ask advice of, to consult.
contaminatio - (Latin) taking a scene from one Greek play and using it in a rewriting
of another; Terence, and maybe Plautus, used this technique in creating some of their
works.
Teacher's Companion: Greek Theater
contendo - (Latin) to compete, to assert, to contend.
contristo - (Latin) to make sad, related to the word tristis, which means sad
conturbenium - (Latin) the smallest Roman military grouping, consisting of 8 soldiers.
convivium - (Latin) getting together with friends for a meal; it is similar to a
symposium; in Latin, it literally means “sharing life together”.
coquus - (Latin) cook; the coquus might prepare popular dishes for the gustatio, or
appetizer, course such as eggs, fish and vegetables or he prepared puls, a porridge
made from wheat that would be a main meal, among other dishes.
corbitas - (Latin) Roman ship used to transport goods such as olive oil, grain, and
wine by sea.
Cornelius Fuscus - a Roman politican and soldier; Cornelius Fuscus supported
Galba’s bid for the emperorship and was, in turn, awarded by Galba a procuratorship
of Illyricum; while he was the praetorian prefect, he was sent to Dacia but was
defeated there and killed in 86 BCE.
cornicines - (Latin) a horn player in the Roman military who was a senior centurion;
in the Roman army, trumpets and horns were used to sound the alarm and signal
attacks, retreats, formation changes, and watch changes.
cornucopia - (Latin) presumably the horn of Amalthaea, that contains an endless
supply of food and drink; for an example, see Harvard 1959.187 (image, look at what
Pluton holds).
corrigo - (Latin) to make correct.
Corvus - the Crow, a constellation; sent by Apollo to collect water from a nearby
stream, the crow dallied and ate figs instead of collecting water in the cup Apollo had
given him; the crow returned to Apollo not with the water but carrying the Hydra and
claimed that the Hydra was his reason for not bringing back the water; Apollo,
knowing the crow was lying, threw him, the Hydra, and the cup into the sky and
condemned the crow to eternal thirst; the crow's thirst is why he cannot sing but only
caws.
coryphaeus (koryphaeus) - leader of the chorus.
cotidie - (Latin) daily.
covinnus (koryphaeus) - a Roman chariot, used especially in war.
Crassus - Marcus Licinius Crassus, wealthy Roman general and politician; in 71 BCE
Crassus put down the slave revolt led by Spartacus; in 70 BCE, he was the consul
along with Pompey; in 60 BCE Crassus became a member of the First Triumvirate
with Caesar and Pompey; following his final consulship, Crassus goes to Syria as its
proconsul in 55 BCE and is killed at the Battle of Carrhae 53 BCE.
Funk & Wagnalls Encyclopedia: Crassus, Marcus Licinius
Plutarch's The Comparison of Crassus with Nicias
Creon - king of Corinth and prospective father-in-law of Jason; (2) brother-in-law of
Oedipus and king of Thebes before and after Oedipus.
crepundia - (Latin) a child's toy, similar to a rattle.
crepusculum - (Latin) dusk; this word is linked to the Latin word creper, meaning
dark.
cresco - (Latin) To increase.
Creusa (Kreousa) (see entry (3) in Perseus Encyclopedia) - wife of Aeneas killed
during the destruction of Troy.
crimen - (Latin) a crime, an accusation, cause of a crime.
Croesus - king of Lydia from 560-546 BCE; led an army against the Persians after
receiving advice from the Delphic oracle and was defeated.
Perseus Historical Overview: Croesus of Lydia and the Ionian Greeks
Image of Croesus on the funeral pyre
Cronus - a Titan, son of Gaia and Uranus; father of Hestia, Demeter, Hera, Hades,
Poseidon, and Zeus by his sister Rhea, also father of Chiron the centaur by Philyra;
some myths identify Cronus as the father of Aphrodite; Cronus is overthrown as the
king of the gods by Zeus with help from his brothers, the Titans, the Cyclopes, and
the Hecatoncheires; in Rome, Cronus is identified with Saturn.
crustum - (Latin) bread or cake.
cuirass - armor comprised of both a breastplate and a back plate or just a breastplate;
for an example, see Boston 98.657 (image).
cult statue - a statue representing a god's or goddess's presents at a temple; for an
example, see Athena Parthenos.
cultor - (Latin) a planter, a farmer.
cum laude - (Latin) With praise; a designation given to academic records with
distinction.
cuneus - (Latin) something with a triangular shape; this word can refer to such entities
as wedges or triangular formations used in the military; this word also refers to the
different sections of a theater’s seats.
cuniculus - (Latin) Roman underground canals or system of drains; derives from the
word “cuniculus” or “rabbit” because of their extensive underground burrows.
cupiditas - (Latin) Desire.
cur - (Latin) why - interrogative pronoun.
cura - (Latin) thoughtfulness.
curia - (Latin) the Roman senate building located in the forum in which
approximately 200 senators could meet; originally, a curia was one of the three parts
in which Romulus divided the Roman people and was also the meeting place of a
curia; the first curia, the Curia Hostilia, was built by Tullus Hostilius in 80 BCE only
to burn down and be rebuilt by Sulla; in 44 BCE, the Curia Julia was constructed by
Julius Caesar though not completed before his death; the Curia Julia burnt down in 64
and 283 and was rebuilt following each fire; the final iteration of the Curia Julia was
built in 300; according to Vitruvius, the curia's dimensions called for the height to be
equal to half the sum of its length and width, and its width to be two-thirds its length.
The Curia
curro - (Latin) to run.
curso - (Latin) to run back and forth.
cursus honorum - (Latin) the steps of advancement through Roman magistracies.
curule aedile - (Latin) Roman magistrates elected from the patricians who supervised
temples and cults; patrician counterpart of the aediles of the plebs; eventually their
jurisdiction grew to include overseeing the streets, the water supply, the market and
the corn-supply; lost some of their power under Caesar and the principate, but
retained control over the markets.
custos - (Latin) custodian/guard.
D
dactylic hexameter - the meter of epic poetry.
dadoukhos - in Ancient Greece, a torch-bearer in the Eleusinian Mysteries; these
torch-bearers were chosen from among the kerykes.
damnatio memoriae - (Latin) damnation of memory.
Danai - see Argives.
Daphne - a nymph and the daughter of the shape shifting river god Peneus; according
to the Greek myth of Daphne, Apollo teased young Eros about his abilities as an
archer, claiming that no one so small could make a difference with his arrows; Eros
grew angry at this insult and shot two arrows from his bow, one at Apollo and one
that happened to hit Daphne; the arrow that struck Apollo was tipped with gold,
which caused him to wildly lust after Daphne; the arrow that struck Daphne was blunt
and lead tipped, which caused her to have no desire to love anyone; Apollo chased
Daphne wanting her to love him, but she ran from him; she knew she would grow
tired and Apollo would catch her so she called for her father to help and he
transformed his daughter into a laurel tree; Apollo still loved Daphne and claimed the
tree as his own wearing its leaves in her memory; the laurel tree is a symbol of
Apollo.
Image of Daphne turned into a Laural Tree
Darius - Darius III (Darius Codomannus) becomes king of Persia in 335 BCE having
been raised to the throne by the eunuch Bagoas; he was a member of the Achaemenid
dynasty; Darius is defeated by Alexander the Great at the battle of Issus in 333 BCE
and at the battle of Gaugamela in 331 BCE despite the fact that the Persian forces
greatly outnumbered Alexander's army; in 330 BCE, after fleeing from Alexander to
Ecbatana and then eastward to Bactria, Darius is murdered by the satrap of Bactria,
Bessus; Darius' death marks the end of the Persian empire.
Dark Age - a period of ancient Greek history from approximately 1200 to 850 BCE.
declamatio - (Latin) public.
dedecus - (Latin) shame, dishonor, crime.
defendo - (Latin) to protect.
Deidameia - the daughter of Lycomedes, king of the Dolopians; together with her
sisters they are known at the daughters of Lycomedes; in the Trojan saga, the seer
Calchas foresaw that the Greeks would never defeat the Trojans without the aid of
Achilles; Achilles' mother, Thetis, sought to hide Achilles because she knew he would
die if he fought at Troy; Thetis disguised Achilles as a girl named Pyrrha and hid him
amongst the daughters of Lycomedes; while amongst the daughters, Achilles and
Deidameia had a son, Pyrrhus (presumably named after Pyrrha, the name of the
disguised Achilles).
Troy 6: Hunt for Mighty Achilles
Deiphobus (see entry (2) in Perseus Encyclopedia) - son of Priam and Hecuba, brother
of Hektor; after Paris' death he married Helen winning her hand by defeating his older
brother Helenus.
deliberative speeches - speeches that consider a course of action both negatively and
positively in order to help make a decision; the Roman Senate would hear deliberative
speeches in order to decide future actions, just as the American Congress does.
delinquo - (Latin) to commit a crime; to fail.
Delphic oracle - shrine at Delphi where the Pythia (Apollo's priestess) gave advice
and prophecies to visitors; for more information, see the Perseus Historical Overview
"5.12. The Oracle at Delphi and Colonization."
demagogue - in ancient times 'a leader of the people', dem(os) + agogos; an orator or
political leader who gains power and popularity by appealing to the passions and
prejudices of the people.
Demeter - goddess of agriculture, mother goddess of the Earth; daughter of Cronus
and Rhea; mother of Persephone.
Demeter in primary text and images of Demeter.
Read the Homeric Hymn to Demeter.
Demetrius I - (337-283 BCE) part of the Antigonid dynasty of Macedonian leaders; a
great warrior who launched campaigns against Egypt and Greece; he won at the Battle
of Salamis, bringing victory over the Egyptians; he was forced into exile in 288 BCE
by Pyrrhus of Epirus and combined forces.
Demetrius II - (161-125 BCE) king of Syria; Demetrius II attempted to sustain
Seleucid control of Syria and Palestine; he was captured during a battle in 139 BCE
by Mithridates I; after being liberated from capture, he ruled Syria; he died in battle
near Tyre in 125 BCE.
demo - (Latin) to subtract.
democracy - government by and of the people (demokratia).
denarius - (Latin) a Roman silver coin; this coin was the equivalent initially of ten
asses, but was later equal to about sixteen.
denomination - class or kind of coin named for its value in the region(s) that used it.
Denominations include: daric, decadrachm, diobol, distater, drachm, hecte, hexas,
litra, obol, onkia, siglos, shekal stater, trite and more including the -nth denominations
of the values listed.
departure - a scene of men going off to war in which family and friends participate in
the preparations for the parting; see Boston 00.343 (image) for an example of a
departure scene.
depilation - the removal of hair, i.e., by singeing it with a flame.
depositio barbae - the first time a Roman boy shaved his beard; this was a ritual
occasion and the shaving of the beard was part of a religious ceremony; for the
emperors Nero and Caligula, the depositio barbae and the toga virilis, another rite of
passage for a Roman male, occurred simultaneously.
desipio - (Latin) to act like a fool.
deus ex machina - (Latin) literally “god out of a machine” ; indicates an otherwise
unexplainable ending that can resolve any troubling matter; in ancient Greek drama,
particularly that of Euripides, a god emerged with the help of a mechanical crane who
could tie together the loose ends of a tricky situation, thereby resolving the drama.
diadem - a crown or cloth band worn around the head; for an example, see Harvard
4.1908 (image).
diaulos – in ancient Greek athletics, a running race of 400 meters or two stades.
The Ancient Olympics
Diana - the Roman goddess of fertility, the moon, nature and childbirth; portrayed in
art as a huntress; identified with Artemis.
Bullfinch's Mythology: Diana and Actaeon
Encyclopedia Mythica: Diana
didactic poetry - poetry which gives instruction on a given topic; an example is this
type of work is Lucretius' On the Nature of the Universe.
Dido (Elissa) - queen and founder of Carthage allowed to take as much land as she
could enclose in the hide of a bull; loved by Aeneas, tragic heroine of the Aeneid.
die axis - axis's degree coordinate for the tool used for shaping and punching coin
metal; distinctions between coins that have the same imprint pattern can be made by
looking at their die axes.
dies - (Latin) day.
dignitas - (Latin) dignity, pride, a highly important Roman virtue.
dinos - a deep round bowl used for mixing wine and cooking; see the Perseus
Encyclopedia entry for dinos for more information and an image.
Diocletian - born in 245, Diocletian assumed power as Roman emperor in 284; an
astute administrator, he decided that the key to governing the vast Roman empire was
to divide it; he ruled with Maximian in 285, and then added two more "junior
emperors" in 293, one of whom was Constantius, the father of Constantine; in 305 he
abdicated and retired; Diocletian is probably best known for his ten-year persecution
of the Christians, which made him the frequent villain in Christian literature in the
Middle Ages; Diocletian died in 313.
Diodorus Siculus - historian who lived under Caesar and Augustus; born in Agyrium
(Agira) in Sicily; wrote world history, Bibliotheke, in 40 books to Caesar's Gallic
War, of which 1-8 and 11-20 are extant and the remaining books are fragmentary.
Biography of Diodorus Siculus
Diomedes - a former suitor of Helen and Greek warrior at Troy who meets, but does
not fight Glaukos (Iliad); (2) king of Thrace, son of Ares and Pyrene who owned man
eating mares and is killed by Herakles.
Dionysiac - connected with Dionysus or Bacchus.
Dionysus (Bacchus) - Greek god of wine and theater, son of Zeus and Semele; read
the Homeric Hymn to Dionysus to learn more.
Bullfinch's Mythology: Bacchus (Dionysus)
Diotima - a priestess (it is unknown whether she was fictional or real) from whom
Socrates claims to have learned about love in the Symposium of Plato.
discipulus - (Latin) student, learner.
Discordia - (Latin) "strife"; Discordia was also a goddess who embodied strife.
discus - originally made of stone, later discuses were made of bronze, iron, or lead in
ancient Greek times; the ancient discus looked a lot like the ones used today; it
weighed between 1.3 and 6.6 kilograms and was anywhere from 17 to 32 centimeters
in diameter; boys threw a different, smaller discus than the men.
The Ancient Olympics
diskobolos - a discus thrower; for an example, see Malibu 84.AE.63.
distaff - a staff with a notch at one end through which wool is drawn by hand; for an
example, see Harvard 1920.44.54 (images).
dithyramb - a song sung by a chorus in honor of Dionysus; there were dithyramb
competitions held at the Rural and City Dionysia.
diu - (Latin) for a long time (adv).
dives - (Latin) rich, expensive.
dixi - (Latin) literally “I have spoken”; indicates the point that ends debate.
doctor - (Latin) teacher.
dolichos - in ancient Greek athletics, an running race of 1,400 to 1,800 meters.
The Ancient Olympics
Domitia Longina - wife of emperor Domitian and daughter of Domitius Corbulo;
initially she was married to Lucius Aelius Lamia; however, when the emperor
Domitian saw her, he became infatuated; he arranged for her divorce from her first
husband and married her in 70 CE; she was divorced from Domitian and exiled in 83
CE because she was caught having an affair with an actor; she is suspected of having
participated in the assassination of Domitian in 96 CE.
Domitian - (51-96 CE) Roman emperor; son of Vespasian and brother of Titus; in 83
CE, Domitian adds the name “Germanicus” to his own; although he initially did not
have great political responsibilities, he managed to be named Titus’ successor;
Domitian did not prove to have great economic, military or political successes; his
interests lay in the areas of sport and arts; under his reign, the Colosseum was finished
and he established the Capitoline Games in 86 CE; this unpopular emperor was
assassinated in 96 CE; after his death, the senate voted to damn his memory
(damnatio memoriae).
Domitius Corbulo - Roman military officer and politician; Corbulo held various
political offices, including consul and praetor under Nero’s reign; he also reorganized
the military in the east and gained control of Sylria and Cappadocia-Galatia; because
of Corbulo’s success and popularity, Nero compelled him to commit suicide in 66 CE.
domus - (Latin) Latin word for house, home, or palace; in ancient Roman times, the
pater familias was the head of the Roman household; the domus' floor plan was
symmetrical; the fauces, the jaws or entryway of the house, opened into the atrium
which was the central hall usually followed by the tablinum, the reception area where
guests were greeted; in front of the tablinum lay the impluvium, the pool that
collected rain from the compluvium, or skylight that was a source for light and air; the
cubicula, bedrooms or studies, ran along the sides of the central axis; the triclinium
(dining room), kitchen, and the garden were situated in the rear of the house.
Roman Living
dos - (Latin) a dowry; the amount of money or goods that is allotted to a woman and
her husband upon marriage.
drama - a literary work which presents a story by means of dialogue and action.
Drusus - Nero Claudius Drusus (38 BCE-9 BCE), son of Livia and brother of
Tiberius, stepson to Augustus; called "Drusus the Elder"; he fathered Germanicus and
Claudius; he was popular with the Roman people; he was skilled militarily and fought
against hte Raetians and in Germania; he died because of injuries sustained after
falling off of his horse in 9 BCE.
Drusus - Tiberius Drusus Julius Caesar (13 BCE-23 CE), son of Tiberius; called
"Drusus the Younger"; made joint consul with Tiberius in 21 CE; husband to Livia
Julia; he was poisoned in 23 CE by Livia Julia and Sejanus.
dubito - (Latin) to doubt, to hesitate.
dubium - (Latin) doubt, hesitation.
duodecim scripta - (Latin) duodecim scripta means "twelve lines"; two players sat
across from each other and placed 15 black or white pieces (presumably stacked) on
the first square on their side of the game board; each player tossed a set of three dice
from a cup and moved their pieces according to the value of the throw; the object was
to get all one's pieces across the board to the final square; if you landed on a square
that had an opponent's piece already on it, that piece would return to (their) square
one; if two or more opponent's pieces were already on the square, then it could not be
occupied; this game has a great deal in common with modern Backgammon and with
Egyptian Senet.
Learn how to play duodecim scripta
duoviri sacris faciundis - (Latin) the two Roman priests entrusted with keeping the
libri Sibyllini, the collection of the Sibyl’s prophecies.
dux - (Latin) “general, leader”; this term is linked to the Latin verb duco, to lead; in
the Aeneid, Aeneas grows to be comfortable in his position as dux, developing from a
man who bemoans his fate and survival at his first appearance in the text to a more
confident leader.
E
Echo - the Roman version of the myth of Echo was written by Ovid who said Echo
was a nymph assigned by Zeus to talk incessantly to Hera distracting her from Zeus
amorous affairs with mortals and gods; Hera discovered the ruse and punished Echo
by making her repeat what others said; Echo fell in love with the mortal Narcissus
whose vanity caused him to stare at his reflection in a pool of water until he died;
overcome with grief, Echo pined for her lost love and faded away leaving only her
voice behind to echo the voices of others; the Greek version of the myth of Echo says
that Echo was a musical nymph who could sing and play many instruments; her
musical skills attracted the jealousy and hatred of many including the god Pan; Pan
had his shepherds kill Echo and tear her apart scattering her pieces; the goddess Gaia
(mother earth) took the pieces of Echo into her bosom; Echo's voice and talents were
thus scattered all over the earth and that is why she is heard imitating sounds and
voices in all corners of the world.
ecphrasis - a long description of something included in a text; for example in the
Aeneid, there is a long ekphrasis of Dido’s walls detailing the Trojan War; in both the
Iliad and the Aeneid, there are ekphrases of shields.
Egeria - a Roman water nymph who was an attendant of Diana.
eggastrimuthos - a spirit that controlled someone's voice; at ancient oracles, priests or
priestesses would be taken over by a divinity who forced him or her to speak; often, it
was thought that the god Apollo controlled prophets' voices.
eidolon - the image or ghost of a dead person; for an example, see Harvard
1925.30.52.
ekecheiria - the official three-month truce proclaimed by the spondophoroi of Elis
that was initiated during the Olympic games; fines were imposed on anyone breaking
the truce.
The Olympic Truce - Myth and Reality
The Ancient Olympics
ekklesia - Athenian assembly; for more information see the Perseus Historical
Overview "6.22. The Institutions of Incipient Democracy."
ekkyklema - literally a "thing rolled out"; in a theater, a platform rolled out on wheels
through one of the doors of the skene on which a tableau was displayed representing
the result of an action which had taken place indoors and therefore was unseen by the
audience.
elanguesco - (Latin) to become relaxed, to become languid.
Eleusinian Mysteries - the earliest Greek mystery cult, located in Eleusis; this cult
worshipped Demeter; for its worship, the Eleusinian Mysteries had special priests,
rites, and a specific initiation process; much is still unknown about mystery cults,
which adds to their interest for modern students and scholars.
eloquentia - (Latin) eloquence; Cicero discusses eloquentia at length in his De Oratore
or On Oratory.
embades - an enclosed boot; the term comes from the Greek verb embainein, "to step
into"; the boot was often lined with fur or felt; Dionysus is depicted wearing embades
and thus tragic actors wore them on stage.
Louvre vase on which a youth wears embades (image)
emodular - (Latin) to put something to music.
empiricism - the doctrine that says sense experience is the only source of knowledge.
emporium - (Latin) a market, where any kind of sales are made.
emptor - (Latin) buyer, one who buys; this word derives from the Latin verb emo; a
famous Latin phrase used in business is “caveat emptor” which literally means “let
the buyer beware”.
engue - a pledge; in an ancient Greek wedding ceremongy it is an oral agreement
between the kyrios, the bride's male guardian, and the groom; the kyrios entrusted his
charge to the groom for the purpose of producing children, while reciting the phrase:
"I hand over this woman to you for the ploughing of legitimate children."
Ancient Weddings
Ennius - Quintus Ennius is the first Latin poet; he wrote during the Roman Republic;
his Annales, written in dactylic hexameter, chronicled Roman history beginning with
the fall of Troy and continuing through Cato the Elder’s censorship; the Annales was
an early text used in schools that was eventually replaced with Vergil’s Aeneid.
entablature - section of a temple between the columns and eaves often composed of
the architrave, cornice and frieze.
The Columns of Greece, Rome & Providence RI
ephedreia - in ancient Greek athletic competitions, a bye in which the odd athlete out,
the ephedros, competed with the victor in the next round of competition.
The Ancient Olympics
ephedros - in ancient Greek athletic competitions, the odd athlete out who had a bye
and competed with the victor in the next round of competition.
The Ancient Olympics
Ephesus - a Greek city in the Roman province of Asia, modern-day Turkey; a battle
was fought at Ephesus in 499 BCE during the Persian Wars; the city of Ephesus
boasted a beautiful Temple of Artemis
epic - a long poem focusing on the story of a hero involving gods and heroic exploits,
Homer's Iliad, Odyssey and Vergil's Aeneid are all examples.
University of Victoria's electronic list of Literary and Rhetorical Terms
epic cycle - a series of poems that recount the entirety of the Trojan War; the best
known texts of the epic cycle are Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey; each poem relates a
different piece of the Trojan saga, beginning from the Wedding of Peleus and Thetis
and the Judgment of Paris and following through the return home from the war of
various heroes.
Troy
Epicureanism - the moral philosophy of Epicurus which rejected the involvement of
the gods in human life and urged the avoidance of pain; Epicureanism promoted
seeking pleasure; however, the pleasure to seek was not bodily pleasure but rather
pleasure for the soul; ataraxia, the absence of disturbance, is most important;
Epicureans worked to free themselves from distractions of the outside world.
Epicurus - a Hellenistic Athenian philosopher and founder of Epicureanism (On the
Nature of the Universe).
Netshot: On the Nature of the Universe
epideictic speeches - a genre of speeches that seeks to praise or blame someone or
something; epideictic speeches would usually be delivered on specific occasions to
commemorate or revile; an example of a positive epideictic speech is Pliny's
Panegyric, while a negative epideictic speech would be the Philippics delivered by
Cicero.
epinician - a poem written to commemorate athletic victories; the Greek poet Pindar
is best know for his epinians in which he wrote about athletic triumphs at ancient
Greek sporting contests.
The Ancient Olympics
Pindar's Olympian Ode For Hieron of Syracuse, Single Horse Race, 476 BCE
episode - spoken part of Greek drama that alternates with the stasima which are sung.
epithet - a word or phrase that is added to the name of a person or thing describing a
characteristic attribute, e.g., swift-footed Achilles.
epoptes - a later-stage initiate in a Greek mystery cult; an epoptes was a mystes who
returned for further instruction.
epulae - (Latin) a banquet.
epyllion - a smaller epic; these texts would generally contain only about 600 lines and
would cover a mythological topics; the most famous practitioners of the epyllion were
Callimachus and Theocritus.
eques - (Latin) horseman; one who takes care of horses.
equito - (Latin) to ride on a horse.
equus - (Latin) horse.
equitatus - (Latin) cavalry.
Erato - the Muse of lyric poetry; ; the Muses were nine goddesses whom artists
appealed to in order to inspire their works; Virgil calls upon Erato in Book 7 of his
Aeneid to give him inspiration.
Erinyes - the Furies; they are three sisters named Tisiphone, Megaera, and Alecto;
they were supposedly born out of anger and their job is to seek revenge on people
who have committed crimes; in Aeschylus’ Oresteia trilogy, the final play, the
Eumenides chronicles the change of these goddesses from the Erinyes to the
Eumenides (the “Kindly Ones”) and the creation of a legal justice system.
Eris - the goddess of discord; daughter of Zeus and Hera; Eris is involved in every
quarrel, feud and disagreement; her eternal and unforgiving rage was the cause of fear
and respect on Olympus, though despised by the Olympians they dared not confront
her; though she rode into battle with her brother and companion, Aries, she was more
generally known for the less deadly forms of conflict; political strife, personal
contention, rivalry and wrangling; she is often confused with the Roman goddess,
Discordia.
error - (Latin) mistake; deception.
erubesco - (Latin) to respect, to blush for.
esca - (Latin) food.
esculentus - (Latin) delicious, ripe.
essedarius - (Latin) a charioteer, someone who rides in an essedum.
essedum - (Latin) a chariot used in war by the Gauls and the Britons.
Eteocles - son of Oedipus and Jocasta; cursed by his father never to live in peace with
his brother, Polynices; the two brothers killed one another.
Euclid - mathematician; his famous text, which writes the laws of geometry, is his
Stoicheion or Elements that was published in 300 BCE.
Eunus - leader of a slave revolt; he incited other slaves to begin the First Servile War
that lasted between 135 BCE and 132 BCE; he died in 132 BCE
euphemism - the use of a more palatable word or phrase in place of a more direct or
crude one. [Contributor: Dr. Ismail S. Talib, National University of Singapore.]
Euripides - Athenian tragic playwright lived from ca. 485 BCE to 406 BCE;
Euripides began his career as a tragic playwright in 455 BCE; his extant plays
include: Alcestis (438), Medea (431), Children of Heracles (ca. 430), Hippolytus
(428, first prize), Andromache (ca. 425), Hecuba (ca. 424), Suppliant Women (ca.
423), Electra (ca. 420), Heracles (ca. 416), Trojan Women (415, second prize),
Iphigenia among the Taurians (ca. 414), Ion (ca. 413), Helen (412), Phoenician
Women (ca. 410), Orestes (408), Bacchae and Iphigenia in Aulis (after 406,
posthumous first prize), Cyclops (date unknown, possibly ca. 410).
Biography of Euripides
Netshot: Introduction to Greek Tragedy
Euripides' Medea
Euripides' Bacchae
evalesco - (Latin) to grow strong; to be able.
Evander - Greek king who came to Italy and settled on the Palatine Hill at the site of
Rome; (2) son of Priam.
everriculum - (Latin) a fishing net.
everto - (Latin) to overthrow.
evinco - (Latin) to conquer, to defeat.
evolutio - (Latin) opening and reading of a scroll; reading a book.
ex animo - (Latin) literally “from the spirit”; this phrase indicates when something
appears sincerely.
ex cathedra - (Latin) literally "from the chair"; when someone speaks ex cathedra,
(s)he appears confidently and with expertise.
ex libris - (Latin) literally "from the books"; this phrase can be occasionally found on
the frontispiece of books to indicate where they come from.
ex officio - (Latin) literally "from the office"; when a person gains a new job, (s)he
may at the same time gain a place on certain committees that go along with that new
job; hence, (s)he holds the committee office ex officio not because of personally being
appointed.
ex parte - (Latin) literally "from a party"; if only one side of a two-party dispute
appears to argue, then that dispute is ex parte since only one voice is heard.
excolo - (Latin) to honor a god; to polish; to serve.
exedra - a semicircular portico with curved outdoor high-backed benches that was
often used in ancient Greek and Roman times as meeting area.
exemplar - (Latin) a model; a book to copy.
exempli gratia - (Latin) literally this expression means "for the sake of example";
abbreviated in texts as "e.g."; the abbreviation is used in scholarly writing to indicate
a following example.
exodos - 'exit scene'; the exit and closing song in Greek drama; roughly, the section of
the play after the last stasimon.
exploro - (Latin) to explore.
extant - refers to the works of ancient authors that have not been destroyed or lost and
are complete.
extendo - (Latin) to expand.
extispicy - the reading of an omen by examining the entrails of animals; for an
example, see Wurzburg L 507 (image).
extollo - (Latin) to lift up, to exalt.
extremitas - (Latin) farthest point, end.
F
fabella - (Latin) any small story or drama
fabrica - (Latin) manufacture, trick, art, craft; the workshop of a Roman legion located
within the legionary camp; skilled artisans and craftmen from the legion, such as
engineers, carpenters, masons, wagon-makers, blacksmiths, painters, and other
artificers, worked in the fabrica under the command of a praefectus fabrum; these
craftsmen were excused from the normal duties and were known as immunes. At
archaeological sites were legionary camps were located, many buildings have been
identified as fabricae and contain iron-smelting furnaces, large water cisterns and
hypocausti.
fabula - (Latin) a tale, story or drama
facina - (Latin) a crime, evildoing.
falsus - (Latin) false, deceptive.
familia - (Latin) a family, people related by marriage or blood ties.
fasces - (Latin) a bundle of rods in the middle of which is tied an axe; the fasces was
an emblem of governmental power; lictors carried fasces in front of powerful people
as a symbol of their authority.
Fates - three sisters named Clotho, Lachesis and Atropos; these women measure out
the length of individuals’ lives; they are the daughters of Zeus and Themis.
Fatum - the god of destiny; originally the word 'fatum' meant 'the word of god' and in
Greek religion it came to include the divinities of destiny, e.g., the Moirae, Parcae,
and Sibyls; near the rostra in Rome stood statues of the Fata, the three Sibyls; later the
word 'fata' was mistaken for the feminine singular form and became the origin of the
word 'fairies'; as a general noun, 'fatum' is the idea that one’s life is already decided at
birth; in Greek, this term can be “moira”; the term also becomes associated with
death, that is, the inevitable; but it is important to realize that in Classical literature
while the ultimate outcome of a character’s life may be decided, there can still be
choices made that affect the path taken to that fate
felix sex - (Latin) "lucky sixes" a Roman board game very similar to duodecim scripta
or tabula; felix sex boards contained 36 letters or squares; three dice were tossed to
move 15 pieces up the center line of letters or squares and then over to the left; felix
sex was played all across the Roman Empire, in taverns, brothels, private homes, and
frontier forts.
Learn how to play Felix Sex
ferula - (Latin) literally, this word means "fennel"; it comes to indicate any kind of
cane or stick, including those used to punish slaves and children.
ferus - (Latin) wild, cruel.
festialis - (Latin) a priest who belongs to a college of priests whose job was to
formally make peace or declare war.
ficus - (Latin) a fig tree
fidelis - (Latin) loyal, faithful.
fidem servo - (Latin) literally “to preserve faith”; this phrase comes to mean to keep
one’s word.
fides - (Latin) a promise; word of honor.
fidicen - (Latin) a person who plays the lute or harp.
figulus - (Latin) potter; this word is tied to the Latin verb, fingo, which means to
touch, fashion or shape; a figulus created a number of items that would be used daily
in the Roman home, such as pots used for cooking and vessels for transporting water
and wine.
fillet - an architectural term referring to the narrow, flat section between the flutes of
an Ionic column's shaft (image).
finis - (Latin) a end, boundary, limit.
fistulator - (Latin) a person who plays the reed-pipe.
flamen - (plural flamines) a Roman priest under the pontifex maximus; the positions
of Flamen Dialis (worshipper of Jupiter), Flamen Martialis (worshipper of Mars), and
Flamen Quirinalis (worshipper of Quirinus) were filled only by patricians, although
plebeians could be flamines for other deities.
Flora - (Latin) Roman goddess of flowers.
fluentum - (Latin) a stream; running water.
fluidus - (Latin) flowing, relaxed.
fluto - (Latin) to float, to swim.
folium - (Latin) a leaf.
Fons - (Latin) Roman goddess of water; a Roman festival held in her honor entitled
the Fontinalia occurred in October.
forensic speeches - speeches given during a trial to reenact the events and decide upon
justice; some of the most famous ancient speeches extant today were written and
delivered by Cicero.
foreshadowing - literary device whereby the author gives hints about what is going to
happen later in the story.
formula - (Latin) physical beauty, principle.
fortitudo - (Latin) physical strength.
Fortuna Primigenia at Praeneste - a temple to Fortuna Primigenia (first-born chance)
that was also an oracle; this oracle would be sought especially to ask for children.
fortuno - (Latin) to make happy or bless, similar in meaning to the verb beo.
forum - (Latin) civic and trade center where all manner of commerce, governmental
and judicial procedings, and public assembly took place; the most famous forum was
found in Rome, had been rebuilt in 54 BCE, and included buildings and landmarks
such as the Curia Julia, Basilica Aemilia, the comitium, the rostra, the Volcanal, and
the Lacus Curtius.
The Forum
fossae - (Latin) canals or ditches; the Romans greatly relied upon canals and
undertook large projects to dig canals in provinces such as Britain and Egypt; fossae
are also ditches dug around a Roman camp of a depth of approximately five feet to
protect against an invading enemy.
fossor - (Latin) a digger; someone who digs ditches; a fool, a boor.
frieze - in reference to architecture and sculpture, the section of the entablature
between the architrave and the cornice on which a sculpture scene may appear. For
more information, see a architectural drawing of a frieze and an image of the frieze on
the Temple of Athena Nike.
The Columns of Greece, Rome & Providence RI
The Significance of the Parthenon Frieze, Perseus Historical Overview.
frigidarium - (Latin) in a Roman bath, this was the cold room; a bath's patron would
enter this room following their use of the calidarium; the cold pool of water into
which the patron leapt was used to close open pores or to wash off sweat after visiting
the palaestra, where male patrons lifted weights and wrestled or just hung out and
played board games.
frigidus - (Latin) cold; frigidus means the opposite of calidus, the Latin word for
“hot”.
frondator - (Latin) someone who cuts or prunes trees
fructus - (Latin) fruit, profit.
frumentum - (Latin) grain, a staple of the Roman diet.
frustro - (Latin) to deceive, to trick.
frustror - (Latin) to deceive, to trick.
fuga - (Latin) flight, running away.
fulvus - (Latin) deep-yellow; this term is related to the Latin verb fulgeo, to flash,
shine.
fundo - (Latin) to defeat; to scatter; to pour out.
furnarius - (Latin) baker; the furnarius literally means the one who uses the oven, or
furnus.
furor - (Latin) “fury, passion”; in the Aeneid, furor unbalances events and people;
Vergil creates in Aeneas a hero who wants to cling to Stoic values, but who ultimately
is undone by furor in the final scene of the poem; in Book Four of the Aeneid, Dido is
an element of furor that foretells the destruction of her city, Carthage; both she and
the city burn and fire is one of the clearest metaphors for furor.
Netshot: Aeneid
furta - (Latin) stolen property; trick.
G
Galba - (3 BCE-69 CE) Roman emperor; he was a good soldier and moved through
the Roman political ranks, becoming praetor and consul; he became emperor after the
death of Nero, but was never very popular with the soldiers or the Roman people; he
was murdered in 69 CE, after which Otho became emperor.
Galen - Greek physician born in Pergamum in Asia Minor ca. 129; at 16 Galen began
his study of medicine and continued his studies on Alexandria in Egypt at the age of
20; he returned to Pergamum ten years later and became a surgeon to gladiators; in
the year 162, at the age of 34, Galen went to Rome as physician to the court of the
Emperor Marcus Aurelius; Galen returned to Pergamum for three years but in 169 he
became a permanent resident of Rome; Galen's research included the studies of
physiology, pharmacology, and most notably anatomy; his study of antatomy led him
to conclude that arteries contain blood, not air as Aristotle had taught; he studied the
works of Erasistratus, Plato, Herophilus, and Hippocrates and his teachings were
accepted as authoritative by the Church; Galen wrote over 400 books, 100 are now
known; Galen's work remained virtually unchalleged by other scientific theory until
the Renascence.
Galen: a Biographical Sketch
Ganymede - also known as Aquarius; an adolescent boy who was said to be the most
beautiful of all mortals; while guarding his father's flock, Zeus saw Ganymede and
fell in love with him; Zeus carried Ganymede off to Olympus where Ganymede
served as his cup-bearer pouring nectar for Zeus, a position formally held by Hebe; to
compensate his father for taking his son, Zeus gave Ganymede's father divine horses.
garum - (Latin) a fish sauce that has been fermented.
Gaul - a portion of western Europe nearly identical in its geography to modern
France; the founding of the colony of Massalía (Marseille) by the Phocaean Greeks in
600 BCE is the first historic mention of Gaul; according to Julius Caesar's Gallic
Wars, Gaul was divided into three parts, inhabited by the Belgae in the north, the
Aquitani in the south, and the Galli or Celtae in the area in between; the three groups
used different languages, customs, and laws, and the Aquitani were ethnically distinct
from the Belgae and Celtae; the Romans divided Gaul into two sections: Gallia
Cisalpina and Gallia Translapina; in 387 BCE, the Senons from Gallia Cisalpina
(modern day northern Italy) sacked Rome easily defeating the frightened Romans and
their warriors; Rome bought its freedom from the Senons back with gold but
eventually defeated the Senons driving them from Rome under the leadership of the
Roman general Camillo; Julius Caesar invaded Gaul in 58 BCE; in 52 BCE the
rebellion of Vergcingetorix, "king" of the Gauls, takes place but is put down by
Roman forces; following the defeat of Vergcingetorix, Rome ruled Gaul as its
province; in 49 BCE, Caesar conferred Roman citizenship on the inhabitants of Gallia
Cisalpina.
History of the Gauls
Gauls Sack Rome and Rome's Allies in Italy Revolt
Caesar's Campaigns in Gaul (58-50 BCE)
Rebellion of Vercingetorix in Gaul
Geb - an ancient Egyptian god of the earth, Geb’s laugh was said to be the cause of
earthquakes; his sister and wife was Nut, the goddess of the sky; Geb was the son of
Shu and Tefnut; with Nut he produced four children, Osiris, Isis, Seth, and Nephthys.
Ancient Egyptian Gods - Geb
gelu - (Latin) frost, chill.
genialis - (Latin) enjoyable, fun, easygoing.
genre - class or category of art or literature in accordance with characteristic form,
technique and content; examples of literary genres are tragedy, comedy, and epic.
gens - (Latin) a family group in Rome; members of the same gens shared common
property, the right to inherit, a common burial place, religious rites, and the same
name.
geographical context - the locational circumstances of an event.
georgicus - (Latin) having to do with agriculture; Vergil’s Georgics dealt with
pastoral matters
Germania - (Latin) Germany also known in Latin as Alemannia; the territory located
between the Rhone, Vistule, Danube and the sea; it was divided by the Romans into
two sections – Upper and Lower Germania.
Germanicus - Germanicus Julius Caesar; Germanicus was very popular and a good
soldier; in 4 CE, Augustus chose Tiberius to be his heir, but arranged that Tiberius
would select Germanicus to follow his rule; Germanicus was consul in 12 CE and was
left behind to continue the war in Germany by Tiberius that same year; Germanicus
died in 17 CE under suspicious circumstances in Egypt; he had several children with
his wife Agrippina the Elder, among whom were Caligula and Agrippina the
Younger, the mother of Nero.
gladiator - the term comes from the Latin word meaning 'sword', gladius; gladiators
were condemned criminals, prisoners of war, or slaves bought for the purpose of
gladiatorial combat by a lanista, or owner/trainer of gladiators; gladiators could also
be free men who voluteered fight; for more on the history, origins, and daily life of
gladiators, see the link below.
The Roman Gladiator
Glaukon - brother of Plato and one of the interlocutors of the Republic.
Glaucus - helped Paris abduct Helen and the Trojan ally who meets, but does not fight
Diomedes (Iliad); (13) son of Sisyphus who became king of Corinth, dies at the
funeral games of Pelias when he loses a chariot race and is eaten by his horses.
gloria - (Latin) fame, glory.
glorificus - (Latin) glorious.
glorior - (Latin) to glory, to boast.
gorgon - one of three sisters, Stheino, Euryale, and Medusa; Medusa's monstrous hair
was comprised of writhing snakes and her eyes turned people to stone when they look
into them; for an example, see Munich 2312 (image).
gorytos - a combination quiver and bow case from the Persians; for an example, see
Philadelphia 31-19-2 (image).
Gracchus, Gaius Sempronius - brother to Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus; tribune in
123 and 122 BCE; Gaius Gracchus promoted laws to help the poor of Rome; he also
wanted to make the Latins (the original inhabitants of Latium) Roman citizens, a
suggestion which was not popular; in 121, after he was not re-elected, Gaius Gracchus
led an armed revolt that caused the senate to use the senatus consultum ultimum for
the first time; after this revolt, he and his supporters were killed.
Gracchus, Tiberius Sempronius - politician, brother to Gaius Sempronius Gracchus;
Tiberius Gracchus became tribune in 133 BCE and carried out controversial
legislation that ultimately caused his murder in the same year; Tiberius Gracchus
wanted to take care of two of Rome's problems: (1) small land-owners who had lost
their land and (2) the possibility of not having enough food for the city; he suggested
the enforcement of a law that did not permit estates of more than 500 iugera; the extra
land would then be given to poor citizens; the more wealthy senators did not support
the restrictions on their property and rejected Tiberius' proposal; Tiberius Gracchus
was murdered by a group of senators led by the Pontifex Maximus P. Cornelius
Scipio Nasica Serapio in 133 BCE.
Graces - the three daughters of Zeus and Eurynome; their names are Aglaia
(Splendor), Euphrosyne (Festivity), and Thalia; they brought happiness to whomever
they visited.
gramen - (Latin) any plant or grass.
grammaticus - (Latin) a teacher of literature and language; upper-class Roman boys,
following primary school, were taught by a grammaticus who instructed them in
Greek and Roman literature; this system of education was adopted from the Greeks.
gratia - (Latin) on account of.
grave stele - a grave monument standing upright with an inscription and/or sculpted
picture on it; a grave stone or marker; for an example, see Berlin 1465 (image).
gravitas - (Latin) "gravity", a greatly valued Roman characteristic; gravitas meant that
one took seriously public and private responsibilities and realized their importance.
greave - a piece of a soldiers armor wore on the shin and calf between the knee and
the ankle; for an example, see Berlin F 2331 (image).
Greek alphabet - Greek letters, English transliterations of the Greek letters, and names
of the Greek letters appear in the chart below.
griffin - a mythical being with the head and wings of an eagle of body of a lion; for an
example, see Boston 96.665 (image).
groma - Roman engineers used a groma as a surveying device to build roads,
aqueducts and buildings; a groma consisted of a wooden stand with crossbar from
which weights were hung; the weights on the end of each crossbar assured that the
groma was kept perpendicular to the ground.
Birmingham Roman Roads Project: Roman Roads in Britain
gustatio - (Latin) an appetizer or hors d’oeuvre; Romans might serve eggs, shell fish,
or vegetables as a gustatio.
gymnastes – in ancient Greece, a high paid, athletic exercise trainers.
The Ancient Olympics
gyrus - or vivarium; in the Roman legionary camp, the gyrus with the training ring
and animal corral. The structure was formed from fifty semicircular cut timbers set
upright in a circular trench, probably supporting a framework of cross-timbers. A
single entrance passage adjoined the structure on the north-east and had gates at both
ends, presumably to control the entrance and exite of animals. It is probable that both
horses and men were trained within the gyrus.
H
Hadrian - born in 76, Hadrian became Roman emperor in 117 following the death of
Trajan; Hadrian is considered one of the greatest Roman emperors, the third in the
line of the "Adoptive Emperors"; Hadrian was a successful general, under whom the
Roman Empire reached its greatest geographical extent; he was also an adventurer
who loved travel and who was a talented architect who designed the Pantheon in
Rome and his own villa outside Rome; Hadrian died in 138.
Haemon (Haimon) (see entry (2) in Perseus Encyclopedia) - son of Creon and fiancé
of Antigone who kills himself when Creon condemned Antigone to death.
halteres – in ancient Greek athletics, lead or stone weights used by athletes in
jumping events; used to increase jump distance, athletes held these telephone receiver
or dumb bell shaped weights in their hands, ran forward, jumped swinging the
weights, and released the halteres behind him at the end of the jump; halteres weighed
between 1.6 to 4.6 kilograms, or 3.5 to 10.1 pounds.
The Ancient Olympics
hamartia - an error, failure.
Hannibal - Carthaginian general, born in 247 BCE, son of Hamilcar Barca; traveled
with his father to conquer Spain when he was nine; from age 18 to 25, Hannibal
carried out his brother-in-law Hasdrubal's plan to consolidate Carthaginian rule on the
Iberian Peninsula; Hasdrubal was assassinated in 221 BCE and Hannibal was chosen
to lead the Carthaginian army in Spain; by 219 BCE, Hannibal had gained control of
Spain between the Tajo and Iberus rivers, with the exception of Saguntum, which he
captured in 218 BCE; Hannibal had violated Carthage's treaty with Rome and Rome
declared war on Carthage, thus began the Second Punic War; in 218 BCE, Hannibal
marched with 40,000 troops to Rome, allying himself with various tribes and Italian
cities along the way; in 211 BCE, Hannibal attempted to take Rome but failed to
breakthrough the Roman fortifications; the Romans would retake Capua and the
Italian allies of Hannibal were lost to him as a result; Hannibal's brother, Hasdrubal,
was called to help Hannibal in Italy but on his march from Spain, Hasdrubal was
defeated and killed by the Roman consul Gaius Claudius Nero in the Battle of the
Metaurus River; Hannibal returned to Carthage to defend against the Roman invasion
led by Scipio Africanus the Elder in 203 BCE; the Roman invasion was successful
and the Second Punic War ended in 202 BCE; always the leader and hater of Rome,
Hannibal changed the Carthaginian constitution, reduced corruption in the
government, and re-financed the city so that he could fight again; the Romans took
Hannibal's actions as a break in the peace and forced Hannibal to flee to Syria and the
safety the court of King Antiochus III in 195 BCE; Hannibal fought with the Syrians
against Rome, but when the Syrians signed a treaty with Rome Hannibal fled again in
195 BCE this time to King Prusias II of Bithynia, in northern Asia Minor; when the
Romans demanded his surrender, Hannibal committed suicide in 183 BCE.
The Punic War Page
The Punic Wars
Hannibal Barca and the Punic Wars
Hapi - a male deity, Hapi is the oldest of the Egyptian gods whose name is an
evolution of the ancient Egyptian word for Nile, hep; Hapi is depicted as a man with
breasts and a round belly, which indicated nourishment and fertility.
Ancient Egyptian Gods - Hapi
hariolus - a fortune-teller, a prophet.
Harmodius - conspirator against the Greek tyrants Hippias and Hipparchus; he and his
friend Aristogeiton hatched a plan to kill the two tyrants in 514 BCE, however they
were only successful in the killing of Hipparchus; Thucydides recounts their plan and
its outcome in his history text.
harpy (harpies) - mythical beings with the head of a woman and body of a bird that
are great tormentors; also known as the "snatchers;" for an example, see Würzburg L
164 (image).
Hathor - an ancient Egyptian goddess also known as Sekhmet; Hathor was depicted
as a woman with the head of a cow, as a cow, or as a woman wearing cow horns and
holding a solar disk; the Hathors, who served a similar role as the Fates in ancient
Greek mythology, were depicted as seven young women who wore the headdress of
Hathor, horns and the solar disk.
Ancient Egyptian Gods - Hathor
Hecate (Hekate) - a mother goddess who exteneded goodwill towards mortals;
daughter of Perses and Asteria, directly descended from the Titans; identified with
Artemis; later became known as the goddess of the crossroads appearing in the form
of a woman with three heads, one of snake, one of a horse and one of a dog.
Encyclopedia Mythica: Hecate
Hector - see Hektor.
Hecuba - (Hekabe) - wife of Priam and mother of Hektor, Paris, Creusa, Laodice,
Polyxena and Cassandra.
Encyclopedia Mythica: Hecuba
Hektor (Hector) - son of Priam and Hecuba, hero of the Trojans (Iliad).
Helen - wife of Menelaos, whose abduction by Paris caused the Trojan War; said to
be the most beautiul woman in the ancient Greek world.
Helenos - brother of Hektor with prophetic ability.
Heliodorus - Greek novelist; a popular novelist of the 4th century CE; his most
famous text is the Ethiopian Story of Theagenes and Charicleia (Aethiopica).
Hellanodikai – the judges at the Olympic games, literally translated Hellanodikai
means the judges of Greeks; they played an important role at the games and their
names and hometowns were announced on the last day of the games in recognition of
their participation.
The Ancient Olympics
Hellas - (Latin) mainland Greece; the Romans had an intricate relationship with
ancient Greece; while fiercely proud of their own roots, the Romans nevertheless
admired and sought to emulate Greek arts and culture.
Hellenes - name which the Greeks used for themselves.
Hellenistic period- a period of ancient Greek history and culture from the death of
Alexander the Great (323 BCE) to beginning of Roman domination (146 BCE).
Hellespont - the ancient name for the Dardanelles, a strait northwest of Turkey,
between Asian Turkey and the Gallipoli Peninsula of European Turkey, about 40
miles (64 km) long and one to four miles (1.6 to 6.4 km) wide; the Hellespont
connects the Mediterranean and the Black Sea; the name Hellespont is derived from
Helle, a woman who drowned in the waters of the strait when she fell from the back
of Chrysomallus, the ram whose golden fleece Jason retrieved with the help of
Medea.
Map of the Hellespont with important sites plotted
Herodotus: Xerxes at the Hellespont (mid 5th Century BCE)
Helvetii - a Celtic people who lived in current-day Switzerland; in 107 BCE, they
attacked the consul Lucius Cassius and his army, defeating them ruthlessly; in 58
BCE, they fought again Julius Caesar's army while attempting to cross into central
Gaul and, in the 9-hour Battle of Bibracte, suffered the loss of approximately 65 % of
their total population; after their loss to Caesar, they were compelled to return to their
initial homeland; 10,000 of the remaining Helvetii joined with Vercingetorix to fight
against the Roman empire in 52 BCE.
Hephaestion- the son of the Macedonian noble Amyntor, Hephaestion was the closest
of Alexander the Great's friends; the two fought side by side for years and
Hephaestion gave advice to Alexander; Alexander made Hephaestion his second-incommand and gave him power; he died while still on campaign in 324 BCE and
Alexander held elaborate funeral games in his honor.
Hephaestus (Hephaistos) - god of fire and metal craft; son of Hera and Zeus; thrown
from Olympus by Zeus which results in his lameness; husband of Aphrodite; god who
makes peace between Zeus and Hera and also makes armor for Achilles (Iliad); read
the Homeric Hymn to Hephaestus to learn more.
Hera - queen of the gods, daughter of Cronus and Rhea sister and wife of Zeus;
favored Achilles and the Achaians in the Trojan War; the earliest monumental temple
in Greece, the Temple of Hera located at Olympia, was constructed and dedicated to
Hera in 600 BCE; identified with Juno by Romans.
Read the Homeric Hymn to Hera to learn more.
Encyclopedia Mythica: Hera
Herakles (Heracles) - son of Zeus and Alcmene, Greek hero who carries out exploits
selected by Eurystheus known as the Twelve Labors; identified by Romans as
Hercules.
Bullfinch's Mythology: Hercules
herba - (Latin) a green plant
herm - a statue with the head of Hermes atop a rectangular block of stone that displays
a large phallus on the front; far an example, see Boston 13.100 (image); for more
information, see the Historical Overview topic, "12.1.12.1. The mutilation of the
Herms."
Hermes - son of Zeus and Maia, god who escorts Priam to the hut of Achilles in the
Iliad; also known as Argeiphontes; read the Homeric Hymn to Hermes to learn more.
Hero - woman from Roman legend; her parents compelled her to be a celibate
priestess to Venus in Sestos; during a festival, a handsome young man named Leander
saw Hero and instantly fell in love with her; she also fell in love with him, but they
could not marry because of her parents’ objections; in order to meet each night in
secret, Leander swam across the Hellespont, guided by the lantern that Hero set in her
tower and, in the morning, he returned across the Hellespont; one night when a wind
blew out Hero’s lantern, Leander became lost while swimming and drowned; Hero
discovered his body on the shore and killed herself by jumping out her tower’s
window.
Herod - King of Judaea; made the king by Mark Antony and the Senate; he rebuilt
much of the buildlings and infrastructure of Judaea and gained prominence for
himself in establishing the power of his land; he had ten wives and numerous
children; however, he fell victim to a number of political intrigues which prompted
savagery in him, leading him to kill his first wife, Maryamne, in 29 and her sons
Alexander and Aristobulus in 7 BCE.
Herod Agrippa - King of Judaea from 41-44 CE; a friend to Caligula, who first gave
Herod political power; after Caligula's death, Herod supported Claudius for emperor;
because of that support, Claudius made him king of Judaea in 41; he died during
games in honor of Claudius in 44 CE.
Herodotus - (5th century BCE) Greek historian and author of The Histories of
Herodotus, a book that chronicles the battles between the Greeks and the Persians
known as the Persian Wars; Herodotus has been dubbed “The Father of History”, but
that title has become debated as his sources are questioned; he records stories and
variants of those stories in order to support and broaden the scope of his historical
inquiry.
heroic code - the unwritten rules which guide the conduct of the Homeric heroes; the
heroic code is best explained by Sarpedon in the Iliad; essentially, he claims that it is
necessary to fight in such a way that his men will be justified in having put him in
charge and honored him.
Teacher's Companion: Homer
Hesiod - epic poet, contemporary with Homer; composed Works and Days, Shield of
Herakles (attributed to Hesiod) and The Theogony.
Geneological Guide to Hesiod's Theogony
Hesiod's Works and Days
hetaira (hetaera) - a female concubine or courtesan; for an example, see the Perseus
Encyclopedia entry for Aspasia.
hiems - (Latin) winter; the opposite season of aestas, or summer.
hieroglyphics - designating or pertaining to a pictographic script particularly that of
the ancient Egyptians; in hieroglyphic writing, many of the symbols used by the
ancient Egyptians are pictures of things represented by the words for which the
symbols stand; click on the image below of the ancient Egyptian alphabet to see a
larger version.
hierokeryx - an ancient Greek herald who called for silence at the beginning of the
Eleusinian Mysteries, marking the start of the rites.
hierophant - the most important ancient Greek priest of the Eleusinian Mysteries; the
hierophant was the person who could approach the cult objects of Eleusis and reveal
secrets to initiates during the Mysteries.
himantes – a soft thong or strap of ox hide wrapped around the hands to strength their
fingers and wrists worn by boxers in ancient Greece; soft himantes evolved into hard
leather straps for harder blows; in the forth century, himantes evolved into gloves,
oxeis himantes, with an layer of wool in the inside; later the Romans used the caestus,
a weapon-like boxing glove, layered with iron and lead.
The Ancient Olympics
himation - a large rectangular piece of cloth wore around the body and over the left
shoulder; for an example, see Boston 03.815 (image).
Hippias of Elis - fifth century BCE author who compiled the list of victor at the first
Olympic games.
The Ancient Olympics
Hippocrates - Greek physician considered the father of medicine who lived from ca.
460 to ca. 377 BCE; mostly likely born on the Greek island of Kos and died in
Larissa, Greece; little is actually known about Hippocrates; though he is its namesake,
he probably did not compose the Hippocratic Oath; it is probable that his analytical
approach to medicine was the catalyst that moved ancient medicine beyond its
supersitious roots; there are approximately 70 works ascribed to Hippocrates, the
Hippocratic Collection, though Hippocrates may have written only six of them; the
work Airs, Waters, and Places from the Hippocratic Collection proposes that
environment , e.g., weather, drinking water, etc., not divine origin is the cause of
disease; three other works' Prognostic, Coan Prognosis, and Aphorisms—expanded on
the theory that a physician can predict the course of a disease by observing cases of
the disease; other works in the Hippocratic Collection deal with such issues as
preventative medicine, epilepsy, joint dislocations, and head wounds.
The Asclepion
Perseus Historical Overview: Hippocrates' New Direction in Medicine
Hippocratic Oath - the oath taken by physicians in various forms for over 2,000 years;
originally thought to have been composed by the Greek physician Hippocrates,
researchers have shown that it most likely originated in a Pythagorean sect around the
4th century BCE; the oath originally prohibited physicians from participating in
abortions and surgery; many modern physicians take a revised version of the oath
upon finishing medical school.
The Asclepion: Hippocratic Oath
hippodrome - an arena in which ancient Greek equestrian events took place; the
hippodrome had a large post at each end and was divided by the embolon, a stone or
wood partition running down the middle; the perimeter was eight stades or a little
over 1,500 meters.
The Ancient Olympics
hippalektyon - a mythical being with the head, body and legs of a horse and the wings
and tail of a cock; for an example, see Tampa 86.49 (image).
Hipparchus - son of the tyrant Pisistratus and brother of the tyrant Hippias and
Thessalus; Hipparchus was ostracized from Athens in 487 BCE; Cleisthenes
promulgated the law of ostracism in 510 BCE and Hipparchus was the first Athenian
citizen to be ostracized under the law; Hipparchus was slain by Aristogiton and
Harmodius near the temple of the daughters of Leos as he was arranging the
Panathenaic procession; Hipparchus had foreseen his death in a dream.
Hipparchus (2) - ancient Greek astronomer, who lived ca. 190 - 125 BCE;
Hipparchus' discovered the precession of equinoxes and explained the eastward shift
of the stars, having found that while the celestial longitude of the stars increased their
latitude did not change, by the forward motion of the equinoxes; Hipparchus was also
the first to catalog the stars, noting their position and brightness.
Hipparchus' Solar System
hippocamp - a mythical sea creature with the head, chest and forelegs of a horse and
fins, body and tail of a sea serpent; for an example, see Yale 1913.112.
Hispania - the area currently known as Spain; the territory had been settled by the
Phoenicians, Greeks, and Carthaginians before it became the Roman provinces of
Hispania Citerior (the eastern section) and Hispania Ulterior (the south-eastern part)
in 197 BCE; Augustus conquered more of Spain through the Cantabrian Wars from
26-19 BCE and added another province and greater territory to Hispania Citerior,
which became Tarraconensis.
Historia Augusta - (Latin) ancient biographies of the Roman emperors between
Hadrian and Numerianus; these texts are written by various authors and do not seem
to have a coherent theme; since there are disputes concerning authorship and dubious
sources, these texts are not completely trustworthy as sources for biographical data,
although they are the most complete texts extant for the time period covered.
hodometer - a Roman measuring device used to measure distances; the hodometer
was attached to the side of a vehicle (e.g., a cart) and consisted of a gear assembly,
which caused a pebble to fall into a metal bowl after the vehicle had traveled one
Roman mile = 400 revolutions of the wheel; the vehicles used a specific wheel size, 4
feet in diameter and 12.5 feet in circumference.
Illustration of a Hodometer
holitorius - (Latin) something related to herbs; comes to be a market where vegetables
are sold.
Homer - epic poet, thought to be author of the Iliad and Odyssey.
Netshot: Homer's Iliad.
honor - (Latin) honor; public office.
hoplite - a Greek infantry soldier of the citizen armies who defended Greek citystates; for more information on the hoplites see the Perseus Historical Overview
subtopic "5.16. The so-called Hoplite Revolution;" for an example, see Berlin 1708
(image).
hoplitodromos - the contest or competitors who compete in a race while dressed in
full armor of a hoplite (soldier), which included greaves, a helmet, and a shield;
together, these weighed 50 to 60 pounds; for an example, see Harvard 1972.39
(image).
The Ancient Olympics
Horace - Quintus Horatius Flaccus, Roman satirical poet; born 65 BCE in Venusia;
father was a manumitted slave; studied in Athens from 46 to 44 BCE; joined the staff
of M. Brutus in Asia ca. 43 BCE; fought at the Battle of Philippi which ended in the
defeat and suicides of Cassius and Brutus; he began writing in 41 BCE and around
39/38 BCE was introduced to C. Cilnius Maecenas, a patron of the arts, by fellow
poets Vergil and Varius; Horace published his first book of satires in 35 BCE and his
second in 31 BCE; Horace's Epistles 2.1 to Augustuts is commisioned and published
in 12 BCE; he died suddenly in 8 BCE.
Horace's Odes
Biography of Horace
horrea - (Latin) Roman granaries; structures used for storing grain that could be built
from wood, stone or brick.
Hortensius - Quintus Hortensius, a plebeian who became dictator in 287 BCE after the
final plebeian secession; he sponsored the Lex Hortensia that made plebiscites
virtually the same as laws, thereby making the plebeians and the patrician class more
equal; the Lex Hortensia was an important step in ending the conflict of orders.
hortulanus - (Latin) gardener; a hortus is a garden and the hortulanus is the person
who works in the garden.
Horus - the ancient Egyptians believed that their pharaohs were the earthbound
embodiment of Horus, one of the greatest Egyptian gods; Egyptian pharaohs would
take the name of Horus as their own to show their direct relation to him; Horus was
often depicted as a child suckling at his mother’s breast; as a child, Horus was shown
seated wearing a side lock and a royal crown and sucking his thumb.
Ancient Egyptian Gods - Horus
hostes - (Latin) the enemy.
hostium - (Latin) an enemy.
Hours - three sisters named Eunomia, Dike and Eirene; these sisters are mentioned in
the Iliad and are entrusted with guarding the gates of the sky.
hubris (hybris) - insolence, wanton violence; violent and outrageous acts against
others.
humus - (Latin) soil, earth, country.
hydra - a mythical being with nine serpent heads that when cut off were replaced by
two more heads; this monster was destroyed by Herakles; for an example, see Louvre
CA 598 (image).
hydriaphos - a water-carrier.
Hyperion - a Titan, son of Gaia and Uranus; father of Eos (Dawn), Helios (Sun), and
Selene by his sister, Theia; the Sun was sometimes referred to as Hyperion because
the name means 'he who goes before' (the Earth).
hypocausta - (Latin) hypocaustum (sg.), from the Greek words for "under" and
"burning," the central heating system invented by the Roman Gaius Sergius Orata ca.
80 BCE; a series of tanks, that made up the hypocasustra system, were propped up on
little brick posts; hot air from a fire built on one side of a tank circulated through the
space beneath the tank to warm it and this warmed the house; Orata also invented the
balnae pensiles, raised bathrooms, heated by means of ducts under the floor.
Roman Living
hysplex - the starting gate that ensured all runners started at the same time in ancient
Greece running races.
The Ancient Olympics
I
iambic - the meter of the spoken parts in tragedy and old comedy; an iamb consists of
two syllables, a short syllable followed by a long syllable.
Iamblichus - Greek novelist of the 2nd century CE; his most famous work was
entitled The Babylonian History, which supposedly told stories told to the novel’s
author by a Babylonian captive.
Iapetus - a Titan, son of Gaia and Uranus; father of Atlas, Epimetheus, and
Prometheus by his sister Clymene, though other myths maintain that he married Asia
or Asopis; helped Zeus overthrow Cronus.
ibex - a wild goat; for an example, see Harvard 1925.30.12 (image).
ibidem - (Latin) literally “in the same place”; abbreviated in books and journals as
“ibid.”; used in scholarly citation to indicate another citation from a directly
previously cited source.
iconographical subjects - symbolic situations.
idcirco - (Latin) for that purpose, on that account.
ideo - (Latin) for that reason.
Ides - in the Roman calendar the Ides fell on the following days: January 13,
February 13, March 15, April 13, May 15, June 13, July 15, August 13, September 13,
October 15, November 13, December 13; often interest, debts, and tuition were paid
on the Ides.
ideoneus - (Latin) efficient ; in the Annales 1.58, Tacitus recounts a speech by
Segestes in which he describes himself as an idoneus conciliator between the Romans
and the Germans.
ientaculum - (Latin) for the average Roman, a light breakfast of bread and fresh fruit,
which would sustain him/her until prandium, lunch.
imagery - the employment of images in a given passage of a literary work, a whole
work or a group of works.
immemor - (Latin) unmindful, forgetful; Virgil uses this term to describe Ascanius in
Book 9 of the Aeneid, saying that Ascanius would never be unmindful of the
sacrifices made on the battlefield; he also describes the Trojans of being immemores,
or unmindful, of the destruction that bringing the Trojan Horse inside the city walls
would bring in Book 2.
immunes - (Latin) the skilled craftsmen in a legionary camp who were, as the Latin
translate, "the exempt;" these men did not perform such routine tasks as ditch-digging
and patrolling the ramparts because they posessed some specialised skill or trade
which qualified them for special duties. The immunes may have included engineers,
carpenters, masons, wagon-makers, blacksmiths, painters, farriers, surveyors,
shipwrights, glaziers, fletchers, armourers, hunters, butchers, grooms, plumbers,
bronze-smiths, lime and charcoal burners, and keepers of sacrificial animals.
imperial cults - worship of a Roman emperor as a god; Julius Caesar first proclaimed
himself god-like on a statue in 44 BCE and Augustus, his adopted heir, built a temple
to Divus Julius in Rome; other emperors were made gods after their deaths; during
Hadrian’s time and after, the emperors had so much power that they also could
proclaim themselves to be gods during their lifetimes; after the emperor Constantine I,
however, imperial cults were no longer celebrated.
imperial province - territory that was under the power of the emperor; imperial
provinces included Syria, Cappadocia and Germany.
Teacher's Companion: Colonization
imperium -(Latin) “power”; in Rome, power over a community was signified by the
term “imperium” and was visually indicated by the fasces and the presence of lictors.
imperium maius - (Latin) "the greatest power"; having imperius maius meant that the
person holding the power was more powerful than all others; Augustus was given
imperius maius proconsulare in 23 BCE.
impius - (Latin) without respect, irreverent.
impluvium - (Latin) in a Roman house, a basin built into the floor of the atrium that
collected rain from the compluvium, or quadrangular skylight towards which the roof
sloped that served as a source of light and air.
Roman Living
impunitas - (Latin) this word means impunity or that one can avoid being punished for
an action.
in exergue - (Latin) in reference to coins, it is the position of a being or thing below
the main subject of the coin imprint.
inclinio - (Latin) to bend, to change, to waver.
incuse - in reference to coins, the action of stamping or hammering a figure on a coin;
it is the impression made by the stamping of a coin.
industria - (Latin) hard-work, a Roman virtue.
ineptio - (Latin) to act like a fool.
infans - (Latin) literally means unable to speak; the word comes to mean child or
infant.
iniuria - (Latin) injury, injustice, wrong.
insula - (Latin) Roman apartment complexes; an insula might have included up to
eight apartment blocks built around an open courtyard, which provided much needed
light; the complexes were three to five stories tall and could easily block the light for
neighboring buildings; the first floor often housed merchants' shops, or tabernae;
during the rise of the Roman empire, the majority of the Roman population was
housed in rooms rented in insulae; these tenements became overcrowded and
vulnerable to fire built with timber and mud bricks; thin walls were made out of opus
craticum, which was a woven mixture of cane and mortar; the walls were neither
waterproof nor fireproof; eventually emperors, such as Nero, imposed fire regulations;
as a result of the upper stories lacked running water sanitation suffered; by the end of
the fourth century BCE, insulae outnumbered domi twenty-six to one.
Roman Living
integritas - (Latin) wholeness, integrity, health.
intelligentia - (Latin) intelligence.
investigo - (Latin) To investigate.
Ionia - a central portion of the coast of Asia Minor along with the islands off the coast
which were inhabited by Greeks; in 499 BCE, the Ionians revolted against their
Persian rulers, bringing about war between the Persians and the Greeks.
ira - (Latin) Anger.
irascor - (Latin) to be angry.
iratus - (Latin) angry, wrathful.
Iris - goddess of the rainbow, daughter of Thaumas and Electra, sister of the harpies;
messenger of the gods.
Ismene - daughter of Oedipus and Jocasta, sister of the heroine in the Antigone.
Isis - an ancient Egyptian goddess, Isis was the daughter of Nut and Geb and the
sister and wife of Osiris; in myth, Isis aided her husband during his reign as the king
of Egypt and searched madly for his body after his death so that he might be given a
proper burial.; Isis conceived her son Horus either through magic or by resurrecting
Osiris.
Ancient Egyptian Gods - Isis
ithyphallic - an attribute referring to scenes of Bacchic festivals at which phalli were
carried; for an example of an ithyphallic scene, see Boston 69.1052 (image).
iugerium - (Latin) Roman measurement of land, equal to 28,800 square feet or ~ 5/8
acre; in 367 BCE, the Lex Licinia Sextia limited how much public land a single
person could have to 500 iugera.
Iulus - see Ascanius.
iuniperus - (Latin) juniper tree.
ius - (Latin) oath, right, justice.
ius Latii - (Latin) “Latin status”; to areas that the Roman Empire did not deem
“Romanized” enough, they applied the idea of ius Latii; these communities were
treated in the same way as the older communities in Latium; the magistrates of the
land were given full Roman citizenship and the area became a municipium.
iustum - (Latin) what is right.
iuvenis - (Latin) Young; as a noun, this word means a young man.
J
Jason - son of Aeson and Alcimede; hero who stole the Golden Fleece and husband of
Medea (Medea).
Bullfinch's Mythology: The Golden Fleece
Longman's Classical Mythology online: Map of the voyage of Jason and the
Argonauts
Jocasta - married to Laius, mother and wife of Oedipus (Oedipus the King), mother
of Ismene, Antigone, Eteocles and Polynices.
Juba - (52 BCE-23 CE) ruler of Numidia and then Mauretania; he was the son of Juba
I of Numidia who fought Julius Caesar in the African wars; he married Cleopatra
Selene, the daughter of Mark Antony and Cleopatra; he wrote books on history.
Jugurtha - King of Numidia in the 2nd century BCE; the consul Opimius began to
wage war against Numidia in 112 BCE; Jugurtha was brought to Rome on bribery
charges in 110 BCE; he was executed in Rome in 104 BCE as a part of Marius’
triumph.
Julia - (39 BCE- 14 CE) daughter of Augustus and his first wife; she married three
times, first to Marcellus, then to Agrippa, and finally to Tiberius; she had five
children with Agrippa; in 2 BCE, Augustus sent his daughter into exile; Augustus
wanted to tighten the morals of his empire but his daughter flagrantly committed
adultery and caused vicious gossip; Augustus sent her to a small island where she died
after his death and Tiberius' accession.
Julian calendar - alteration of the Roman calendar by Julius Caesar to correct errors
in the calendar year; the accumulated errors that result through the use the Roman
caledar moved the calendar approximately three months ahead of the seasons, e.g.,
fall started in July and winter started in September; in 46 BCE, Caesar asked the
astronomer Sosigenes to review the Roman calendar and suggest methods for
improving it; following Sosigenes suggestions, Caesar scapped the old Roman caledar
that used the lunar cycle to calculate its length and instigated a 12 month year with 30
or 31 days in each month, except for February which had 29 days; during what the
Romans deemed "the year of confusion," Caesar declared 46 BCE would have 445
days; in honor of Caesar, Quintilis, the fifth month of the Julian calendar, became July
and Sextilis, the sixth month, became August in honor of the Emperor Augustus;
legend says that Augustus took one day away from February and added it to the end
of August so August had an equal number of days to July; lasting 365 1/4 days (11
minutes and 14 seconds longer than the solar year), the Julian calendar was used until
1582, when Pope Gregory XIII instigated the Gregorian calendar.
Juno - wife and sister of Jupiter (Aeneid), associated with childbirth and femininity;
identified with Hera.
Bullfinch's Mythology: Juno and her Rivals
Jupiter - god of the sky, daylight and weather; king of the gods, husband and brother
of Juno (Aeneid); associated with Zeus by Romans.
jus civile - (Latin) the laws and the legal system that developed around the Twelve
Tables that applied only to Roman citizens; the jus civile became obsolete and merged
with the jus gentium when all free inhabitants of the Roman Empire became citizens
between 100 BCE and 212 CE.
Twelve Tables
Roman Laws of Private Conduct
jus gentium - (Latin) the laws and legal system that developed as a result of the
interpretation and administration of the Law of the Twelve Tables by praetors in
Rome and the Roman provinces; the jus gentium applied to non-Roman citizens;
praetors in the Roman provinces administered the laws based on rulings and the
patterns of rulings by the praetors in Rome; the jus gentium became obsolete and
merged with the jus civile when all free inhabitants of the Roman Empire became
citizens between 100 BCE and 212 CE.
Twelve Tables
Roman Laws of Private Conduct
Justinian - born in 482, Justinian was in some ways the last "Roman Emperor"; he
was the last to conquer (or in his case, reconquer) territory, and the last to witness the
resources and stability that could produce great Roman literary, artistic, and
architectural achievement; famous for the Justinian Code, a compilation and
standardization of the Roman legal tradition, which influences Western legal
traditions to this day; when he Justinian died in 565, the Roman Empire was in
transition and headed for decline.
Juturna - nymph, considered a healer in Roman times; (2) sister of Turnus.
Juvenal - Roman satirical poet; born in Aquinum in southern Italy ca. 65; wrote in
epigrammatic style; 16 of his satires survive and attack the vices of imperial Roman
society providing a vivid description of life in Rome and often sympathizing with the
poor; writers from the 17th and 18th centuries, such as John Dryden, Jonathan Swift,
and Samuel Johnson, modeled their satirical works after Juvenal's; Juvenal died ca.
128.
Satires (c. 120 AD) by Juvenal
The Works of Juvenal in Latin and English
Juventas - Roman god of youth.
K
kalathos - a small krater with a spout near the foot used to hold wine (image).
Kalchas (Calchas) - soothsayer who predicts Troy will not be taken without Achilles.
Kalends - in the Roman calendar the Kalends fell on the first day of each month;
tristes Kalendae, called the 'gloomy Kalends' because interest was due on the Kalends.
Kallipateira - in ancient Greece women were not allowed to participate in or attend
athletic competitions, with the exception of young girls (virgins) and the priestess of
Demeter Chamyne were; if caught attending the Olympic games, for example, a
woman was thrown off mount Typaion; Kallipateira defied the rules by disguising
herself as a trainer so she could watch her son, who she had trained her son following
her husbands death, compete; Kallipateira was so elated when her son won that she
lept over the barrier that enclosed the trainers’ area and lost her clothing; her identity
revealed, Kallipateira faced certain death but because her father, three brothers,
nephew, and son were Olympic victors the official pardoned her in honor of her
victorious family members.
The Ancient Olympics
kalos names - the names of individuals that appear in inscriptions on vases in
reference to a beautiful or fair youth; for an example, see Louvre F 53 (image).
kalpe - a race for mares established as an Olympic event in 496 BCE.
The Ancient Olympics
kanon - a wooden rod used to record jumps by athletes in ancient Greek athletics.
The Ancient Olympics
kantharos - a footed bowl whose name means 'dung beetle'; the bowl has two curving
handles set on each side (image).
kartereia - the level of sacrifices, mental strength, and endurance in the face of long
hours of training and practice without complaint an athlete demonstrated during the
long training periods and competition; an athletes kartereia was his most important
virtue.
The Ancient Olympics
katabasis - (Greek) “going underneath”; descent to the Underworld included in
literature; many epics include a katabasis at some point; Homer includes a katabasis
in the Odyssey and Vergil includes one in Book 6 of the Aeneid.
kato pale - ground wrestling in ancient Greek athletics in which opponents fought
until one acknowledged defeat by holding up their right hand with their index finger
extended.
The Ancient Olympics
kekryphalos - a hair net for women; for an example, see Tampa 86.102 (image).
keles - bare back horse riding competition established as an Olympic event in 648
BCE.
The Ancient Olympics
kentron - a stick with a pointed end used to drive animals; for an example, see
Harvard 1969.14 (image).
Keres - the spirits who controlled the destiny of each hero on the battlefield; they
played a prominent role in the Iliad; the Keres were horrible monsters with long white
fangs and nails; these creatures drank the blood of the wounded and dead and tore
dead bodies to pieces; they resembled the Moirae.
keroma - an ancient Greek wrestling arena that was muddy; keroma means beeswax.
The Ancient Olympics
keros - an animal horn; for an example, see Harvard 1972.41.
kerykeion - a caduceus or messenger's wand; for an example, see Boston 01.8025
(image).
kerykes - a family group from whom the officials for the Eleusinian Mysteries were
chosen.
ketos - a sea monster ; for an example, see Boston 63.420 (image).
Khepri - an ancient Egyptian deity, Khepri’s association with the dung beetle and his
role as a sun god resulted in his depiction as a man with a beetle on his head or with a
beetle head rolling the sun and moon across the sky.
Ancient Egyptian Gods - Khepri
Khonsu - an ancient Egyptian deity, Khonsu is the son of Amon-Re and Mut; Khonsu
is a moon-god, who was said to cause the crescent moon to shine, cattle to become
fertile, women to conceive, and for the lungs of the people to fill with fresh air.
Ancient Egyptian Gods - Khonsu
kibisis - a wallet or sack; the silver bag with gold tassels (as Hesiod describes it,
Shield of Herakles line 234) in which Perseus carried Medusa's head; sack carried by
Hermes and Mercury.
kidaris - a Scythian hat from which flaps hang down onto the chest; for an example,
see London E 135. Pronunciation
kithara - a stringed instrument, like a lyre; for an example, see Boston 26.61 (image).
Kleisthenes - see Cleisthenes.
klimax - in ancient Greek athletics, a voluntary point in a boxing match that was
running long when the two boxers took turns standing still while one hit the other; the
boxer receiving the blows did not try to avoid them and this led to a quicker resolution
of the fight.
The Ancient Olympics
kline - a dining couch; for an example, see Louvre CA 453 (image).
Knossos - an ancient city on the island of Crete best known as the location of the great
Minoan palace; Knossos was well established by the Geometric period and was the
leading city on the island in the archaic, Classical, and Hellenistic periods; Knossos
was made a Roman colony in 36 BCE and prospered until the early Byzantine period;
found at Knossos are well-preserved Roman houses; for more on Knossos and to view
images of the ancient city, follow the link below.
The Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites: Knossos
Knowledge Builder™ - step-by-step instruction for expanding your knowledge of
Perseus and the ancient Greek world. Each Knowledge Builder addresses a particular
topic related to the ancient Greek world.
kommos - (plural, kommoi): a song of lament in tragedy; a set of lines that alternate
between an actor (or actors) and the chorus in ancient drama; a kommos could be used
to heighten emotion or show indecision for a character.
Teacher's Companion: Greek Theater
komos - a scene depicting a party; for an example, see Toledo 1964.126 (image).
kore - female youth or maiden.
koryphaeus - see coryphaeus.
kotinos - crowns of wild olives leaves awarded to the winners of competitions in the
Olympic games; according to myth, it was Iphitos who first used a crown of wild
olive leaves from the kallistephanos, an ancient wild olive tree near the temple of
Zeus, to crown victors at the Olympic games.
The Ancient Olympics
kottabos - a drinking game from Sicily that involved flicking a few drops of wine
from the bottom of a kylix onto a specified target; for an example of how it was
played, see Boston 01.8034 (image).
The Symposium in Greek Art
koros - a youth or boy.
krotala - a rattle or castanets associated with the rituals of Dionysus and Cybele; for
an example, see Boston 00.339 (image).
kykeon - a drink made from grain and pennyroyal that was used traditionally in the
Eleusinian Mysteries in ancient Greece.
kylix - a drinking cup (image).
see The Kylix in Context, a paper written by Erin Clossey, for insights into the use of
the kylix.
L
labrys - a double ax; for an example, see Harvard 1960.236 (image).
laena - Etruscan in origin, this heavy rounded mantle is shaped like a toga but was
draped over both shoulders and fastened with a pin on the back; the laena was worn
by the augurs and flamines during sacrifices.
laetus - (Latin) happy, fertile, rich.
lanarius - (Latin) Wool worker; a lanarius was a man who worked with wool, lana in
Latin.
laniator - (Latin) butcher; the laniator prepared the meats in and sold them from a
laniatorium, or a butcher’s stall; another word for laniator is makellarios.
lanifex - (Latin) weaver: this word refers to a man who worked with wool; it is tied to
the words lana (wool) and facio (to make).
lanista - (Latin) owner and trainer of gladiators.
The Roman Gladiator
Lapith - a pre-Hellenic race of men and women; fought the Centaurs; for an example,
see Louvre G 55 (image).
lar - (Latin) Roman gods of a household; comes to represent the hearth and home.
latifundia - (Latin) in Rome, a large slave-run estate.
Latin league - an alliance formed in the 6th century BCE between different small
states of Latium including Alba Longa in Italy; the purpose of this alliance was to
help each other militarily and to share religious rites; the Latin League ended in 338
BCE.
Latinus - king of Latins who gives Aeneas 680 hectares of land and his daughter
Lavinia.
latrocinium maris - (Latin) "robbery of the sea", piracy; piracy grew to be a problem
for the Romans; using the navy he had raised for the battle of Actium, Augustus was
able to fight pirates and ensure safer travel for sea-merchants.
laurus - (Latin) laurel tree; the laurel comes to signify success or triumph.
laus - (Latin) praise, glory, fame.
lautia - (Latin) when foreign ambassadors came to Rome, they would be entertained
by a lautia
Laverna - Roman goddess of robbery and trickery; Laverna's sanctuary in Rome was
close to the Porta Lavernalis.
lectus - (Latin) in Rome, an all-purpose couch that could be used in a dining room as a
bed or simply as a seat; these couches held up to three people.
Leda - wife of King Tyndareus of Sparta; mother of Helen, Clytemnestra, Castor and
Pollux; she was visited one night by Zeus in the form of a swan and as a result she
conceived Helen and Pollux; on the same night, she conceived Clytemnestra and
Castor with King Tyndareus; the children were born from two eggs that she laid.
Troy
legio - (Latin) legion; a Roman military group consisting of ten cohorts (about 6,000
men).
legis actiones - (Latin) the Roman legal code; originally, the legis actiones were kept
secret by the patricians so that they could control the civil law; however, Flavius, a
freedman's son who became curule aedile, published the legis actiones and the official
calendar in 304 BCE.
lemma - the dictionary form or gloss heading of an ancient Greek word.
Lenaea - a festival of Dionysus that took place during the winter; part of the
celebration included dramatic competitions for comedy, although on a smaller scale
than that of the Rural and City Dionysia.
Teacher's Companion: Dionysus
Teacher's Companion: Greek Theater
Leonidas - Leonidas of Rhodes competed in and won the stadion, the diaulos, and the
hoplitodromos in four successive ancient Olympics; Leonidas was deified for his
victories in these three most difficult running events and earned greater renown that
any other Olympic victor in these events.
The Ancient Olympics
Leonidas - a teacher who instilled strict discipline in Alexander the Great; Leonidas
was possibly a kinsman of Olympias, Alexander's mother.
lex Acilia de Intercalando - (Latin) a Roman law created in 191 BCE that sought to
correct the Roman calendar.
lex Aelia Sentia - (Latin) Roman law instituted in 4 CE regarding slaves; the law
created rules for the manumission of slaves.
lex Oppia - (Latin) a Roman law created in 215 BCE and cancelled in 195 BCE
despite the influence of Cato the Elder; this law limited how much gold women could
have, forbade women from wearing dresses of too many colors and driving in a horsedrawn vehicle too close to the City unless for a religious rite.
lex Pappia Poppaea - (Latin) this Roman law was created in 9 CE and tried to
strengthen marriage and criminalize adultery.
lex Poetelia Papiria - (Latin) this Roman law abolished debt-bondage and was ratified
in 326 BCE.
lex Porcia - (Latin) a Roman law proposed by P. Porcius Laeca in 199 BCE to allow
appeals in capital cases.
lex Sacrata - (Latin) a law ratified in 494 BCE after the first plebeian secession; it
stated that the tribunes were sacred and made the plebeians a group united against the
patricians.
lex Valeriae et Horatiae - (Latin) Roman laws passed in 449 BCE that protected and
gave rights to the tribunes of the plebs.
lex Voconia - (Latin) a Roman law instituted in 169 BCE that said that a woman
could not be the primary heir of an estate even if there were no male heirs.
Liberalia - (Latin) a festival held when a boy would stop wearing the toga of his
childhood and start wearing more adult clothing; the boy would give up his childhood
insignia, process to the forum with others where his name could be added to the list of
citizens, and make a sacrifice at the temple of Liber.
liberi - (Latin) children (word is in the plural).
libertus - (Latin) a Roman freedman or emancipated slave; Augustus created
legislation that made it possible for freedmen of citizens to gain citizen status
themselves; the most famous story of a freedman is that of the wealthy and eccentric
Trimalchio in Petronius' Satyricon.
librarius - (Latin) ) Bookseller; Cicero mentions a specific librarius, Hilarus, in his
Letters to Atticus.
libri Sibyllini - (Latin) "Sibylline Books"; a collection of prophecies; the books were
lost in a fire at the temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus in 83 BCE and replaced in 76
BCE.
libum - (Latin) a cake made from cheese, flour and eggs that could be left as a gift to
household gods.
Lighthouse at Pharus - a lighthouse off the coast of Alexandria, Egypt, that was built
by Sostratus of Cnidos in 290 BCE; the lighthouse stood 100m tall; it became one of
the 7 wonders of the world.
Ligurians - a people who lived between the Arno and Savoy in the area of modernday Genoa; last stronghold against Roman rule is conquered in 180 BCE; Ligura
became one of the Augustan regiones.
lintel - a beam or stone that goes over an opening; a lintel in a temple would span the
distance between two columns by being laid on top of their capitals.
linteum - (Latin) a napkin.
liquamen - (Latin) a sauce made from salty fish; this sauce could take the place of salt
or be replaced by salt in a meal.
litter - a vehicle carried by men or animals consisting of a bed or couch suspended
between two shafts often covered and curtained for privacy.
littera - (Latin) literature; literally “letters”, but the word takes on the meaning
“books”. the Romans produced outstanding works of literature in all genres – epic,
drama, lyric poetry, history, etc.; literature was a means of solidifying political
agendas, recording historical events and entertainment; some of the most famous
Latin authors are Vergil, Horace, Ovid, Livy and Plautus.
Livia - (58 BCE - 29 CE) wife of Augustus and mother to Tiberius (son of her first
husband Ti. Claudius Nero); she was noted for her political skill and her veneration of
tradition and conservative virtues; with her son Tiberius, erected a building in Rome
called the Porticus Liviae in 7 BCE; she has generated mixed historical reviews, with
some people thinking that she embodied the virtues of the Augustan Age while others
believed that she wielded too much influence over her husband’s long rule; she was
deified during Claudius’ reign.
Livia Julia - (13 BCE-31 CE) sister to Emperor Claudius; aunt to Emperor Caligula;
she married Gaius Caesar, the son of Augustus, who died; her next marriage was to
Drusus, the son of Tiberius; in 23 CE, Drusus died, presumably poisoned by Livia
Julia and Sejanus although at the time it seemed a natural death; she was executed in
31 CE for her involvement in Drusus' death.
Livius Andronicus - Roman epic poet and playwright who wrote during the 3rd
century BCE.
Livy - Titus Livius, 59 BCE-17 CE; born at Patavium (Padua); wrote History of
Rome, Ab Urbe Condita, in 142 books, 35 of which are extant, covering 753 BCE243 BCE and 219 BCE-167 BCE.
The Roman Historian Livy
loco citato - (Latin) literally “in the place cited”; can appear as “loc.cit.”
Londinium - modern-day London; city founded in 43 CE by Roman soldiers
campaigning in Roman Britain; this city was an important trading center and, in fact,
the city was founded on a site where traders already conducted business; eventually
by the close of the 1st century CE, Londinium had become a major administrative and
trading site of the Roman province.
loquor - (Latin) to speak; the English cognate “loquacious”, meaning talkative, is tied
to this word.
Lotis - a nymph daughter of Poseidon who was pursued by the god Priapus; Lotis
refused Priapus' advances frustrating the god; one night while she was sleeping
amongst the maenads, Priapus tried to take her by surprise but was caught when a
donkey brayed so loudly that everyone woke up; everyone laughed at Priapus and
Lotis got away; Lotis later asked to be turned into a plant to escape Priapus and was
changed into the lotus tree with red flowers.
louterion - a bath or water basin for bathing; for an example, see Tampa 89.98
(image).
lozenge - a rhomb, a four sided figure; for an example, see Boston 03.781 (image).
lucanica - Roman sausage served over pottage with spuntature, pieces of pork ribs,
braised in tomato, garlic, red wine, and herbs.
Lucina - Roman goddess of childbirth and midwifery.
Lucius Cassius Longinus - a Roman consul who was defeated in battle and killed by
the Helvetti in 107 BCE; his army fell victim of a decoy plot orchestrated by the
Helvetii; this defeat by a barbarian force caused other towns to rise up against the
Romans.
Lucretia - a woman from Roman legend who was renowned for her virtue; Lucretia
was the wife of Collatinus and lived during the end of the Roman monarchy; the king
Sextus Tarquin (Tarquin the Proud) desired Lucretia from the first time he saw her
and sought to meet her when her husband was absent; he then threatened her life and
raped her; after Lucretia told her husband and father what had happened, she felt so
ashamed that she killed herself with a dagger; her family then sought revenge on the
Tarquins and destroyed the monarchy.
Lucretius - Roman poet and author; wrote On the Nature of the Universe on the
philosophy of Epicureanism; lived 98 - 55 BCE.
Netshot: On the Nature of the Universe
Lucretius: On the Nature of Things
lucror - (Latin) to gain, to profit, to win.
ludi - (Latin) a pair of players or gladiators; the name comes from the Latin verb
ludere, to play; a female gladiators was known as a ludia, which also means actress.
ludimagister - (Latin) teacher; this word is linked to the work ludus which means
“game” and magister, which means “director”; the ludimagister was in charge of his
students.
ludiones - (Latin) Etruscan actor-dancers who performed at the sacred festivals; the
Romans emulated these actor-dancers to develop their own form of dance and theater
ludo - (Latin) to play, sport, imitate.
ludus - (Latin) a training school for gladiators; game.
The Roman Gladiator
ludus litterarius - (Latin) a primary school for children founded by a magister,
teacher; the school day lasted from early morning until noon; boys attended school
from age seven to fifteen and girls from age seven to thirteen.
lumen - (Latin) light, light of day.
Lupercalia - an annual festival celebrated in Rome to honor Faunus, the god of
fertility and forests, who was also known as Lupercus; during the Lupercalia, two
goats and a dog were sacrificed and two youths, who were anointed with their blood,
ran around the Palatine Hill and lashed girls with whips made from the sacrificed
goats.
lusi - (Latin) to play.
luxuria - (Latin) wastefulness.
Lydia - a land that bordered Ionia on the east, lay north of Caria and south of Mysia;
capital, Sardis; Lydia was a small kingdom until it grew into an empire in the wake of
the fall of the Neo-Hittite kingdom; the Mermnadae dynasty ruled Lydia from c. 700
BCE to 550 BCE; coined money was invented in Lydia in 625 BCE; Croesus, Lydia's
last ruler, was defeated by Cyrus the Great of Persia c.546 BCE and Lydia was
absorbed into the Persian Empire.
Perseus Historical Overview: Croesus of Lydia and the Ionian Greeks
lyra - a lyre or lute; a stringed instrument.
lyric - a short non-narrative poem that has a solitary speaker, and that usually
expresses a particular feeling, mood, or thought. [Contributor: Dr. Ismail S. Talib,
National University of Singapore.]
Lysistrata - the comic heroine of the ancient Greek comedy, Lysistrata.
Netshot: Aristophanes' Lysistrata
M
Ma'at - positive force in the life of the ancient Egyptians, Ma’at was the goddess of
truth, order, and Egypt’s physical and moral law; depicted as a seated or standing
woman, Ma’at held an ankh in one hand and a specter in the other. She wore an
ostrich feather in her hair.
Ancient Egyptian Gods - Ma'at
Macedonia - the area between Greece and the Balkans; in 288 BCE, Lysimachus and
Pyrrhus partition Macedonia after the defeat of King Demetrius I; Phillip of Macedon
worked to unite Macedonia and created there a strong army; his son, Alexander the
Great, strengthened and added to the Macedonian territory; in 169 BCE, the Third
Macedonian War began and in 167, the land was divided into four republics; in 146
BCE, Macedon became a Roman province.
Macedonians - Greek people who inhabited the northernmost part of the Greek
mainland and whose blood lines had been mixed with non-Greek peoples; the
Macedonians spoke a rather crude dialect of Greek.
macto - (Latin) to magnity, to glorify, to honor; to punish.
Maecenas - the literary patron of Vergil and Horace who supported their work.
maenad - a raving woman; a female worshipers of Dionysus. See Bacchae who takes
part in Bacchic processions; for an example, see Boston 24.450 (image).
maestus - (Latin) gloomy, dejected.
magister - (Latin) a teacher; in Rome, the job of teacher was not held in high esteem
and the teachers received little respect from students; the magister provided little in
terms of lesson materials and their ludus litterarius was located under an awning often
on a busy street.
magna cum laude - (Latin) with great praise; a term used to describe academic records
of great distinction.
Magna Mater - Great Mother Goddess or Cybele; a Temple of the Magna Mater was
built on the Palatine Hill in Rome and dedicated in 191 BCE; the cult of the Magna
Mater was imported from Asia Minor after the 2nd Punic War; under the Republic, it
was not allowed for male Roman citizens to belong to the Magna Mater’s cult; part of
the ritual of the goddess’ cult was the slaughter of a bull.
mainomenos - crazed, refers to Dionysus, "Dionysos Mainomenos;" for an example,
see London E 439.
makellarios - (Latin) butcher; the makellarios prepared the meats in and sold them
from a makelleion, or a butcher’s stall; another word for makellarios is laniator.
Malta - an island in the Mediterranean Sea; known as “Melita” to the Romans; once
controlled by the Carthaginians, it was added to the Roman Republic in 218 BCE and
became attached to the province of Sicily.
Maltho - an ancient Greek gymnasium at Olympia used to train youths.
The Ancient Olympics
maneo - (Latin) to remain, to stay, to stay the night.
Marathon - plain in Attica where the Athenians defeated the Persians in 490 BCE;
Perseus Historical Overview: 8.3.4. The Battle of Marathon
Map of Greece: Marathon
Marcellus - nephew of Augustus and son of Augustus’ sister Octavia; he was married
to Augustus’ daughter Julia; he was positioned to be Augustus’ heir until his death at
the age of 19 in 23 BCE.
mare - (Latin) sea.
Marius - Gaius Marius, 157-86 BCE; soldier and politican; a skilled soldier, he
worked in Spain (Hispania) and gained wealth there; Marius served as quaestor,
tribune, and, later, had his second consulship in 104; in 100 BCE, Marius was given
power through a senatus consultum ultimum to fight against an uprising in the Roman
republic led by L. Appuleius Saturninus and C. Servilius Glaucia; he later fought in
the Social War; Sulla seized the city of Rome when it was supposed to be led by
Marius, causing Marius to flee the city; he died in 86 BCE.
Mark Antony - see Antony, Mark.
Maro - the surname of P. Vergilius Maro.
Mars - Roman god of war and agriculture; son of Jupiter and Juno; father of Romulus
and Remus; identified with Ares.
Story of Mars and Venus, Ovid's Metamorphoses.
Encyclopedia Mythica: Mars
Massalia - an originally independent area that became, after 125 BCE, a province of
Rome; Massalia is currently known as Marseille; Massalia became less important
after it politically backed Pompey against Caesar; the area developed into an
important economic and academic site.
Martial - (43 CE-103/104 CE) Marcus Valerius Martialis; Roman poet who
specialized in epigrammatic poetry; his literary texts include Epigrammata, Xenia and
Apophoreta.
matrimonium iustum - (Latin) in ancient Rome, a legal union; matrimonium iustum
had three requirements, 1) both partners must have coniubium, the right to marry, 2)
the couple was expected to have reached puberty, thought to be 14 years old for boys
and 12 for girls, and 3) consent of the paterfamilias of the girl and the groom, or his
paterfamilias if he had not reached puberty yet; the validity of a marriage would later
affect the inheritance rights of any children produced by the marriage as well as the
inheritance rights from husband to wife and vice versa.
Ancient Weddings
maturitas - (Latin) maturity.
matutinalis - (Latin) morning; the Roman goddess of dawn and morning, Matuta, had
a temple in the Forum Boarium in Rome.
Mauretania - a province created in 44 CE during the reign of Claudius; the area
spanned northwest Africa, ranging from Numidia to the Atlantic ocean.
meander - a winding line shape sometimes found on vases; for an example, see
Louvre A 514 (image).
mechane - (plural mechanai) in ancient Greek a machine, crane; a crane used in the
Greek theater to which a cable with a harness for an actor was attached and which was
used whenever the plot required a character to fly (e.g., a divinity).
Medea - daughter of Aeetes, king of Colchis who helps Jason steal the Golden
Fleece; sorceress heroine of the Medea by Euripides that was first performed in 431
BCE at a tragic competition and won third prize; in the play, Medea murders he two
children as a result of learning that her husband, Jason, will take a new wife.
Netshot: Euripides' Medea
Bulfinch's Mythology Medea and the Golden Fleece
medicamen - (Latin) medicine, something to fight illness.
Melankomas - Melankomas, a ancient Greek boxer and Olympic champion from
Karia, floated like a butterfly but did not sting like a bee; he did not believe a brave
man caused injury to others or allowed others to injure him; his style of boxing was
purely defensive; during a match, Melankomas exhausted his opponent by defending
himself against punches but never throwing any; frustrated and exhausted, his
opponents gave up.
The Ancient Olympics
Meleagros - Greek hero who, when angered by his mother, withdrew from battle.
Melians - inhabitants of the island of Melos who rejected Athens' invitation to join
the Delian League and whose men were put to death and women and children
enslaved by the Athenians.
melicus - of or related to music.
Melissa - a nymph and daughter of King Melisseus; she nursed the infant Zeus with
goat milk on Mt. Ida; she taught humans how to use honey and her name comes from
the Greek word for bee, melitta.
Melpomene - the Muse of tragedy; the Muses were nine goddesses whom artists
appealed to in order to inspire their works.
memoria - (Latin) memory; in Book 9 of the Aeneid, Virgil sings that Nisus and
Euryalus will live in the memoriae of all for as long as his poem’s fame lasts.
Menelaos - brother of Agamemnon and husband of Helen who is abducted by Paris
while Menelaos is away.
Menenius Agrippa - Roman consul in 503 BCE; famously told the parable of the
Belly and Limbs to the plebs in 494 BCE to try to convince them that secession would
not help their situation.
mensa prima - (Latin) the main course in a Roman meal; this course could be cooked
meats and/or vegetables.
mensa secunda - (Latin) the sweet course of a Roman meal, including pastries, fruits,
or sweets.
mercatus - (Latin) any kind of trade, market, a place where business is conducted.
Mercedinus - a month of 22 or 23 days inserted into the Roman calendar by the
Roman ruler Numa Pompilius to make the calender correspond approximately to the
solar year; Mercedinus was added to the calender every other year, inserted after
February 23 or 24; the final days of February were then moved to the end of
Mercedinus.
Mercury (Mercurius) - protector of merchants and travelers; carried a caduceus,
wears a broad-brimmed hat and winged sandals, and carries a purse (kibisis);
messenger god; equated with Hermes in Latin poetry.
Horace Odes 1.10.2, Mercury
Encyclopedia Mythica: Mercury
messis - (Latin) harvest; to harvest their crops, the Romans might use an aratrum, a
tribulum, or a vallus.
metal - ancient Greek coins could be made of Bi, gold, silver, bronze and electrum.
Coins were made of the metal(s) most readily available in the region where the coins
were minted.
metaphor - a word which does not precisely or literally refer to the entity to which it is
supposed to refer. Metaphors are sometimes thought to exist only in works of
literature, but is actually prevalent in language in general. One engages in the
metaphorical use of language, for instance, when one says that one is feeling 'down'.
[Contributor: Dr. Ismail S. Talib, National University of Singapore.]
meter - the arrangement of words in a rhythmical pattern of verse.
metope - in a sculpture frieze, the square sections between the triglyphs. For more
information, see a architectural drawing of a metope and an image of the metope of
Berlin L 21.1.
mile - Latin mille passus (1,000 paces); 5,000 Roman feet are approximately 0.92
English mile or approximately 4,850 English feet .
A Dictionary of Units of Measurement: Mile
miles - (Latin) soldier; the miles was the primary agent in the Roman military; the
greatness of Rome and political power in Rome depended on its military for support
and continued service.
militia - (Latin) warfare, service in war.
Milo - Titus Annius Milo, politician; elected tribune in 57 BCE, Milo worked to end
Cicero’s exile; he was a political rival of Clodius; Milo and Clodius each had armed
gangs in Rome who caused unrest in the city of Rome; Milo was forced into exile in
52 after he ordered the murder of Clodius and he died in 48 BCE.
Milon - also known as Milo, an ancient Greek wrestler from Croton won his first
Olympic victory in boy's wrestling; during his career Milon won six wrestling
championships at both the Olympic and Pythian games; in total Milon won 32
wrestling championships; strong enough to carry an ox on his shoulders as a young
man, the older Milon died a horrible death when he attempted to rip a split tree apart
and one of his hands became stuck; unable to free himself, wild animals attacked and
killed the captive Milon when night fell.
The Ancient Olympics
Min - an ancient Egyptian god, Min was the god of the sky and chief of heaven; Min
was depicted as a bearded ithyphallic man carrying a lightening bolt in one raised
arm; from the time of the Middle Kingdom to the New Kingdom, Min was called Shu
or Re and was identified with Horus the Elder.
Ancient Egyptian Gods - Min
minae - (Latin) threats.
minax - (Latin) threatening.
Minerva - goddess of intellectual thought and academic activities; brought to Rome
by Numa; identified with Athena.
Bullfinch's Mythology: Minerva
mint - the place where a coin was created under government authority; the first silver
coins in Rome were minted in 269 BCE.
misera - (Latin) sad, unhappy.
Mithras - a Persian god whose cult and popularity grew in Rome; Mithras was
originally worshipped by outsiders of the Roman state - pirates and thieves; however,
the military began to participate in his worship and thus it spread throughout the
empire; Mithras' cult was a mystery cult with seven different stages of initiation.
Mithridates - (132 BCE-63 BCE) king of Pontus, in Asia Minor, from 120–-63 BCE;
following a successful invasion of Crimea, Mithridates attempts to conquer the
Roman client of Bithynia but is unsuccessful; angered, Mithridates invades the
province of Asia and causes the death of eighty-thousand Italians and Greek
commercial representatives by encouraging Asian debtors to kill their Italian
creditors; this invasion of Asia began 25 years of Mithridatic wars starting in 88 BCE;
he was beaten back by the Romans, who sent an army led by Sulla to Greece, in 87;
Pompey eventual takes command in the Mithridatic wars from Sulla and defeated
Mithridates in Armenia in 63 BCE; Mithridates attempts to escape to Crimea but
there, faced by a rebellion led by his son, commits suicide.
Mithridates the Great
mitis - (Latin) mild, ripe, mature.
moderatio - (Latin) moderation, a Roman virtue; a Roman person should always
control him or herself and remain balanced.
modius - Roman dry measurement, 16 sextarii or approximately 1 peck.
Moesia - a territory located in Thrace, part of current-day Serbia; this territory
extended from the Balkans to the Black Sea; in 86 BCE, Moesia was divided by
Domitian into two sections – Upper and Lower Moesia; it was an important military
stronghold for the Romans.
Moirae - three sisters, Atropus, Clotho, and Lachesis, known as the Fates; daughters
of Zeus and Themis and sisters of the Horae; in Homer, the Moirae regulated the
length of each person's life; one of the sisters spun the thread of life, one wound it,
and one cut it when life came to an end; each person has a moira and it cannot be
altered not even by the gods; the Moirae resembled the Keres.
monarchy - first period of Roman government; legend relates that Rome was
governed by seven kings, the first of whom was Romulus; the Roman monarchy
lasted from the founding of the city of Rome by Romulus and Remus to 509 BCE.
morbus - (Latin) an illness or disease.
mos maiorum - (Latin) “the custom of the forefathers”; the mos maiorum came to
refer to an idyllic idea of time past in which people had better morals and lived more
correctly; when Cicero used the term, it meant to refer back to the time of Cato the
Elder, although Cato also used it referring to ancestors before him; Vergil’s Aeneid
also refers to the mos maiorum and creates through Aeneas a personification of it;
Plautus generally parodied the mos maiorum for comic effect.
motif - an element which recurs in a literary work, or across literary works.
[Contributor: Dr. Ismail S. Talib, National University of Singapore.]
Mt. Olympus - the home of the gods, mountain in northern Greece (image).
mulsum - (Latin) honeyed wine that was a very popular ancient Roman drink.
munera - see munus.
munerarius - (Latin) the sponsor of gladiatorial games in Rome.
The Roman Gladiator
municipium - (Latin) a town, usually in Italy, whose inhabitants could but did not
always have Roman citizenship; the municipia were governed by their own
magistrates and laws; a free town.
munus - (Latin) funeral gift or games for the dead paid for by the descendents of the
dead person being honored; literally "a duty"; these games, or munera, could be held
annually or every five years for the purpose of keeping the dead person's memory
alive.
murex shell - a sea shell; for an example, see RISD 31.001 (image).
Muses - daughters of Zeus and Mnemosyne, goddesses of epic poetry, lyric poetry,
tragedy, choral dance, love poetry, sacred music, astronomy and comedy.
musica - (Latin) music; the Romans used music as a means of entertainment and also
in their religious rites or political celebrations; they employed many different musical
instruments, including the lyre, the lute, the kithara – a guitar-like instrument, and
flutes.
Mut - an ancient Egyptian goddess, Mut was a mother goddess regarded as the mother
of pharaohs. Her husband was Amon and her son Khonsu, the moon god; her name
means “mother” or “one who dives birth” although, according to myth, she was selfcreated.
Ancient Egyptian Gods - Mut
Myrmidons - the men of Achilles who fought at Troy.
mystagogos - sponsor of an initiate in an ancient Greek mystery cult; a person who
would take on a mystes (initiate) and tutor him or her in mystery cult knowledge.
mystes - (plural mystai) initiate; a person who was being instructed in the mysteries;
being a mystes was the beginning stage of learning about and joining an ancient
Greek mystery cult.
N
naiskos - a small shrine; for an example, see Didyma, Archaic Temple of Apollo
(architecture).
narthecium - (Latin) a box that would be used to hold medicine or perfume.
natatio - (Latin) swimming.
nato - (Latin) to swim.
nebris - a fawn or fawn skin; for an example, see Boston 00.342 (image).
nefas - (Latin) a wrong.
negotium - (Latin) a business or employment; the Romans were engaged in a great
variety of businesses in order to keep their empire running, just as modern cities
require a variety of occupations to keep their countries and cities working; they
required politicians, military leaders, food-sellers and preparers, educational
professionals, personal-care professionals such as doctors, tailors and barbers, and
workers for construction and infrastructure, among others.
Neith - the ancient Egyptian goddess of war and weaving, Neith was one of the oldest
Egyptian gods; Neith was considered both male and female in nature and was selfcreated; originally worshipped and honored throughout Egypt as the goddess of war,
her role evolved over time to the goddess of weaving. Neith was said to be the mother
of Sobek and Re.
Ancient Egyptian Gods - Neith
neoteric - poetry genre practiced by the Novae Poetae in Rome in the 2nd and 1st
centuries BCE; these poets wrote in reaction to the highly structured poetic genres and
venerated originality; this genre relied heavily on Greek innovations in poetry and
especially esteemed Callimachus; Catullus was one of the most famous Neoteric
poets.
Nephthys - the ancient Egyptian goddess Nephthys was the daughter of Geb and Nut,
the sister of Osiris and Isis, and the sister and wife of Seth; throughout Egyptian
mythology, Nephthys was always the counterpart to Seth.
Ancient Egyptian Gods - Nephthys
nepos - (Latin) grandson; this word can also, at times, indicate a nephew.
neptis - (Latin) granddaughter; this word can also mean "niece" in some cases.
Neptune - the Roman name for Poseidon.
Poseidon
Teacher's Companion: Poseidon
Nero - (37 CE--68 CE) Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus; Nero was adopted by
Claudius and thus changed his name to Nero Claudius Caesar; he reigned as Roman
Emperor from 54 to 68; since he was young when his reign began, his actions were
controlled by his mother, Agrippina and Seneca, his tutor; Nero's first wife Octavia,
Claudius' daughter, was divorced, exiled, and murdered by Nero; in 62, Nero married
his mistress, Poppaea, following the murder of his mother in 58 of which Nero had
knowledge; Nero rebuilt Rome at the expense of Italy and the Roman provinces after
the great fire of 64; marries Statilia Messalina in 66, a year after his wife Poppaea's
death; in 68, the Praetorian Guards and several Roman legions took up arms against
Nero, who fled Rome and committed suicide.
An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Emperors: Nero
Nerva - Roman emperor from 96-8 CE; his political prominence originally sprang
from his close friendship with Nero; that alliance with Nero paved the way for his
consulships held in 71 with Vespasian and 90 with Domitian, the man he suceeded as
emperor; after gaining imperial power, he revoked a number of Domitian’s more
unpopular actions; he attempted to establish himself as a generous and just leader;
however, despite Nerva’s efforts, an undercurrent of tension and political intrigue
undercut his rule; he died in 98 CE and his death marked the end of the purely Italian
emperors.
Nestor - son of Neleus and Chloris who participated in the fight between the Centaurs
and Lapith; wise man and adviser in the Iliad.
New Comedy - Greek comedies from the mid-4th century BCE to the 3rd century
BCE; major New Comedy playwrights include Menander, Philemon, and Diphilus;
these plays do not rely upon politics as much as Old Comedy did, but instead
generally focus on love and family.
niger - (Latin) black.
Niobe - daughter of Tantalus and sister of Pelops, mother of twelve sons and twelve
daughters in the Homeric traditions, who boasted that she was superior to Leto who
had only two children; Leto, hurt by Niobe's remarks was avenged by her two
Children Apollo and Artemis who slaughtered Niobe's children; used by Achilles as
an example and also by Antigone.
nomen gentilicium - (Latin) the name of the gens; the family name; other parts of the
Roman name were the praenomen (the first name) and the cognomen (the particular
branch of the nomen gentilicium); for example, for Gaius Julius Caesar, Gaius is the
praenomen, Julius is the nomen gentilicium, and Caesar is the cognomen and his
descendants are known as the Julii.
nomos - (Latin) any custom or law created by man.
Nona - Roman goddess of pregnancy.
Nones - Nonae, in the Roman calendar the Nones fell on the fifth day of each month,
except in March, May, July, and October when they fell on the seventh.
novissima verba - (Latin) the final words; a person’s last words.
nox - (Latin) night.
Numantia - a city in Spain that fought back many different attempt to conquer it; in
133 BCE, the city fell to Scipio Aemilianus.
nummularius - (Latin) a man whose profession was to test coinage to make sure that it
was not forged.
nundinae - (Latin) regular regional markets; nundinae also became a Roman term
used by the calendar; the week was marked by market-days, held every eight days,
and the term to describe this period became nundinae.
nuptiae - (Latin) the ceremony of a wedding.
Nut - the ancient Egyptian goddess of the daytime sky and later the goddess of the
entire sky and was the place where clouds formed; her father and mother were Shu
and Tefnut. Her husband was the earth god Geb, with whom she had four children,
Osiris, Isis, Seth, and Nephthys.
Ancient Egyptian Gods - Nut
nutrimens - (Latin) food, nourishment.
nymph - a minor female goddess who dwells in forests, rivers, mountains, who are
often attendants of major goddesses; for an example, see Louvre Ma 696 (image).
nymphaeum - (Latin) in ancient Greece, a nymphaeum was a grotto or cave with no
adornment that was a shrine to the Nymphs; in Roman terms, a nymphaeum was a
decoration in a house meant to evoke the countryside.
O
obelisk - four sided shafts of stone that were cult objects or monuments originating in
the Old Kingdom of ancient Egypt; for the ancient Egyptians, the obelisk represented
rays of sun; obelisks could be made of pink granite, for example, and have a pyramidshaped top often covered with a gold and silver alloy to scatter the sun's rays.
A Guided Tour of Ancient Egypt: The Obelisk
obequito - (Latin) to ride up to something.
obstetrix - (Latin) midwife; for more about midwives in antiquity, click here.
obverse - the side of a coin on which the main design appears, heads.
Oceanus - the eldest of the Titans, son of Gaia and Uranus; father of the Oceanids
(Styx, Asia, Electra, Doris, Eurynome, Metis, etc.) by his sister Tethys; Oceanus is
represented as a river flowing around the a flat disk, 'the world' though eventually,
more precisely, Oceanus was the Atlantic Ocean; in his Theogony, Hesiod says that
Oceanus fathered over 3,000 rivers by Tethys.
Octavia - sister of Octavian; she married Mark Antony in 40 BCE but they divorced
in 32; she died in 11 BCE.
Octavius - grandnephew and adopted son of Julius Caesar who became the first
Roman emperor; praised by Vergil as the savior of Rome (Aeneid); See Augustus.
ode - a lyric song, the same as a stasimon.
odeon - (also, odeum; plural odea) a covered theater used especially for musical
performances.
odium - (Latin) Hatred; this Latin word has become an English word also meaning
hatred.
Odysseus (Ulysses) - son of Laertes and Antcleia, husband of Penelope, father of
Telemachus; hero of Homer's Odyssey; on Louvre F 342, Odysseus and his men blind
the cylops, Polyphemus (image).
The Aftermath: Post Iliad through the Odyssey
Oedipus - son of Laius and Jocasta, who unwittingly killed his father and married his
mother who bore him four children, Ismene, Antigone, Eteocles and Polynices;
Oedipus solved the riddle of the Sphinx saving Thebes and becoming its king; on the
vase Boston 06.2447, Oedipus talks to the Sphinx (image).
Netshot: Oedipus the King
oikos - 'household'; for more information, see the Perseus Historical Overview "5.27.
Women and the Household."
Old Comedy - form of comedy popular at Athens during the fifth century,
characterized by the prominence of the chorus and political and social satire; the only
extant Old Comedy playwright is Aristophanes.
oligarchy - a form of government in which 'rule is by the few'; from the Greek word
oligarchia.
omphalos - navel; refers to a round stone in the temple of Apollo at Delphi which was
said to be the middle of the earth.
onomatopoeia - a word or expression which resembles the sound which it represents,
like the meow of a cat or the quack of a duck. [Contributor: Dr. Ismail S. Talib,
National University of Singapore.]
opifex - (Latin) artisan; this word refers to a person who makes something; it is linked
to the Latin words opus, thing, and facio, to make.
Opimius, Lucius - a Roman politician; in 125 BCE, the senate refused to grant
Opimius a triumph, despite the fact that he had successfully defeated a revolt in
Fregellae; he continued in Roman politics and gained consular power in 121 BCE; he
sought and was granted the first senatus consultum ultimum in order to suppress a
revolt led by C. Sempronius Gracchus; he was later exiled from Rome because of
pressure by Gracchi supporters.
oporotheca - (Latin) place to keep fruit.
oppidum - (Latin) a Roman urban center or fortified city; according to the lex Rubria
in 49 BCE, oppida could have three subdivisions: municipium, colonia, and
praefectura.
oppugno - (Latin) to compete against, to fight against.
opus craticum - in Roman tenements, wall material woven from a mixture of cane
and mortar that was neither waterproof nor fireproof.
Roman Living
ora - (Latin) edge or border; takes on the significance of coast or coastline.
oraculum - (Latin) an oracle; some of the most famous ancient oracles and prophets
were the Pythia at the Delphic oracle and the Sybil in the Oracle at Cumae.
Delphi's Role in Greek History
oral poetry - poetry composed by improvisational techniques involving stock phrases,
lines and passages called formulas (e.g., Iliad and Odyssey).
oratio - (Latin) oration.
orchestra - : in ancient Greek, "dancing place"; circular dancing area for the chorus in
the Greek theater (image); the area between the skene and the slope where the
spectators sat.
Orestes - (see entry (3) in Perseus Encyclopedia) son of Agamemnon and
Clytemnestra who avenges his father's death.
organicus - (Latin) a musician, related to the word organum.
organum - (Latin) a musical instrument.
ornatrix - (Latin) a woman's hairdresser, responsible for the combing, coloring, and
cutting of hair; an ornatrix would also remove gray hairs and apply make-up (ochre or
winelees for blush and ash to line the eyes) and, using a mixture of lead and chalk,
would whiten the face and arms; when needed an ornatrix would fashion wigs and
hair extensions (corymbia, crines, galeri); she also aided in the selection of jewelry for
all occasions
Orpheus - musician and son of Apollo and a Muse; he was an expert lyre player; the
most famous story about Orpheus concerns his wife Eurydice who died shortly after
their marriage; Orpheus entered Hades and convinced Hades to allow Eurydice to
return to life by means of his beautiful song on the lyre; the condition which Hades
required was that Orpheus not turn around to look at his wife who would be following
him out of Hades until after returning to earth; however, Orpheus looked back and
lost his wife forever.
Orsippus - Orsippus of Megara, a Greek athlete who, in 720 BCE, ran and won a
footrace at Olympia while naked; according to ancient custom, competitors in ancient
athletic competitions wore girdles but after Orsippus' victory competitors competed
naked; Pausanias believed that Orsippus intentionally allowed his girdle to slip off
because Orsippus realized that "a naked man can run more easily than one girt."
The Ancient Olympics
orthia pale - upright wrestling in ancient Greek athletics in which opponents tried to
throw the other to the ground three times during a match; a match did not end until
this occurred; the victor of the othia pale was known as the triakter.
The Ancient Olympics
Oschophoria - an autumn festival in honor of Dionysus that involved cross-dressing
and ritual feasting.
Osiris - an ancient Egyptian god, Osiris held an important role in ancient Egypt; his
death at the hand of his brother Seth represented the yearly Egyptian drought, while
his miraculous rebirth represented the flooding of the Nile Valley and its nourishment
by the silt left on the land after the flood; Osiris’ parents were Nut and Geb; his sister
and wife was Isis; he also had another sister, Nephthys, and a brother, Seth; Osiris
was the father of Horus by Isis and of Anubis by Nephthys, who seduced Osiris to
conceive Anubis.
Ancient Egyptian Gods - Osiris
ostracism - the temporary banishment of a Greek citizen considered "dangerous to
public welfare"; according to Aristotle, Cleisthenes promulgated the law of ostracism
in 510 BCE but it was not used until 487 BCE against Hipparchus, a relative of
Hippias, the tyrant of Athens; an annual vote among the Athenian assembly by a show
of hands decided upon which citizen(s) would be up for ostracism by public vote; by
writing the name of a person they wished to be exiled on a pottery sherd, an ostrakon,
each citizen voted; any citizen receiving a minimum of 6,000 votes had to leave
Athens within ten days and was in exile for ten years; ostracized citizens did not lose
any property or civil rights and could be recalled by a vote of the Athenian assembly.
The Ostracisms at Athens
Perseus Historical Overview: Ostracism
Ostia - a port city located on the Mediterranean coast near Rome; at this port, trading
goods were easily loaded and unloaded at Ostia; from there, ships moved the goods to
and from Rome on the Tiber River.
Otho - Marcus Salvius Otho, emperor; 32 CE- 69 CE; initially Otho was a friend to
Nero but in 68 CE joined with Galba in a conspiracy against him; he ascended to the
emperorship in 69 CE after bribing members of the praetorian guard who then helped
him murder Galba and his adopted heir Piso; Otho was emperor for only three months
before he committed suicide after a military defeat by Vitellius who had himself been
declared emperor.
Ovid - major Roman poet; Publius Ovidius Naso, born in 43 BCE at Sulmo; before
becoming a poet, Ovid served in the Roman government but quit to write love poetry;
Ovid enjoyed great literary success during his life in Rome, his exile in Tomi, and
after his death influencing writers such as Chaucer, Shakespeare, Dante, and Milton;
Ovid died ca. 17.
Ovid's Amores
Ovid's Metamorphoses
The Ovid Project
ovilius - (Latin) shepherd; the term ovilius refers to the person in charge of tending to
sheep, known in Latin as ovis.
ovis - (Latin) sheep.
P
pacifico - (Latin) to make peace.
paedagogus - (Latin) a slave or freedman in charge of educating children;
paedagogus were employed by wealthy families that could afford their fees.
Paestum - a city in southern Italy originally called Posidonia by the Greeks; when the
Romans conquered the city in 273 BCE and established a colony there, the name of
the city was changed to Paestum; archaeologists have studied the excellent remains of
Doric temples found at Paestum.
paidotribes - physical trainers of athletics for competition in ancient Greece.
The Ancient Olympics
painter - the person who painted a vase; Sometimes an ancient Greek vase painter
signed a name or painted his shop's symbol on a vase thus a vase will be attributed to
a person or painters' shop.
pala - (Latin) a trowel; a plank for putting bread in an oven.
palaestra scene - a scene in which wrestler are being trained; a palaestra is a wrestling
school, see the Olympia, Palaestra; for an example of a palaestra scene, see Boston
01.8019 (image).
Palatine Hill - one of the seven hills of Rome on which was found the earliest
evidence of Roman civilization (eighth century BCE). The home of Evander and
Pallas in the Aeneid.
Pallas - epithet for Athena; (2) daughter of Triton who grew up with Athena; together
Athena and Pallas practiced warfare but one day, just as Pallas was about to strike
Zeus feared for Athena and appeared between the two girls; Zeus held the aegis in
front of Pallas who was so frightened that she failed to parry Athena's blow and was
killed; in honor of Pallas, Athena constructed a statue, the Palladium; (3) a Titan who,
according to Hesiod, coupled with Styx who bore him Zelos, Nike, Cratos and Bia;
(4) son of Evander, whose death is avenged by Aeneas (Aeneid).
palmettes - a floral leaf pattern; for an example, see Harvard 1925.30.51 (image).
palmifer - (Latin) palm-tree bearing.
panis - (Latin) bread.
pankration - an ancient Greek athletic event involving a combination of wrestling and
boxing though no himantes, boxing gloves, were used; in myth, the hero Theseus
invented the pankration as a result of using both wrestling and boxing to defeat the
Minotaur; a dangerous event, the pankration had two forms, kato pankration in which
the athletes could fall to the ground and continue the match, and ano pankration in
which athletes had to remain standing throughout the match; competitors could use
moves like the gastrizein, the ‘stomach trick’, a kick to the gut, as well as the
apopternizein, the ‘heel trick’, where a foot was grab to throw an opponent off
balance; also one opponent could hold another and punch him during a match; for an
example, see Toledo 1961.41 (image).
The Ancient Olympics
panoply - a complete suit of armor; armed figures are referred to as "in full panoply;"
for an example, see Philadelphia MS2489 (image).
Pantheon - a temple with an inscription that reads “M.Agrippa L.F. Cos tertium fecit”
claiming to have been built by Agrippa; the original, completed in 27 BCE, was
burned in the fire in Rome in 80 CE and rebuilt during the time of Hadrian; an
opening in the roof of the temple allows in air and light.
Maecenas Image of the Pantheon
parabasis - in ancient Greek, "going aside or coming forward"; in Old Comedy, a
parabasis is a scene in which all of the actors are of stage and the chorus directly
addresses the audience; the chorus, although partly in character, speaks for the poet.
parados - in ancient Greek, a "side entrance"; the first entrance of the chorus and the
side entrance by which the chorus enters.
Parcae - three Roman goddesses of fate, counterparts to the Greek Moirae; the Parcae
were originally attendants at childbirth depicted as spinning the thread of life and
measuring it out as a representation of the length of a person's life; the Parcae
presided over birth, marriage, and death; populary they were known as the tria Fata,
the Three Fates.
parens - (Latin) an actual parent or, more generally, one's ancestors.
Paris - son of Priam and Hecuba, brother of Hektor; also known as Alexandros;
called on by Zeus to judge the fairest among Hera, Athena and Aphrodite; Aphrodite
promised Paris Helen as a reward if Paris judged Aphrodite the fairest; Aphrodite
helped Paris abduct Helen and thus caused the Trojan war.
parodos - side entrance to the theater (image); also, the entrance song of the chorus in
tragedy and comedy.
parody - a literary genre mimicking the style of an author or genre in a literary work
for the purpose of ridicule or satire.
parse - to give a grammatical break down of a word describing form and syntax.
Parthenon - the temple of Athena on the Acropolis in Athens; begun in 449 BCE, it
was dedicated in 438 but did not finish construction until 432 BCE; a large cult statue
by the famous sculptor Phidias was kept in the Parthenon and beautiful friezes
decorated the temple.
Teacher's Companion: Athena
Parthia - a land found near modern-day Iran; the Parthians became a powerful people,
and the traditional date of the Parthian era began in 247 BCE; they had a contentious
relationship with the Roman empire; they were an autonomous culture, although there
were borrowings from Rome, Greece, and Persia; the Parthians are defeated by
Longinus by 51 BCE; Parthians invade Syria and take Jerusalem in 40 BCE.
pasco - (Latin) to graze.
passum - (Latin) in Rome, a sweet wine sauce that becomes thick after boiling it for a
long time.
pastor - (Latin) a shepherd, one who tends sheep.
pastoral - a literary genre. Originally a poem dealing with shepherds, a pastoral is
usually written by an urban poet who idealizes the shepherds' lives. The term has now
been extended to include any literary work which views and idealizes the simple life
from the perspective of a more complex life. [Contributor: Dr. Ismail S. Talib,
National University of Singapore.]
pater patriae - (Latin) “father of the fatherland”; the Senate gave the title pater patriae
to Augustus in 2 BCE.
paterfamilias - (Latin) the head of a household; the paterfamilias had power over the
rest of his family and slaves; he was in charge of any family business, property and
religious rites.
pathos - the sense of pity or sorrow aroused by a particular element or scene in a
literary work. [Contributor: Dr. Ismail S. Talib, National University of Singapore.]
patria - (Latin) fatherland, homeland.
patriarchy - 'father rule'; community in which the father is the supreme authority.
patricii - (Latin) wealthy, powerful, hereditary class of Roman citizens; the word
“patrician” is derived from pater (father); the patricians initially held most priesthoods
and powerful governmental magistracies; the senate was not only for patricians, but
belonging to a patrician clan was a boon for joining the senate; eventually, many
priesthoods and magistracies opened up to wider participation, but some priesthoods
remained solely patrician; the patrician class grew smaller as they were unable to
reproduce themselves adequately, so Augustus and later emperors were able to give
patrician status to certain people and their families.
Patroklos (Patroclus) - son of Menoetius, best friend of Achilles through adulthood
and was related to Achilles through Aegina, Patroclus' paternal grandmother; as a boy
Patroclus killed Clitonymus over a game of knucklebones and was exiled; Achilles'
father, Peleus, accepted Patroclus as a gesture of hospitality into his court during
Patroclus' exile; Patroclus is killed by Hektor and his death is avenged by Achilles
who kills Hektor.
patronymic - a name inherited from a paternal ancestor.
pavimentum - (Latin) the second layer of a Roman road consisting of a foundation of
lime mortar or sand; the pavimentum formed a level base and was laid after the earth,
on which the road was to be laid, was tamped firm.
Layers of the Roman Road
pax - (Latin) peace
pecus - (Latin) single head of a herd, commonly cattle or sheep.
pedegogus - (Latin) school teacher.
pediment -a triangular piece that is located over a doorway, fireplace or the lintel of a
temple; the pediment could contain a decorative frieze, engraving or painting.
pelekys - a double axe.
Peloponnese - large peninsula that forms the southernmost part of mainland Greece;
named after Pelops, who conquered the area and dispersed his sons over the region to
rule; the Peloponnese was the location for the First and Second Peloponnesian Wars
between Athens and Sparta; the First Peloponnesian War ended in ca. 446 BCE and
the Second Peloponnesian War began in 431 BCE and lasted until 404 BCE.
Peloponnesian War - war fought between Athens and Sparta that occurred between
431-404 BCE; Athens sought to expand its influence and Sparta attempted to curb
that growth; the Peloponnesian War is most thoroughly recounted by Thucydides.
Pelops - son of Tantalus and Dione; Tantalus killed Pelops and cut him into pieces
for a stew; the stew was served to the gods by Tantalus; all the gods but Demeter
recognized the meat as human; famished, Demeter ate Pelops’ shoulder; the gods
reconstructed Pelops and brought him back to life replacing the missing shoulder with
ivory; Poseidon became his protector and took Pelops to Olympus where Pelops
served as the god’s cup bearer; Pelops was sent back to Tantalus after Poseidon
caught Tantalus using Pelops to steal ambrosia and nectar though Poseidon remained
Pelops’ protector; according to Pindar, Pelops is the founder of the Olympic games;
Pelops came from Asia Minor to participate in a chariot race organized by the king of
Pisa, Oenomaos; race participants were suitors of Oenomaos’ daughter, Hippodameia;
heeding an oracle that said his daughter would cause his death, Oenomaos ordered all
suitors who participated in the race to be killed; during the race, Pelops kills
Oenomaos with the help of Poseidon and then goes on to marry Hippodameia; two
myths offer different reasons why Pelops then founded the Olympic games; he either
did it to purify himself for killing Oenomaos or as thanks to the gods for his victory.
The Ancient Olympics
peltast - a foot soldier or infantryman; derived from the word meaning a small,
unrimmed shield; for an example, see Harvard 1959.219 (image).
penates - (Latin) patron gods of a family, also called lares; famously, in Virgil’s
Aeneid, Aeneas leaves Troy with his father Anchises, his son Ascanius and his
penates..
Netshot: Vergil
Penelope - faithful wife of Odysseus, mother of Telemachus; holds suitors at bay for
20 years by weaving Laertes' shroud by day and unraveling it by night because she
would not remarry until the shroud was complete.
The Aftermath: Post Iliad through the Odyssey
penicullus - (Latin) a pencil or stylus; also an artist's brush.
pensio - (Latin) payment, day of payment.
pentathlon - an Olympic event comprised of five events, discus, javelin, long jump,
running, and wrestling; the exact order of the events is unknown, it is also unknown
whether the victor had to win all the events or just the majority; in myth, it was Jason
who invented the pentathlon.
The Ancient Olympics
Penthesilea - daughter of Ares and Otrere; Amazon queen killed by Achilles at Troy
where she and her warriors had gone to help Priam; see the death of Penthesilea on
Toledo 1955.225 (image) .
Pentheus - Theban king, tragic hero of the Bacchae who is sent by Dionysus to spy on
the Bacchantes and once discovered is torn to pieces.
Netshot: Euripides' Bacchae
peplos - a long cloak or robe; for an example, see Toledo 1956.70 (image).
perambulo - (Latin) to walk through.
perbeatus - (Latin) very happy, this word is related to the verb beo, meaning to make
happy.
Perdiccas - a Macedonian noble who commanded a position of military power under
Alexander the Great; after Alexander's death in 323 BCE, he became the regent,
ruling in place of Philip II's other son, Philip Arrhidaeus, and Alexander's unborn
child; his power grew, but eventually his plays for power alarmed others; Antipater,
Craterus and Ptolemy all declared war on Perdiccas in 321 BCE and, after long
battles, Perdiccas was killed.
perfidus - (Latin) disloyal ; the English word “perfidy” is etymologically linked to this
word.
Pergamum - a large city in Asia Minor (today in Turkey); in 133 BCE, King Attalus
III left the territory to Rome in his will; however, this bequest was not popular and
Aristonicus led a rebellion of slaves and the poor against Rome; Aristonicus wanted
to create a kingdom named “The City of the Sun” that would worship Helios, the sun
god; Rome defeated Aristonicus and his rebels and Pergamum became known as the
Roman province of Asia.
Periander - son of Cypselus; upon the death of his father in 625 BCE, Periander
begins his reign as tyrant of Corinth and aggressively continues Corinth's economic
expansion by founding colonies on the coasts both northwest and northeast of Greece
to increase trade with the interior regions there; Periander loses the support of
Corinth's people as a result of his cruelty; according to one story, Periander asks the
tyrant Thrasybulus how he to keep his power; Thrasybulus responds by cutting off the
tallest ears of corn in a corn field; Periander understands Thrasybulus' action to mean
that he should kill or exile his potential political opponents which he does; following
the death of Periander in 585 BCE, a government based on the rule of a board of eight
magistrates and a council of eighty men is established in Corinth.
Perseus Historical Overview: 6.17. Tyranny at Corinth
Periboea - (see entry (5) in Perseus Encyclopedia) wife of Polybus, adoptive mother
of Oedipus, who takes him in after he is found on Mt. Cithaeron near Thebes.
period - a designated length of time in history.
peripateia - a plot reversal; a plot device in a play through which a character's
situation changes dramatically from secure to vulnerable.
Peripatetic - founded by Aristotle, the Peripatetic school was where he taught
philosophy to his students; this school is famously parodied in Aristophanes’ The
Clouds.
Persepolis - a large settlement in Persis where the Achmaeneid royalty kept a
residence; in 331 BCE, Alexander the Great conquered Persepolis and razed it;
Alexander's men burned and looted the city; archaeological excavations of Persepolis
have unearthed many administrative texts and reliefs.
Persians - the largest, wealthiest, and most powerful military state in the ancient
Mediterranean and Near Eastern world ca. 500 BCE; a diplomatic misunderstanding
in 499 BCE caused the king of Persia, Darius I, to send a great army and navy again
the Greeks whom he thought were being disloyal subjects; the Persians began their
first expedition against the Greeks in 490 BCE; in 479 BCE, the Spartans defeated the
Persians at battle of Plataea in Boeotia and the Athenian navy defeated the Persians at
Mykale on the coast of Ionia thus ending the Persian Wars; the Athenians eventually
form the Delian League against the Persians in 478 BCE. See below for map of the
Persian Empire:
Map of Persia
Livius.org
Perseus Historical Overview: 8. Clash Between the Greeks and Persian
Alexander the Great
Persian Wars - numerous battles between the Greeks and the Persians that took place
between the 6th and 4th centuries; initially, the unified Greeks fought against Darius
the Great and some Greek territories were conquered by the Persians; later, the Greeks
sought to liberate some of those Persian-controlled territories; Xerxes I, leader of the
Persian Empire in the late 480s BCE, amassed a colossal force against the Greeks; the
Greeks defeated the Persians and successfully liberated its territories; the battles
between the Persians and Greeks were chronicled by Herodotus in The Histories.
personification - the attribution of human characteristics and/or form to inanimate
objects and abstract ideas.
petasos - a Thessalian broad-brimmed hat; for an example, see Dewing 2240 (image).
Petronius - author of the Menippean satire The Satyricon; the Satyricon is an extended
piece of work of which only fragments remain today; not much is known definitely
about the author; it has been suggested that the Petronius who wrote the Satyricon is
the man mentioned by Tacitus as the "arbiter elegentiae" or "judge of elegance"
during the time of Nero, which would have placed him very highly in Nero's court.
pervalidus - (Latin) very strong.
pervideo - (Latin) to look over, to inspect, to discern.
peto - (Latin) to seek, to ask for.
Phaedrus - Roman writer of Latin animal fables, born in Macedonia in 14 CE;
Phaedrus came to Italy as a slave when he was young; later he was granted freedom
by Augustus, the first Roman emperor; some of Phaedrus' fables are original works
while others are rewrites of fables attributed to the ancient Greek writer, Aesop;
Phaedrus wrote in iambic verse and 93 of his fables are extant; each fable is written in
simple Latin and draws a clear moral.
The Fables of Phaedrus: Reading Exercises in Latin
Phaistos - an ancient city on the island of Crete that existed during the Geometric,
archaic, Classical, and Hellenistic periods; the site is known for the Minoan palace
and surrounding pre-palatial complex located on the site; well-preserved remains from
the Geometric and Hellenistic periods were found at Phaistos; the city was destroyed
by the neighboring city of Gortyn in the second century BCE; for more on Phaiston
and to view images of the ancient city, follow the link below.
The Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites: Phaistos
Pheidippides - son of Strepsiades in the Clouds.
phiale - a wide, flat bowl (image).
Philip II of Macedonia - (382-336 BCE) Macedonian king; he usurped the throne
from his nephew after King Perdiccas, Philip's brother, died; Phillip strengthened and
unified Macedonia after he became king; he continually added more land to his
kingdom, both by war and by treachery; in 338 BCE he conquered Greece after
winning the decisive battle of Chaeronea against a united Thebes and Athens; he
married Olympias, a princess from Epirus (modern Albania); he was the father of
Alexander the Great; Phillip was assassinated in 336 BCE during a public parade in
Macedonia.
Philip V of Macedonia - (238-179 BCE) Philip V was a king of Macedonia; he fought
in the Social War and the Second Macedonian War; he was beaten in the Battle of
Cynoscephalae in Thessaly in 197 BCE; Philip V died in 179 BCE at Amphipolis.
Philippi - a city in Macedonia established by Philip of Macedon during the 4th
century BCE; this city was the site of a famous battle in 42 BCE between Octavian
and Antony on one side and Brutus and Cassius on the other; Octavian and Antony
were triumphant and Brutus killed himself soon thereafter.
philosophy - 'love of wisdom'; rational investigation of theories and principles or
knowledge, existence, and conduct.
Phoenix (Phoinix) - a colorful, mythical bird that did not die but burned itself and its
nest and a new Phoenix rises from the ashes; (2) foster father of Achilles.
phonascus - (Latin) a teacher of music.
pictor - (Latin) painter; this word is linked to the Latin verb pingo, which means to
paint or depict and whose fourth principle part is pictum.
pictura - (Latin) painting; many of the extant examples of Roman painting are
frescoes, that is painting on wall plaster; however, there is evidence that informs us
that painting was also done on wood, ivory and other materials.
pietas - (Latin) dutifulness; pietas meant religious piety but also piety towards family,
government, and the state; in the Aeneid, Vergil repeatedly characterizes Aeneas as
pius, meaning he respected the gods, his father and family, and his role in the fate of
Rome.
piger - (Latin) Sluggish.
pigritia - (Latin) Laziness, idleness; Cicero asks his friend Atticus not to blame
pigritia or laziness for his not writing the letter in his own handwriting in Book 16
Letter 15.
pinax - (Latin) plaque, panel or picture hung on a wall.
Pindar - ancient Greek writer of victory odes, epinician, in honor of the winners of
athletic competitions; Pindar was commissioned to composed the odes by the victor,
the victor’s family, or the victor’s hometown; born in Thebes in 518 BCE, Pindar
wrote his first ode, Pythian 10, at age 20 and his last, Pythian 8, in 446 at age 72;
Pindar traveled the Greek world composing odes for winners at the major athletic
festivals at Olympia, Delphi, Nemea, and Corinth; his odes were sung by a dancing
chorus and the surviving text include musical notations and choreographical
directions; each ode includes a proclamation of the victor, the victory being
celebrated, and the majority include a myth usually associated with the victor, his
home, or the location of the games; when Alexander the Great destroyed Thebes, he
did not burn Pindar's house out of respect for his work.
The Ancient Olympics
Biography of Pindar
pinguis - (Latin) fat.
pirus - (Latin) pear tree.
piscator - (Latin) fisherman; the Roman diet relied upon fish and other seafood; the
man who provided the city with fish was the piscator; this word is tied to the Latin
word for “fish”, piscis.
piscina - (Latin) a place for swimming, a bath, a pond.
piscis - (Latin) fish.
Pisistratus - (see entry (2) in Perseus Encyclopedia) (Peisistratos, Peisistratus,
Pisistratos) tyrant of Athens; Pisistratus reigned as the tyrant of Athens three times,
his first reign began in 560 BCE, his second in 558 BCE and his third in 546 BCE and
lasted until his death in 528 BCE; Pisistratus came to power in usual ways, Herodotus
describes these in his Histories, see sections 1.59.1-3, 1.59.4-6 and 1.60.3-5.
Funk & Wagnalls Encyclopedia: Pisistratus
pistor - (Latin) miller; a pistor ground grain in a hand-mill or mortar; a pistor could
also perform some of the duties of a baker, or furnarius.
pithos - a very large, terra cotta jar used for storage; many pithoi were found in
Mycenaean and Minoan palaces.
Placentia - a colony in northern Italy established in 218 BCE; the via Aemilia ran
through Placentia and traveled to Araminum.
plantaria - (Latin) young trees that are just growing.
Plato - Athenian philosopher and author of the Apology and the Republic.
Netshot: Plato's Apology
Netshot: Plato's Republic
plastic - refers to a material that is molded.
Plautus - Titus Maccius Plautus, a Roman comedic playwright who wrote in Latin
verse; born ca. 254 BCE in Sarsina, Plautus begins his career with the performance of
his Miles Gloriosus; dies in 184 BCE; 20 of his plays have survived extant and
incomplete.
The World of Plautus
Teacher's Companion: Greek Theater
plebeian secession - the major tactic of the plebs to exercise their power during the
Conflict of Orders; when they wanted to make a strong point, the plebs would leave
the city as a group, taking themselves out of public and military service; the first
plebeian secession happened in 494 BCE and the last one occurred in 287 BCE.
plebs - (Latin) the large group of Roman citizens (as opposed to the patrician class);
while the plebeians were restricted from participation in some offices (priesthoods,
the senate, certain magistracies), they gradually acquired a larger say in the Roman
government; in 287 BCE, the lex Hortensia gave the plebeian assembly the power to
make their own binding legislation similar to laws and removed one of the major
differences in power between the plebs and the patricians; the plebeian class grew so
powerful that by 172 BCE, the first two plebeian consuls, Gaius Popilius Laenas and
Publius Aelius Ligus, are elected.
plectrum - (Latin) similar to a guitar pick, a plectrum plucked the strings of a musical
instrument.
plektron - a pick for strumming a lyre; for an example, see Boston 13.194 (image).
plemochoe - covered bowl that often held perfume and oil (image).
Pliny the Elder - (23-79 CE) author and scientist; Pliny the Elder wrote the Naturalis
Historia, an encyclopedic text, and published the first section in 77 CE; he died in
Pompeii in the eruption of Mt. Vesuvius in 79 CE.
Pliny - C. Plinius L. f. Oufentina tribu Caecilius Secundus, Roman statesman and
orator; born in 62 at Novum Comum; following his father's death when Pliny was
young, Pliny's maternal uncle, C. Plinius Secundus (Pliny the Elder), became his
mentor; in 79 he witnessed the eruption of Mt. Vesuvius during which his uncle, Pliny
the Elder, died; in his will Pliny the Elder adopted Pliny the Younger; Pliny began his
legal career in Rome around 80 and entered the Roman Senate in 90 by becoming
quaestor augusti; Pliny is best known for his letters that provide insides into politics
and life during the reign of the Roman emperor Trajan; Pliny died in 111 at Bithynia.
The Letters of Pliny the Younger: Teaching Pliny’s Correspondence in the
Intermediate Latin Setting
Timeline of the Life of Pliny the Younger
Plutarch - (45-120 CE) Greek historian and biographer; Plutarch enjoyed a prominent
social and political position and had influential friends; he was one of the two priests
who interpreted the Pythia's words at the Oracle at Delphi; his most famous writing
was entitled Lives of the Noble Greeks and Romans and his Life of Alexander is one
of the few remaining sources concerning Alexander the Great.
Pluto - (see entry (2) in Perseus Encyclopedia) Roman god of underworld and the
dead; also known as as Orcus, Dis, or Dis Pater; identified with Hades.
Encyclopedia Mythica: Pluto
pluvius - (Latin) Rainy; this word is derived from the Latin verb pluo, to rain.
podium - (Latin) a temple would be constructed on a high podium so that it could only
by entered by steps; Roman temples generally had steps only at the front of the
temple; Greek temples usually had steps around all sides of the temple.
poena - (Latin) a penalty for something, punishment.
Poetics - work written by Aristotle which examines, among other things, the nature of
tragedy.
point of view - the perspective established by the narrator of a literary work. Point of
view can either be of the first-person, in which case a character narrates the story, or it
can be told from the narrative perspective of the third-person, where a personage who
is not a character in the story, tells the story. [Contributor: Dr. Ismail S. Talib,
National University of Singapore.]
University of Victoria's electronic list of Literary and Rhetorical Terms
Polemon - (314-269 BCE) an ancient philosopher; Polemon was one of the first men
to lead the Academy, the ancient school of philosophy founded by Socrates’ follower
Plato; the head of the Academy was elected for life
polis - city.
polleo - (Latin) to be strong.
polos - an ornamented cylindrical hat or crown; for an example, see Berlin 1800
(image).
Polybius - a Greek historian; Polybius was brought to Rome from Aetolia in Greece
as a hostage in 167 BCE; he wrote primarily to explain how Rome became such a
powerful state on the world stage; since he was part of the governing class and had
been the tutor of Scipio Africanus the Younger, Polybius had a unique position to see
and write about history.
Polynices - (see entry (3) in Perseus Encyclopedia) son of Oedipus and Jocasta;
cursed by his father never to live in peace with his brother, Eteocles; the two brothers
killed one another.
polytheism - belief in many gods.
pomeridianus - (Latin) in the afternoon; this word is tied to the two Latin words post,
meaning "after", and meridianus, which means "noon".
Pompeii - a city located in Italy near Naples; it was destroyed by the eruption of
Mount Vesuvius in 79 CE; Pompeii was remarkably well preserved under volcanic
ash; Pompeii was rediscovered in 1748, and further excavated in the 19th century;
Pompeii remains popular as an archaeological and tourist site for those interested in
classical antiquity.
Pompey - Cn. Pompeius Magnus (106-47 BCE) a Roman politician, general and
champion of the Senate from Picenum; Pompey was a great soldier and celebrated
military triumphs for Africa (81 BCE), the Slave War (70) and against Mithradates
(62); in 70, Pompey became consul along with Crassus; he was given command of the
army against Mithradates by means of the lex Manilia in 66 BCE; in 63, he defeated
Mithradates and took Syria and Jerusalem; upon returning to Rome in 62, he
disbanded his army; member of the First Triumvirate with Caesar and Crassus in 60
BCE, but the union did not last long; marries Julia, daughter of Caesar in 59 BCE but
Julia dies in 54 BCE; political relations between Caesar and Pompey worsened after
Crassus’ death, with both men wary of the other’s power; Pompey was given control
of the food supply in 57 BCE after arranging for Cicero to return from his exile;
Pompey was consul again with Crassus in 55, the same year in which he dedicated his
theater in Rome; Pompey was Caesar's opposition in the Civil War that began in 49
BCE; when Caesar brought his army to Italy in 48, Pompey brought the opposing
force to the battlefield where he was defeated at Pharsalus; after that battle, Pompey
fled to Egypt where he was killed in 47 BCE.
pomum - (Latin) apple.
pontifex maximus - (Latin) chief pontiff in Rome; duties included regulation of the
Roman calendar and compilation of the annales, an annual record of magistrate names
and memorable Roman events; the most famous pontifex maximus was Julius Caesar,
elected pontifex maximus in 63 BCE; Caesar's best known reform as pontifex was to
introduce the "Julian Calendar," a calendar of 365 days with a provision of a leap year
every forth year.
pontifices - (Latin) members of the Collegium Pontificum, the most important sacred
college, who were led by the Pontifex Maximus; the number of pontifices grew to 15
by the 1st century BCE; members served for life; they were in charge of the Fasti, the
records kept by the magistrates, and the Annales Maximi, further public records.
portorium - (Latin) a Roman port-tax that had to be paid on imported and exported
goods.
postulo - (Latin) to ask, to demand, to summon.
pottage - a Roman staple meal that resembled modern day polenta; pottage was
ground grain, e.g., spelt, in a course paste; eventually, the word pultiphagus, pottage
eater, took on negative connotations and was used to describe Romans; according to
Pliny, the word pulmentaria later described food in general.
potter - the creator of a vase, does not include the painting of the vase.
Poseidon - god of the sea, horses and earthquakes; son of Cronus and Rhea; read the
Homeric Hymn to Poseidon to learn more.
Poseidon in Encyclopedia Mythica
praecentio - (Latin) a prelude set to music.
praeda - (Latin) the things taken in a war; plunder.
praefectus classis - (Latin) the leader of the Roman naval fleet.
praemedicatus - (Latin) having medicines protecting someone or something.
praetor - (Latin) Roman magistrate who served as a law court judge; in the absence of
the consul, the praetor assumed his administrative duties; eight (8) praetors served at a
time and following their services often served next as propraetors; praetors
administered and interpreted the jus gentium; praetors in Roman provinces
administered law based on the rulings and the patterns of praetors' rulings in Rome.
praetorium - (Latin) house in a Roman fort for a unit’s commander and his family.
prandium - (Latin) in Rome, lunch; a light midday meal that might consist of bread,
marinated vegetables, cheeses, hard boiled eggs, salads, cured hams, and salami; in
Rome, consuming a large lunch was considered vulgar.
Presocratics - Greek philosophers of whom some preceded, and others were
contemporary with Socrates.
Priam - son of Laomedon; fought the Amazons; husband of Hecuba, king of Troy and
father of Hektor (Iliad and Aeneid); killed by Neoptolemus at the tomb of Achilles.
principia - (Latin) building for the administrative offices of a Roman fort; the
principia could hold records, storerooms and the soldiers’ pay.
proagon - preliminary announcement by playwright of plays to be performed at a
given ancient Greek festival.
proaulia - (Latin) in ancient Greece, the day before the wedding ceremony; on the
proaulia a ceremony and feast would be held at the house of the bride's father; the
bride would make various offerings, proteleia to different gods; the offerings would
generally include her childhood clothing and toys; sacrifices to Artemis, goddess of
virginity and of transition, would likely include locks of hair and zemia, a fine or
penalty, in the hope that she would ease the bride's passage from virginity; the bride
and groom would both make offerings to Aphrodite for a fruitful, child-rearing life.
Ancient Weddings
procursus - (Latin) literally a running forward, taken to mean an attack or charge in
military terms.
profundum - (Latin) the sea, an abyss.
prokynesis - a Persian custom that entailed prostrating oneself before someone of
higher rank; Alexander the Great required prokynesis as of 327 BCE, a move that
pleased the Persians but caused great unhappiness among the Greeks and especially
Macedonians who fought for him.
prologue - the opening in ancient tragedy and comedy, usually in the form of a
soliloquy or a dialogue; a way to convey the dramatic setting and situation of the play
and introduce the background of the main characters .
pronuba - (Latin) in ancient Roman wedding ceremononies, a married woman who
had only been married once and whose husband was alive - the incarnation of the
faithful wife and thus auspicious; following the wedding ceremony, the pronuba led
the bride into the bedroom and prayed with the bride for a blessing on the marriage,
helped her undress, and remove her jewelry and then put her into the bed; then the
groom entered, either alone or escorted by others and the pronuba would offer a
sacrifice and leave.
Ancient Weddings
Propertius - (51 BCE –d?) Roman poet; Propertius is best known for writing love
poetry; his first two books consist mostly of love poems; he directed much of his
poetry to a woman he names as “Cynthia”, although it is not known who Cynthia was
supposed to be.
prorogatio imperii - (Latin) the continuation of an office or authority, used for the first
time in 326 BCE in order to extend the consulship of Q. Publilius Philo; prorogatio
imperii could be declared for consuls (pro consul), praetors (pro praetore), and
quaestors (pro quaestore).
Prorsa Postverta - Roman goddess of women in labor.
proscaenium - (Latin) the theater’s stage.
protagonist - the leading character or hero in ancient Greek tragedy; in modern
literary criticism, the central character in a drama or another genre.
prothesis scene - an iconographical scene where mourners surround the body of a
dead person; for an example, see Harvard 1952.75 (image).
Proto-Corinthian - a style of ancient pottery decoration used during the period of 720
BCE to 690 BCE, that preceded Corinthian period.
protome - a depiction of the fore part of an animal's body; for an example, see
Philadelphia L-29-40 (image).
provoco - (Latin) to defy.
psaltria - (Latin) a woman who plays the cithara.
psykter - a vase with a bulbous top and stemmed bottom (image).
Ptah - the ancient Egyptian god of architects and skilled craftsmen; Path’s wife was
the lioness-goddess Sekhmet and his son was said to be either Imhotep or Nefertem;
by thinking them with his mind and saying them with his tongue, Ptah brought all
things into being.
Ancient Egyptian Gods - Ptah
Ptolemy - the Ptolemaic dynasty in Egypt lasted from 323 BCE to 116 BCE; below is
a chart of the Ptolemaic kings:
Birth/Death
Years Ruled
Accomplishments
Ptolemy I
367?-283 BCE 323-285 BCE Founder of the Ptolemaic Dynasty; after
serving as a general in the army of Alexander the Great, appointed satrap of Egypt
and Libya; assumed the title king of Egypt in 305 BCE; founded famous library at
Alexandria in 300 BCE, although it burned down in 47 BCE.
Ptolemy II
309-246 BCE 285-246 BCE Established Egypt as dominant maritime
power in the eastern Mediterranean during his wars with the Seleucid king, Antiochus
I; brought Egypt's economy under government control; patron of literature and
scholarship;
Ptolemy III 282?-221 BCE 246-221 BCE Ruled at the height of the Ptolemaic
Dynasty; invaded the Seleucid Kingdom of Syria; established Egyptian naval
predominance in the Aegean Sea;
Ptolemy IV
221-210? BCERuled during the Forth Syrian War against
Antiochus III; Egypt is saved by Egyptian native troops at the battle of Raphia.
Ptolemy V
210?-180 BCE 204-181 BCE At the start of his reign, Egypt's foreign
possessions are taken by Syria and Macedonia and divided between them; official
coronation in 197 BCE announced in decree that forms the inscription on the Rosetta
Stone; he was poisoned in 180 BCE;
Ptolemy VI 186?-145 BCE 181-145 BCE Seleucids invaded Egypt and took him
prisoner; his brother, Ptolemy VII, was given the throne; Seleucids withdrew and
Ptolemy VI and VII ruled jointly until Ptolemy VII received Cyrenaica to rule;
Ptolemy VIII 184?-116 BCE 145-116 BCE Greek and Egyptian writings differ on
personality of Ptolemy VIII; in Greek writings, he is portrayed as a cruel despot;
Egyptian writings credit him with government reforms and endowment of religious
institutions; Ptolemaic Empire ends following his death;
Ptolemy IX 142-80 BCE 116-110, 88-80 BCE son of Ptolemy VIII and
Cleopatra III; after his father’s death, he ruled Egypt along with Cleopatra II;
however, he was driven out of Alexandria by his mother and co-ruler Cleopatra III in
110 BCE, leaving his brother Ptolemy X and his mother as rulers; he did not easily
give up power, and regained rule in Egypt in 88 BCE, ruling until his death.
Ptolemy X
140-88 BCE 110-88 BCE son of Ptolemy VIII; ruled Egypt with
his mother after she ousted his brother and then with his wife after his mother’s death;
he was killed in Asia Minor in 88 BCE as he attempte to raid the Lycian coast.
Ptolemy XI 100-80 BCE 80 BCE
after three weeks of rule, he assassinated
his coruler and stepmother Cleopatra Berenice; however, he himself was later
murdered by the Alexandrians.
Ptolemy XII
80-58 BCE, 55-51 BCE
son of Ptolemy IX; began his rule
in 80 BCE, but because of his collusion with the Romans, he was driven out of power
in Egypt; after his expulsion, he went to Rome where politics sought to return him to
Egypt and succeeded in doing so in 55 BCE.
Ptolemy XIII 63-47 BCE 51-47 BCE he ruled briefly with his sister Cleopatra
VII beginning in 51 BCE; he fought against her and Julius Caesar and, therefore, was
drowned in the Nile when his forces were defeated
The House of Ptolemy
puer - (Latin) boy or child in general.
pugnus - (Latin) fight, fist.
pullus - (Latin) animals when they are young, especially in relation to chickens and
birds.
pulmentum - (Latin) a sauce that one eats with bread.
puls - (Latin) a porridge made from ground wheat that could be used as the main meal
of the Roman day.
Punic Wars - a series of wars between Rome and Carthage over the control of land,
especially of Sicily; the first Punic War lasted from 264-146 BCE and ended with the
Romans having control of Sicily; the Second Punic War took place between 218-201
BCE, was led by Hannibal, and ended in Roman victory again; the Third Punic War
began in 149 and ended in 146 BCE; at the end of the Third Punic War, Carthage was
completely destroyed, its population was sold and the land became the Roman Africa
province.
Why Did They Do That? ... Takes on the Punic Wars
purpureus - (Latin) purple; this word refers to anything purplish; Vergil uses the word
to describe bloody breath coughed up in Aeneid 9.
pyre - a pile of wood or other combustible materials on which a body is burned in a
cremation ritual; for an example, see Louvre G 197 (image).
Pythagoreanism - a philosophy influenced by the work of Pythagoras; the philosophy,
based on mathematical and numerical theories, also promoted a strict vegetarianism.
Pythia - a woman who served at the Delphic Oracle for life; inspired by the god
Apollo, she would prophecy; the Delphic oracles would often be ambiguous and easy
to misunderstand.
pyxis - a round vase used for storage of cosmetics (image).
Q
quadriga - (Latin) a two-wheeled chariot drawn by four horses; for an example, see
Dewing 2780 (image).
quaestor - (Latin) the lowest level Roman magistrate, responsible for the treasury and
public prosecution of criminal offenses; in 509 BCE, with a minimum age of 28, two
quaestors were appointed by the Roman consuls, but in 448 BCE the two quaestors
were elected by the tribal assembly; late in the second century BCE, four quaestors
were elected, two in Rome overseeing the treasury and two in the field with the
consuls as quartermasters; added to their fiduciary responsibilities were tax collecting
and recruiting in the Roman provinces; in 82 BCE, following the dictatorship of Sulla,
the minimum age was raised to 30, a quaestor automatically became a member of the
senate, and the number of quaestors was increased to 20; the number of quaestors
would top out at 40 under Julius Caesar in 45 BCE, with the emperor Augustus
returning the number to 20; under the Roman empire, the quaestor's financial duties
were assumed by imperial magistrates; the quaestorship would eventually become an
honorary position.
quercus - (Latin) oak tree.
quero - (Latin) to seek to know, to search for, to want.
quies - (Latin) quiet, peace, rest.
quinquiplico - (Latin) to multiply by five.
quis - (Latin) who (interrogative pronoun).
quomodo - (Latin) in what manner?; How?
quoniam - (Latin) since, because.
R
ratis - (Latin noun) a vessel or boat made of logs fastened together like a raft.
Re - Re was ancinet Egyptian god of the sun and was associated with Horus, the god
of the sky; Re was known as the creator of men by some and became the state deity
during the Fifth Dynasty; an ancient god, Re was the father of Shu and Tefnut, the
grandfather of Geb and Nut, the great-grandfather of Seth, Nephthys, Isis, and Osiris.
Ancient Egyptian Gods - Re
recito - (Latin) to read something aloud, to recite.
recordatio - (Latin) remembrance; Cicero often mentions in his letters to his friends
different recordationes
recordor - (Latin) to remember, to think over.
relaxatio - (Latin) relaxation.
reminiscor - (Latin) to remember.
Remus - son of Mars and Rhea Silvia, twin brother of Romulus, exposed at birth in a
basket floated on the Tiber River and washed a shore under a fig tree; the twins were
suckled by a she-wolf.
remus - (Latin) oar; while the most popular ship was a trireme (with three sets of
oars), there were also biremis (ships with two sets of oars), quadremis (four sets of
oars) and quinqueremis (five sets of oars).
repotia - (Latin) essentially a party that follows the original entertainment.
reproba - (Latin) false.
responsa - (Latin) a significant development in the Roman justice system introduced
by Augustus and his successors; a responsa was an opinion on a legal case heard in
court by eminent jurists; jurists earned fame based on their responsa; famous jurists
include Papinian, Julius Paulus, and Ulpian, all of whom held the position of
praefectus praetoria, minister of justice of the Roman Empire.
reverse - the side of a coin on which the minor design appears; the tails side.
rex - (Latin) king; the term rex is tied to the Latin verb rego, to rule.
rhabdos - a stick used by ancient Greek athletic trainers to maintain discipline.
The Ancient Olympics
Rhea Silvia - a woman from Roman legend; mother of Romulus and Remus; she was
raped by Mars and became pregnant with twins; the twins were taken from her when
they were newly born and left exposed because the children of Rhea Silvia were
predicated to overthrow their grandfather.
rhetor - (Latin) teacher of rhetoric.
rhetoric - the effective use of language; the art of persuasion.
rhyton - a drinking cup shaped like an animal horn (image).
rogo - (Latin) to ask for
Romanization - a process through which areas conquered by or added to the Roman
Empire became more like Rome and through which Rome spread its influence; this
process took place in many different ways, such as through the adoption of legal and
administrative processes, the spread of the Latin language, the erection of Romanstyle buildings and monuments and the spread of Roman religion; Romanization did
not require that newly added regions take on only Roman characteristics; the Roman
Empire incorporated parts of others' cultures also, but Romanization is the process by
which other cultures became "Roman".
Romulus - son of Mars and Rhea Silvia, twin brother of Remus and founder of Rome.
roseus - (Latin) rosy/pink; this word was often used to describe the color of dawn, and
Lucretius used it in this way in his De Rerum Natura.
rostrum - (Latin) literally a beak; through metonymy, the rostrum takes on the
meaning of the prow of the ship.
rubor - (Latin) redness.
Rumina - Roman goddess of nursing mothers.
Rural Dionysia - a smaller celebration of the City Dionysia that is held in various
cities throughout the countryside; like in the City Dionysia, there were competitions
of comedies, tragedies and poetry; the Acharnians by Aristophanes refers to the Rural
Dionysia.
rus - (Latin) the countryside
rusticus - (Latin) peasant/farmer; the rusticus was a man who lived in the countryside,
the rus.
ruta - (Latin) the herb rue; comes to mean bitterness or unpleasantness.
S
sacerdos - (Latin) priest; this word is related to the word sacer, which means “sacred”;
there were many different colleges of priests or sacerdotes, and each had different
requirements for entry and roles to play in religious rites.
saeta equine - (Latin) horsehair.
sagino - (Latin) to fatten.
Saguntum - a Mediterranean seaport town in Spain on the Palencia River, in Valencia;
an ally of Rome in 221 BCE against Hannibal and the Carthaginians; it was besieged
by Hannibal from 219-218 BCE, then captured; in 214, the Romans recaptured
Saguntum and made it a Roman municipium.
sakkos (saccos) - a sack or bag; for an example, see Louvre G 332 (image).
Salacia - a Roman water goddess; she was one of the wives of Neptune; she is thought
to be connected to the Greek water goddess Amphitrite.
Sallust - Gaius Sallustius Crispus, born in Amiternum ca. 86 BCE, died 35 BCE;
wrote monographs on the Catilinarian conspiricy, Bellum Catilinae, and the
Jugurthine War, Bellum Iugurthinum, in addition to a lost Histories.
Sallust Texts in Latin
salii - (Latin) literally “the dancers”; an Italian priesthood that honored the Roman
god Mars.
salus (Latin) - health or well-being, both in terms of physical health and also in terms
of welfare.
salutarius (Latin) - healthy, physically well.
saluto - (Latin) to greet, to pay respect to.
Samnites - the Samnites lived in southern Italy; they fought two wars with Rome over
territory; the first Samnite War took place between 343 and 341 BCE and the Second
Samnite War lasted from 372-321 and 316-304 BCE; the Third Samnite War ended in
290 BCE; the Samnites suffered a loss at Aquilon in 293 BCE; they also fought in the
Social War; Romanization caught hold in Samnium under Augustus after which some
Samnites began to have more political power in Rome.
sanus (Latin) - healthy, uninjured; this adjective can refer to being either physically or
mentally healthy.
Sappho - Greek lyric poet and one of the few known female poets of the ancient
world; born ca. 630 BCE to Skamandronymos (father) and Kleis (mother); she was of
aristocrat birth and married a prosperous merchant, Kerhylas of Andros; she had a
daughter named Kleis; Sappho lived in the city of Mytilene on the island of Lesbos;
Sappho's poetry is concerned with personal relationships, specifically the love of
women; her poetry influenced the works of other ancient poets, including Catullus
and Ovid.
Sappho
Sarpedon - son of Poseidon, a giant killed by Herakles; (2) Lykian hero and ally of the
Trojans said to by the son of Zeus, killed by Patroklus (Iliad).
satire - a literary work which belittles or savagely attacks its subject. A distinction is
sometimes made between direct and indirect satire. [Contributor: Dr. Ismail S. Talib,
National University of Singapore.]
University of Victoria's electronic list of Literary and Rhetorical Terms
satrap - a Persian title that literally means "protector of power"; satraps were
essentially administrative governors, ruling a satrapy; some of Alexander the Great's
generals became satraps after Alexander's death and the dissolution of Alexander's
empire.
Saturn - old Italian god identified with the Greek god Cronus; after being hurled from
Olympus by Jupiter, he established the future site of Rome and founded a village
there called Saturnia; Saturn ruled Latium during its Golden Age and he taught the
people how to cultivate the land; the Romans celebrated the festival Saturnalia at the
end of December during which the social order was inverted, e.g., slaves gave orders
to their masters.
Image of the Temple of Saturn in the Roman Forum
satyr - mythical male being associated with Bacchus who are portrayed as part man
and part goat or as a man with pointed ears and a horse's tail and a large erection; for
an example, see Boston 98.669 (image).
satyr play - at the City Dionysia, each tragedian presented three tragedies and one
satyr play; the chorus was composed of satyrs, half-human and half-animal (goat or
horse); Aristotle claims that tragedy originated from satyr-like-plays in Poetics 4; one
belief is that satyr plays were used to preserve the association between tragedy, which
was moving away from Dionysiac subjects, and the festival of Dionysus; another
belief is that satyr-plays provided comic relief; the only surviving satyr-play is the
Cyclops by Euripides; numerous fragments and about half of a satyr-play, entitled
Ichneutai (The Trackers) survive.
scaccarium - (Latin) chess game.
scan - to assign stress patterns to a poem. [Contributor: Dr. Ismail S. Talib, National
University of Singapore.]
scelus - (Latin) crime, wickedness.
scholasticus - (Latin) student of rhetoric.
Scipio Africanus - Publius Cornelius Scipio, Roman general and master of warfare
focused on techical innovations in soldiering; at the age of 25, Scipio takes command
of Roman troops in Spain after the deaths of his uncle and father in 211 BCE; in 209
BCE, he defeats Hasdrubal Barca's smaller army at Baeula, which results in the
division of Spain in two, Nearer Spain and Further Spain; he is elected consul in 205
BCE and invades Africa in 204 BCE; he defeats Hannibal at the battle of Zama in 202
BCE ending the Second Punic War, and as result earns the name Scipio Africanus.
scribo - (Latin) to write or to compose, as in a poem or a written work.
scriptor - (Latin) writer; writers would work in a scriptorium; the word scriptor is
related to the verb scribo, to write.
sculptor - the creator of a sculpture.
sculptura - (Latin) sculpture; Roman sculpture flourished, depicted more realistic
representations of people than did ancient Greek sculpture; wealthy Romans
commissioned sculptors to create works for their villas and gardens.
Scorpius - a constellation of the scorpion; sent by Gaia to kill Orion, the hunter who
vowed to rid the earth of all wild beasts; an alternative myth says that Apollo
convinced Gaia to send Scorpius after Orion worried that Orion was in love with his
sister, Artemis; in the sky, Scorpius chases Orion around the heavens but never
catches him.
Scylla - (see entry (2) in Perseus Encyclopedia) once a sea nymph, she was turned
into a sea monster and is identified with the rock Scylla.
secondary source - information written by an authority who reports on an event,
person, place or thing; i.e., a biography is a secondary source, an autobiography is a
primary source.
securitas - tranquility in terms of peace of mind, the state of not being worried.
Sejanus - praetorian prefect under Tiberius beginning in 17 CE; Sejanus plotted the
murder of Drusus, the husband of Livia Julia whom he tried to marry after her
husband’s death; in 21 CE, Sejanus consolidated the power of the Praetorian Guard by
having the soldiers live in a common barracks; however, Tiberius did not allow the
marriage to take place; in 31 CE, Tiberius discovered the Sejanus was again plotting,
this time to take power, and had him put to death.
Sekhmet - the ancient Egyptian lioness goddess of war and destruction, Sekhmet was
depicted as a woman in red with the head of a lioness with the solar disk and the
uraeus on her head; the wife and sister of Ptah, Sekhmet was born out of the fire of
Re’s eye.
Ancient Egyptian Gods - Sekhmet
Seleucids - the series of rulers descended from Seleucus I who controlled much of the
land from Anatolia to central Asia for about 250 years; the Seleucids ran a wellorganized empire that drew upon local cultures, languages, and peoples; in 312 BCE,
Babylonia was added Seleucid territories and in 199 BCE, the Seleucids added Israel
to their empire, having taken it away from the Greek Ptolemies; the Seleucid dynasty
ended when Pompey took Syria away from Antiochus Asiaticus in 64 BCE; the
dynasty was contested often, but in 293 BCE, Seleucus I Nicator made his son
Antiochus the viceroy of Baghdad..
seminarium - (Latin) a place where pants are taken care of, a nursery
Semele - daughter of Cadmus and Harmonia, mother of Dionysus by Zeus; tricked by
Hera to ask Zeus to appear before her in his godly form, Zeus could not refuse and
Semele was immediately burnt to death.
senatorial province - areas that were governed by Roman promagistrates; there were
ten senatorial provinces, eight of which were led by ex-praetors and two of which
were led by ex-consuls; Asia and Africa were the two richest senatorial provinces.
senatus - (Latin) a Roman body of men that originally advised the king and then the
consuls; the number of men fluctuated but all had to be of good standing in the
community (the censores could remove a man from the senate if necessary) and
eventually needed to be a member of the equestrian order, that is, they needed to have
property worth at least 400,000 sesterces; although having family members in the
senate could help someone gain entrance into the body, heredity was not the only
means of joining the senate and “new men” or novi homines could become part of it;
generally an advisory body, the senate could at times declare a state of emergency
(senatus consultum ultimum) that let the group govern as necessary; Augustus (63-14
BCE) revised the senate and left the body with less power and bolstered hereditary
claims as a means to enter the senate; it continued to make laws and conferred powers
on new emperors.
senatus consulta - (Latin) recommendations made by the Senate that were similar to
laws; the Roman assemblies would then act on the Senate's recommendations; the
most powerful senatus consultum was called the senatus consultum ultimum that
essentially could declare martial law, giving absolute power to the consuls; copies of
senatus consulta were kept in the Temple of Ceres beginning in 449 BCE.
senatus consultum ultimum - (Latin) a state of emergency that could be called for by
the Roman senate; when this state of emergency was in effect, the consuls could do
almost anything they thought necessary to restore order to Rome; the senatus
consultum ultimum was used for the first time in 121 BCE.
Seneca - born Lucius Annaeus Seneca, ca. 4 CE; Roman philosopher, dramatist, and
statesman; his father, the Roman rhetorician Marcus Lucius Annaeus Seneca, was
known as Seneca the Elder; Seneca (the Younger) studied philosophy and rhetoric in
Rome, gaining a deep appreciation for Stoic philosophy; in 49, Seneca became a
praetor and was appointed tutor to Nero; upon the death of the Emperor Claudius,
Nero became Roman emperor at a young age; Seneca, along with Rome's commander
of the Praetorian Guard, Sextus Afranius Burrus, guided the first five years of Nero's
rule; after losing his influence over Nero, Seneca retired a very wealthy man and
devoted himself to philosophical pursuits; Nero, jealous of Seneca, tried to have him
poisoned but failed; in 65, Seneca was implecated in a plot to kill Nero and committed
suicide by imperial order; prior to his death, Seneca published many literary works
including: Apocolocyntosis Divi Claudi (The Pumpkinification of the Divine
Claudius) in 54; seven books of Quaestiones Naturales; Epistulae ad Lucilium, letters
written between 63 and 64; several Stoic treatises on anger, tranquillity of mind, and
philosophical retirement; and nine tragic dramas in verse that were adapted from
ancient Greek legends.
Biography of Seneca
The Works of Seneca in Latin
sermo - (Latin) speech; the word sermo can refer to just about any kind of speech
from conversation to formal discourse to language in general.
Servile Wars - three slave uprisings that were ultimately quelled by the Roman
Senate; the first Servile War occurred from 135-132 BCE; the second began in 104
BCE and lasted for a year; the last Servile War was led by Spartacus and took place
between 73-71 BCE.
servus - (Latin) slave; slavery was practiced in both Greece and Rome; both Greeks
and Romans did not want to make their fellow-countrymen into slaves, so the slaves
usually were captives of war, piracy, or trade and the descendants of those captives;
slaves filled many different roles in Greek and Roman society, from policemen to
artisans, household workers, estate workers, etc.
sestertius - (Latin) a silver coin that, during the time of the Republic, was valued at a
two and a half denarii; later, the sestertius was made of copper and worth 4 denarii
during the Imperial period.
Seth - the ancient Egyptian god of thunder and storms as well as the desert; his
parents were Nut and Geb, his brother was Osiris, and his sisters were Isis and
Nephthys; though married to Nephthys, Seth never had any children, a fact that
contributes to his association with the barren desert and infertility; Seth and 72
conspirators murdered Osiris and threw the coffin containing Osiris’ body into the
Nile.
Ancient Egyptian Gods - Seth
sextarius - Roman liquid measure; 1/16 cogius or approximately 1 pint; in dry
measure 1/16 modius.
Roman measurement equivalents
shape - in reference to vases, one of the many forms in which vases appear.
Sibyl - priestess of Apollo who predicted the Trojan War and the fall of Troy at the
hand of a Spartan woman (Helen); the Sibyl at Cumae guided Aeneas through the
underworld (Aeneid).
Image of the Sibyl on a coin
sic - (Latin) literally “thus”; used in scholarly citation to indicate that a quoted word
that appears misspelled or poorly punctuated is found that way in the original text;
using sic means that the author who is citing the text will not be responsible for the
misspelling or punctuation error.
Sicily - an island in the Mediterranean off the western coast of mainland Italy;
initially Sicily was settled by Greek colonists; in the 5th century BCE, Sicily fell
under the power of the tyrant Dionysios of Syracuse; eventually Sicily came under
Carthaginian control and became a major source of conflict in the Punic Wars; the
Roman army came to Sicily in 264 BCE at the beginning of the Punic War and the
island mostly became a Roman province; during the Roman Republican period, Sicily
was very important source of grain and other foodstuffs, and many latifundia were
located on Sicily.
Sicyonians - (Sikyonians) the people of Sicyon who became Dorians after they had,
as Pausanias says, "lost their power" having been defeated by Agamemnon and the
Mycenaeans.
signature - the signing or mark of a potter, coin artist or sculptor; for more
information, see the Perseus Encyclopedia entry for Dipinto.
silens - (Latin) another name for a satyr; for an example, see Boston 91.223
(image).
Silvia - a girl in the Aeneid who lived in Italy; the death of her pet stag was the overt
cause for war between Aeneas’ forces and the original Italians, although the less overt
causes of the war include Juno and Allecto’s combined forces that riled up the
countryside against the incoming Trojans.
simile - a figure of speech using "as" or "like" for an explicit comparison.
sine die - (Latin) literally “without a day”; this phrase indicates that no day is chosen
for a subsequent rendez-vous; a meeting can be adjourned without a fixed date to
reconvene the group, and that adjourning is termed sine die.
sine dubio - (Latin) literally “without doubt”.
sine mora - (Latin) literally “without delay”.
sine praeiudicio - (Latin) literally “without prejudice”; a legal matter can be dismissed
and termed sine praeiudicio, which means that no records will be kept that prejudice
the defendant.
sine qua non - (Latin) literally “without which not”; a sine qua non item is one that is
unquestionably needed.
Sinon - Greek spy who tricks the Trojans into bringing the Trojan Horse within their
city walls.
Sirens - a mythical female being, part woman, part bird, who enticed sailors to their
deaths with a seductive song; for an example, see Boston 65.566 (image).
sistrum - (Latin) a rattle-like instrument used in the worship of gods such as
Dionysus, Isis and Amon.
situla - (Latin) a bowl; for an example, see Toledo 1981.110 (image).
skene - building connected to the stage (image); in ancient Greek, skene is "tent,
booth"; in drama, the stage building that was at the back (from the audience’s
perspective) of the performing area; the building had a door and often represented a
palace; the building could be painted and used as scenery; the origin, date of
institution, and physical specifications of this building are unknown.
skyphos - a drinking cup (image).
Smyrna - earliest settlement at Bayrakli; occupied by the Aeolian Greeks at ca. 1050
BCE; by the 9th century BCE defensive walls were present and the city possessed the
earliest known Greek religious shrine in Anatolia, the Archaic temple of Athena, built
ca. 625 BCE; may have been the birthplace of Homer; sacked by the Lydians ca. 600
BCE and again by the Persians ca. 545 BCE; a response from an oracle resulted in the
building of a new Smyrna, founded by Alexander the Great between Mount Pagus and
the sea.
Sobek - the ancient Egyptian god of crocodiles, Horus the Elder enlisted the help of
Sobek to kill his uncle Seth; Sobek helped Horus on another occasion when he
rescued Horus’ four sons from the waters of Nun; Sobek was depicted as a crocodile
or as a man with the head of a crocodile.
Ancient Egyptian Gods - Sobek
Social War - two different wars; one Social War was fought in 220-217 BCE between
Philip V of Macedon warred against the allied Aetolians, Sparta, and Elisians; this
war was resolved with the Peace of Naupactus; the second Social War was fought
between 91 and 87 BCE between Rome and its Italian allies; fighting was kept among
the Samnites in 88; after this Social War Italy was united.
Socrates - Athenian philosopher and central figure of Plato's Apology, Symposium
and Dialogues.
Socrates, Perseus Historical Overview
The Last Days of Socrates, Clarke University Philosophy Department.
sodales Augustales - (Latin) Roman priests who worshipped Augustus and his family;
sometimes called simply Augustales.
sodalitas - (Latin) companionship, fellowship.
sodalitates - (Latin) in Rome, sodalitates were companies of priests who performed
religious music; famous companies included the Arval brethren (frates Arvales) who
sang songs intended to banish evil and the Salii comprised of 12 members from the
noble class who performed under a vates (a lead singer) and a praesul (a lead dancer).
Somnus - Roman god of sleep.
sophismata - (Latin) false conclusions, fallacies.
Sophists - professional traveling teachers of rhetoric and other subjects, noted for their
ingenuity and speciousness.
Sophocles - Athenian tragedian.
Netshot: Introduction to Greek Tragedy
Sophocles' Oedipus the King
Sophocles' Antigone
soteria - (Latin) gifts given to someone who has just gotten better after having been
ill.
spatium - (Latin) expanse.
specialis - (Latin) secret, confidential, good friend.
speculor - (Latin) To explore, to look out, to spy.
sphendone - a sling or head band.
Sphinx - a mythical female being with the head of a human and the body of a lion;
sent by Hera, she ravaged Thebes until Oedipus solved her riddle (Oedipus the King);
for an example, see Boston 51.2469 (image).
spondophoroi - the citizens of Elis who wore olive branch crowns and held the
caduceus, herald’s wands, in their hands; the spondorphoroi traveled to all Greek citystates to proclaim the official three-month truce, ekecheiria, that was initiated during
the Olympic games.
The Ancient Olympics
stade - or stadium, a Greek linear measure; 625 Roman feet or 1/8 Roman mile.
stadion - in ancient Greek athletic competition, a running race of 200 meters,
approximately 200 yards.
The Ancient Olympics
stamnos - a wide-mouth vase (image).
stasimon - (plural staisima) in ancient Greek an adjective meaning "standing,"
"stationary"; in drama, the stasimon was used for odes after the parodos and before
the exodus; the songs are not in a marching rhythm, as the parodos is, but are in a
standing rhythm; the chorus, however, is not standing still, but is dancing.
Statius - (ca. 45-96 CE) Roman poet; Statius is best known for his epic the Thebaid;
this epic told the saga of Oedipus and, in doing so, drew upon the works of earlier
Roman epicists such as Virgil, Ovid and Lucan; he also wrote a series of poems
collectively known as the Silvae; his unfinished work the Achilleid sought to tell the
story of Achilles’ life, but Statius’ death in 96 CE occurred before the completion of
the poem.
stephane - a headband, diadem; for an example, see Dewing 663 (image).
stichomythia - in ancient Greek, conversation in alternate lines; a form of tragic
dialogue in which characters converse by using usually one line each; in such
dialogues characters may use two, three, or a half line each.
stilus - a stylus; an instrument used to write on wax tablets used in business,
government, and by students; one end of the stylus was pointed for writing, the other
end was a flat scoop used to rub out mistakes.
Stoicism - Hellenistic philosophy founded by Zeno; Stoics advocated the complete
control of one's passions (e.g., joy and grief) and asserted that everything happens for
the best; the Aeneid presents a Stoic hero in Aeneas, a man governed by fate and who
needed to cut himself off from his emotions (i.e. in Book Four with Dido) in order to
fulfill his destiny and gain virtue; however, his Stoicism is eventually unbalanced by
furor.
Strepsiades - comic hero of the Clouds.
strigil - a scraper used by the ancient Greeks to remove dirt and oil; for an example,
see Harvard 1895.248 (image).
strophe - in ancient Greek "a turning"; a part of a stasimon; a strophe precedes and
corresponds metrically to an antistrophe.
strophium - an undergarment or bra worn by women to support their breast; the
strophium was a band of cloth made of linen or cotton.
Image of two women wearing strophia
Roman Clothing
studeo - (Latin) To study.
stultus - (Latin) foolish; a fool.
suasoria - (Latin) speeches which would propose a course of action in a historical
event or mythological event; these speeches were given as training exercises in the
process of learning declamatio; often these speeches on historical events would be
crafted and given long after the event had taken place; speakers learning suasoria
would generally be in training for public governmental life.
sub imperio - (Latin) literally “under the power”.
sub iudice - (Latin) (Latin) literally “under consideration”; this phrase now indicates
an issue that appears before a legal court and is being debated, implying that the
matter cannot be freely discussed until it emerges from the legal process.
sub poena - (Latin) literally “under penalty”; in English, this phrase has become a
single word – subpoena – and is a document that requires the recipient to appear in
court.
sub rosa - (Latin) literally “under the rose”; this phrase has come to mean “secretly”
or “under cover”; the exact genealogy of the phrase is debated.
sub verbo - (Latin) literally “under the word”; this phrase is used in academic citation
and is abbreviated “s.v.”; it is used to refer to a definition or entry in a reference work.
Suetonius - Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus, born ca. 69 probably in Hippo Regius
(Annaba in Algeria), dies ca. 104; works include biographies, De Vita Caesarum (The
Twelve Caesars); De Viris Illustribus, which includes De Grammaticis et Rhetoribus;
De Poetis, of which at least three (3) survive extant; De Oratoribus (15 written by
only one survives); and De Historicis of which only one survives.
The Works of Suetonius in Latin
Famous Roman Men: Gaius Suetonius Tranquillius
Sulla - Lucius Cornelius Sulla (Felix), born in 138 BCE, a Roman statesman and
general who was victorious in Rome's first civil war (88-82 BCE); in 106 BCE, he
captured Jugurtha, bringing an end to the Jugurthine War; following his victory in the
Roman civil war, Sulla became the dictator of Rome under the Lex Valeria (Valerian
law) from 82 to 79 BCE instituting constitutional reforms in favor of strengthening
the Roman Republic; in his early career, Sulla served as quaestor under Gaius Marius
in the war against Jugurtha, king of the Numidians; in 88 BCE, Sulla became consul
and was given charge of the war against King Mithridates VI of Pontus in Asia
Minor; that year, upset when the power of command against Mithradates was taken
away from him and given to Marius instead, Sulla marched on Rome where he killed
his enemies and took command; however, in 87, public opinion caused him to leave
Rome for Greece where he began fighting Rome’s war against Mithradates; in 84
BCE, after the war with Mithradates was completed and after the death of Sulla’s
powerful enemy Cinna, Sulla again brought his army to Italy, fought the Italians and
took Rome; he was made dictator in 81; one of Sulla’s most oppressive tactics was the
use of proscriptions, lists of Romans who were deemed criminals and whose property
was taken; he made changes to the senate in his position as dictator; as a result of his
life experiences, Sulla belived himself lucky and gave himself the name Felix; Sulla
died of a fever in 78 BCE in Puteoli.
summa cum laude - (Latin) with highest praise; this phrase denotes an academic
record of the highest distinction.
supellex - (Latin) the furniture of a household.
superveho - (Latin) to ride or sail past something.
symphonia - (Latin) a musical performance.
symposium - a drinking party that usually included entertainment and conversation;
for an example, see Boston 01.8022 (image); also the title of a text by Plato in which
various characters - including Socrates, Aristophanes and Alcibiades - discuss love.
The Symposium in Greek Art
synthema - a password used in the Eleusinian Mysteries; the initiates would say the
password, the synthema, when they entered the location of the Eleusinian mysteries to
indicate that they were ready to be a part of the rites.
syrinx - pan-pipes.
synoris - a chariot race using two full grown horses or two foals; the synoris for
horses was eight laps and for foals three laps; the stronger horse was usually place on
the right for faster pull around the turning post in the hippodrome.
The Ancient Olympics
T
tabella - (Latin) writing tablet.
taberna - (Latin) a booth, stall, or shop where goods and wares were sold by
merchants and farmers and where money-leaders plied their trade; tabernae lined the
north and south sides of the Roman forum and were used by spectators of festivals,
fights, battles, and games as seating so they could watch the activities from better
vantage points.
tablinum - (Latin) in a Roman house, a reception area and storage area for the images
of ancestors and family records.
Roman Living
Tacitus - Publius Cornelius Tacitus, born ca. 56, died ca. 117; little is known of
Tacitus, it is speculated that he is of Gallic or Northern Italian origin; his works
include Histories of the years 69-96 (?), out of 12 or 14 books, four (4) and part of a
fifth survive (on Civil Wars, years 69-70); Annals covering the years 14-68, with 10
out of 16 or 18 books (minus parts of book 3) surviving and covering the reigns of
Tiberius, part of Claudius' reign, and most of Nero's; his earlier works include
Agricola, a biography of his father-in-law, Germania, and Dialogus de Oratoribus
(Dialogue on Orators).
The Works of Tacitus in Latin
Tarpeia - a woman from Roman legend who betrayed the Roman army; when the
early Romans stole the Sabine women, the daughter of the Roman commander fell in
love with the king of the Sabine people; Tarpeia arranged that the Sabine king would
marry her if she allowed them into the Roman fortress; the Sabines killed her once
inside; a cliff was named after her on the Capitoline Hill; this “Tarpeian Rock”
became the site of execution for criminals.
Taurt - as an ancient Egyptian goddess, Taurt’s primary role was to protect pregnant
women; she assisted the gods Bes and Hatshepsut at childbirths; this role was
appropriate for a mother goddess who was said to help in the daily birth of the sun.
Ancient Egyptian Gods - Taurt
Teachers' Companion™ - materials designed for teachers that include: strategies for
designing classroom curricula, suggestions for building student confidence, Perseus
assignments for use at the high school and college levels, Path suggestions, model
start-up assignments and bibliographical information.
Teiresias (Tiresias) - an aged, blind Theban soothsayer (Antigone, Oedipus the King
and Bacchae); one legend says that he was blinded by Athena because he saw her
naked but at his mother's (Chariclo) request, Athena gave him the gift of prophecy as
compensation.
Telemachus - (see entry (2) in Perseus Encyclopedia) son of Odysseus and Penelope;
upon Odysseus' return to Ithaca, Telemachus helps his father slaughter the suitors of
Penelope.
The Aftermath: Post Iliad through the Odyssey
tempestas - (Latin) storm.
Temple of Capitoline Jupiter - a Roman temple that was built on the Capitoline Hill
dedicated to Jupiter; the temple was begun under Tarquinius Priscus and finished
under Tarquinius Superbus at the end of the Roman monarchy; however, it was not
inaugurated until 509 BCE at the beginning of the Republic; the temple had to be
rebuilt numerous times after being destroyed by different fires.
Temple of Castor and Pollux - a temple located in the Roman Forum of which there
are only three columns remaining; the existing columns are over 48 feet high.
Maecenas Image of Castor and Pollux
Temple of Concordia - a temple built in Rome to commemorate the peace achieved
between the plebeian and patrician classes in 367 BCE.
Temple of Dionysus - a theater on the south slope of the acropolis in Athens; the
temple was used for the performances of ancient Greek tragedy and comedy at the
City Dionysia.
Temple of Juno Moneta - a temple located on the Capitoline Hill dedicated to Juno;
this temple housed the sacred geese that had supposedly warned the Romans that the
Gauls were about to attack in 390 BCE; a flock of geese were taken care of in the
temple ever since that event; eventually the temple housed a mint where money was
made.
Temple of Mars Ultor - a temple in the Roman Forum in honor of Mars; ultor means
“avenger” and Augustus dedicated this temple to Mars in 2 BCE to give thanks for
being able to avenge the death of Julius Caesar.
Image of the Temple of Mars Ultor
Temple of Saturn - a temple to Saturn located in the Roman Forum; originally
constructed around 500 BCE, it was repaired and rebuilt numerous times; the remains
of the Temple of Saturn include eight Ionic columns.
Maecenas Image of the Temple of Saturn
Temple of Vesta - located on the Palatine Hill at the Roman Forum, the Temple of
Vesta contained the sacred fire of Rome; the fire was maintained by the Vestal
Virgins.
Maecenas Image of the Temple of Vesta
tepidarium - (Latin) in a Roman bath, this was the warm room where a patron would
prepare themselves for the calidarium, or sauna room, after having undressed in the
apodyterium.
tepidus - (Latin) Warm/ lukewarm; this word is linked to the Latin verb tepeo, to be
warm.
Terence - (195 – 159 BCE) Roman playwright; his six plays include Andria, Hecyra
and Adelphoe; many of his plays, like those of Plautus, were adapted from Greek
originals, although Terence added Prologues in which he added additional
information pertinent to his plays; Terence was popular throughout the following
ages, helping sustain his manuscripts.
terminus - (Latin) boundary, ending.
terra - (Latin) earth, ground, soil.
terra firma - (Latin) dry land.
terra incognita - (Latin) Unknown land; on a map, unknown places could be labeled
“terra incognita,” thereby indicating that they were still to be traveled and explored.
tesserae - (Latin) a Roman dice game; the Romans called the six sided marked dice
tesserae, but they also had a type of dice with only four marked faces called tali; the
only difference between Roman dice and modern dice is that the numbers were
arranged such that any two opposite sides would add up to seven; to play tesserae,
dice were shaken in a cup then tossed, as croupiers do today; the Greeks played with
three dice, but Romans played with two.
Learn how to play tesserae
tethrippon - a four horse chariot race established as an Olympic event in 680 BCE
with a length of twelve laps around the hippodrome; there was also a tethrippon for
foals established as an Olympic event in 384 BCE.
The Ancient Olympics
Tetragonon - a gymnasium at Elis where wrestlers and boxers trained one month
prior to the start of the ancient Olympic games.
The Ancient Olympics
Thalia - the Muse of comedy; the Muses were nine goddesses whom artists appealed
to in order to inspire their works.
Theater of Marcellus - a large theater in Rome dedicated in 13 BCE by Augustus in
honor of his deceased nephew.
Maecenas Image of the Theater of Marcellus
theatron - theater auditorium (image).
Introduction to Greek Stagecraft
Meda the Musical (a modern production of the ancient Greek drama)
Thebes - a Greek city that was the largest in the region of Boeotia; Thebes sided with
the Persians against the Greeks in the Persian War and thus were greatly demoted in
power after the war ended; Sparta allied itself with Thebes later when they sought
help in their struggles against Athens; after the Peloponnesian War, however, they
turned against Sparta; Philip II of Macedonia took power away from Thebes and,
when Philip was murdered, Thebes attempted to remove itself from its place under
Macedonian power; Alexander the Great, however, showed no mercy to the Thebans
and burned the city to the ground in order to demonstrate his power; he allowed only
the house of the poet Pindar to remain in the city.
theologeion - in ancient Greek, "god-speaking place"; place on the roof of the skene
where gods would appear.
thermae - (Latin) public baths used by the Romans to bath, for entertainment, and for
therapeutic healing; most Roman baths were free though some charged a nominal fee
to preclude their use by slaves and the poor; men and women bathed separately; a
wealthy Roman man might bath in wine and a wealthy Roman woman in milk; the
baths were a meeting place and might include a gym, a library, bars, restaurants, and
even theaters; famous baths include the Baths at Bath (England), the Baths of
Diocletian, and the Baths at Caracella.
Thermopylae - a narrow stretch of land between Mount Callidromus and the Euripus
channel that, because of its geography, was a strategic battle site; in 480 BCE, 300
Spartans led by King Leonidas fought against the Persians and lost at Thermopylae
and in 191 BCE King Antiochus lost to Cato the Elder.
Theseus - Attic hero, son of Aegeus and Aethra but legend also says he was the son
of Poseidon; upon learning who his father was, Theseus went to Athens at 16 baring
the sword and sandals Aegeus had hidden under a rock to identify Theseus as his son;
after his reunion with his father at Athens, Theseus is sent to Crete with the Athenian
tribute to Minos, where helped by Ariadne the daughter of Minos, he kills the
Minotaur; see Plutarch's Theseus for more.
Longman's Classical Mythology online: Map of the voyage of Theseus
Thetis - daughter of Nereus and Doris, sea divinity and the most famous of the
Nerieds; mother of Achilles whom she bathed in the river Styx in hopes to make him
immortal.
Thetis: Protective Mother or Dominated Wife?
The Thirty - a committee of Athenian oligarchs who, when given control of Athens in
order to revise the constitution, used their power to rid Athens of their democratic
enemies (Apology).
Thoth - Thoth was the ancient Egyptian god of writing, wisdom, learning, and the
moon; according to myth, Thoth invented writing, was the author of the Book of the
Dead, and was the vizier and scribe of the afterlife.
Ancient Egyptian Gods - Thoth
Thrace - a large region encompassing parts of present-day Greece, Bulgaria and
Turkey; Thrace was colonized by the ancient Greeks in the 6th century BCE and then
by the Macedonians; following the Macedonian rule, Thrace was controlled by
various empires; Rome ruled Thrace beginning in 46 CE
Thrasybulus - tyrant of Miletus from 625 BCE to 600 BCE; according to one story,
the tyrant Periander asks Thrasybulus how he to keep his power; Thrasybulus
responds by cutting off the tallest ears of corn in a corn field; Periander understands
Thrasybulus' action to mean that he should kill or exile his potential political
opponents.
Thucydides - ancient Greek historian of the Peloponnesian War between Athens and
Sparta; Thucydides began writing his History of the Peloponnesian War in 431 BCE;
during the time Thucydides composed his History, he was exiled from Athens
because, as an Athenian general, he failed to save the town of Amphipolis from the
the Spartan general Brasidas; his History was published in 395 BCE.
Biography of Thucydides
Netshot: Thucydides' The Peloponnesian War
Perseus Historical Overview: Thucydides, historian of the Peloponnesian War
thymbra - (Latin) the herb savory.
thymum - (Latin) thyme, the herb.
thyrsos - a staff with one end covered with leafy vines and/or pine cones carried by
Dionysus and his followers in a Bacchic procession; for an example, see Louvre K
240 (image).
Tiber - river that runs through Rome.
Tiberius - (42 BCE-37 CE) Tiberius Claudius Nero born in 42 BCE; father Ti.
Claudius Nero and mother, Livia Drusilla; his mother divorced T. Claudius Nero to
marry Augustus (Octavian) thus he become the stepson of Augustus and later married
his daughter Julia; Tiberius became the adopted heir of Augustus in 4 CE and receives
tribunician and proconsular power; prior to becoming emperor, Tiberius was a
successful soldier and subdued Germany in 9 CE; he also held the consulship twice,
first in 13 BCE and again in 7 BCE; he reigned as Roman Emperor from 14 to 37;
during his reign he was not well liked by the Roman people; it was rumored that he
played a part in the death of his very popular stepbrother Germanicus; during the later
part of his reign, he moved to Capri while his Praetorian Prefect, Sejanus, was in
Rome; Tiberius later tried Sejanus for treason accusing Sejanus of plotting to murder
him; Tiberius spent the end of his reign paranoided that someone was plotting his
murder.
An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Emperors: Tiberius
tibicines - (singular form tibicen) the Tibia players were one of the oldest professional
music organizations in Rome; they were the musicians of the state religion and played
the bone pipe, an instrument with three to four holes made from bone that eventually
evolved into a double pipe of silver, ivory, or boxwood; the tibicines played at their
annual festival of Jupiter Optimus Maximus.
tirocinium - (Latin) the first military experience of a young man; during this period,
the new soldier would have to train; period of recruitment training.
Titus - Roman emperor from 79-81 CE, son of Vespasian, born in 39 CE; when his
father returned to Rome to become emperor, he left Titus to put down the Jewish
Rebellion, which he accomplished in 71; he celebrated a triumph for this feat and the
Arch of Titus was erected to commemorate it in the Forum in Rome; the Colosseum
was built during Titus’ reign; he died of an illness in 81 CE.
toga - large cloth made of wool worn by male Roman citizens that is draped over a
tunic (image).
Roman Clothes
toga praetexta - (Latin) a crimson-bordered toga that a young boy would wear.
toga virilis - (Latin) a plain white toga a boy would begin to wear between the ages of
fourteen and seventeen to show that he has begun to be an adult; the toga a boy wears
after having given up wearing his toga praetexta.
tonsor - (Latin) a man's barber entrusted with complete body care, cura corporis; a
tonsor had assistants who worked with him to groom a man according to the latest
fashion; grooming included shaving and haircuts; due to the lack of sharp scissor
blades, Roman men preferred a curly hair style to conceal the poor tonsus, or haircut,
resulting from blunt iron scissors blades.
tonsorina - (Latin) a barber shop (taberna); all Romans went to a barber, even slaves,
though they went to an open-air tonsorina; benches were available in the tonsorina for
customers to sit while waiting their turn.
tragedy - a dramatic work dealing with a serious theme in which typically a noble
person possesses a character flawed by pride (hubris), envy, weakness, etc., causing
him to break a moral code or divine law; Oedipus is one such tragic character; to learn
more about ancient Greek Tragedy, see the Perseus Historical Overview entry "10.2.1.
The Nature of Tragedy."
University of Victoria's electronic list of Literary and Rhetorical Terms
tragoedia -a tragic play or a scene in a tragedy.
Trajan - one of the more successful Roman emperors; the first emperor of non-Italian
origins, born in 53 to a family settled in Spain for generations; the first adopted
emperor of the "Five Good Emperors," Trajan did much to reaccustom the Roma
senate to the principate after the emperor Domitian's tyrranny; some of Rome's most
splendid architectural remains the Forum of Trajan and Trajan's column; upom his
death in 117, Trajan was suceeded by Hadrian, whom he had adopted.
Transalpine Gaul - (Gallia Transalpina or Gallia Narbonensis) a region created by
boundaries that include the Pyrenee Mountains, the Alps and the Rhine; this was the
oldest Roman province in Gaul and also one of its most important in the Roman drive
toward expanding its territory; the region was taken in the name of Rome in 121 BCE
by Q. Fabius Maximus and became more and more important as a link to Rome's
more western provinces because of its strategic location and also the goods that it
provided to the empire.
tribulum - (Latin) wooden sled pulled over wheat to separate the chaff.
tribune - Roman magistrate from the plebian order; legislator who convened the
Senate; ten office holders who served to protect plebians from arbitrary actions
through a veto of any administrative action; tribunes were considered "sacrosanct"
and anyone who attacked them could be put to death.
tributum - (Latin) an extra tax sometimes called for by the senate to be paid by Roman
citizens; after 167 BCE, tributum was no longer allowed for Roman citizens, but it
was still permitted that tributum could be sought from people in colonies.
triclinium - (Latin) the dining room of a house for more upper-class Romans; the
triclinium’s name refers to the fact that the room generally held three couches inside
of it.
trierarchy - the office of the trieracrch, who was the commander of a trireme; in
Athens, the trierarchy had the duty of fitting out or furnishing triremes for public
service; Periandros established an Athenian naval reform in the middle of the fourth
century BCE, changing the former system of the trierarchy, when expenses were paid
for a warship by one or two citizens, also known as trierarchs; instead Periandros' law
made 1200 citizens responsible for the trierarchy payments dividing the financial
burden for a warship among many.
triglyph - 'three-grooved'; on a Doric panel, what separates two metopes. For more
information, see a architectural drawing of a triglyph and an image of the metope of
Temple F at Selinus.
trigon - (Latin) a ball to play with.
trilogy - a set of three plays on the same theme or representing one story and
performed at one competition; the only surviving trilogy is the Oresteia by Aeschylus.
tripod - a three-legged stand in which cauldrons were set; for an example, see Boston
63.1515 (image).
trireme - a light and fast Greek oar-powered warship; principal naval vessel for
Persia, Phoenicia, and the Greek city-states; a trireme was propelled by the
arrangement of 170 oarsmen in three tiers along each side of the vessel - 31 oarsmen
in the top tier, 27 in the middle, and 27 in the bottom; the trireme's hull was
constructed from a thin shell of planks; it had an overall length of approximately 120
feet (37 m) and a beam of 18 feet (5.5 m); affixed to the front of the trireme was a
bronze-clad ram designed to pierce the hulls of enemy warships.
The Trireme Trust
References to triremes in literature
Images of a reconstructed trireme
Ships of the Ancient Greeks
triskeles - three legs or a three-legged design in a pinwheel shape.
tristis - (Latin) sad, depressing.
tristitia - (Latin) sadness, wretchedness, unhappiness.
triumvirate - a term describing a three-member board or commission; triumvirate was
first applied to the political alliance of Julius Caesar, Pompey the Great, and Marcus
Crassus, in 60 BCE, deemed the "First Triumvirate"; the rule of the "Second
Triumvirate", Mark Antony, Octavius, and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, began in 43
BCE and lasted until 32 BCE.
trochus - (Latin) a hoop that a child might play with.
Trojans - people of Troy led by Hektor against the Achaians in the Trojan War and
led by Aeneas in a war against the Italian allies.
tuba - (Latin) a trumpet sounded during war battles by the Romans
tubicines - (Latin) a trumpet player in the Roman military who was a senior centurion;
trumpets and horns were used to sound the alarm and signal attacks, retreats,
formation changes, and watch changes.
tunny - a fish; for an example, see Berlin F 1915 (image).
turbo - (Latin) a top or a toy that spins around.
turres ambulatoriae - (Latin) literally, "movable towers"; an important tool for laying
siege to a place; these towers were constructed on wheels, able to be brought up to a
wall and tall enough to be bigger than the walls of a besieged city.
Twelve Tables - coprus juris civilis, the first codification of the Roman legal system,
used from their establishment in 450 BCE to 565 CE following the death of Justinian
I; the Twelve Tables were the result of plebian complaints and unrest and were
committed to writing to codify existing laws and customs; accepted by a popular
assembly, initially the Twelve Tables were administered and interpreted by priests
from the patrician class; the laws and the legal system (jus civile) that developed
around the Twelve Tables, applied only to Roman citizens; with the expansion of the
Roman Republic, and later the Roman Empire, came the need for new laws (jus
gentium) to govern non-Roman citizens; from 367 BCE to 137 CE, praetors (Roman
magistrates) administered justice and defined and interpreted law in Rome and in
Roman provinces in all cases except those between Roman citizens; praetors in the
provinces based their rulings on the those of the praetors in Rome; the difference
between the jus civile and jus gentium became blurred and eventually obsolete
between 100 BCE and 212 CE when Roman citizenship was extended to all free
inhabitants of the Roman Empire; the Twelve Tables are the foundation for modern
legal systems.
The Twelve Tables
Women's Legal Status in the Roman World
typology - a similarity that links different literary characters; for example, in the
second half of the Aeneid, Aeneas is typologically Achilles as the two are military
heroes who lay siege to a major city; further in the Aeneid, Augustus is typologically
tied to Aeneas since the two politicians lead and establish a society in Italy out of the
ruins of a civil war.
tyranny - a government ruled by a tyrant who uses his power oppressively or
unjustly; an absolute ruler; from the Greek word tyrannos.
U
ubi - (Latin) when (interrogative pronoun).
Ulysseus - see Odysseus.
ultima verba - (Latin) the final argument; this phrase indicates what we might term
“the straw that broke the camel’s back”; Louis XIV of France has the phrase “ultima
ratio regum” or the “last word of kings” inscribed upon his cannons, indicating that
lethal force was his final argument.
ultio - (Latin) the word means punishment, but more specifically it means punishment
in the sense of revenge.
unde - (Latin) from where (interrogative pronoun.
urbanitas - (Latin) refinement, urbanity, elegance; urbanitas is generally opposed to
the roughness associated with country life.
uxor - (Latin) wife; a wife in Roman society would generally be under the control of
the paterfamilias, or the male head of the household; she would enter into connubium
(marriage) with her husband.
V
valetudo - (Latin) health, state of being healthy.
vallus - (Latin) reaping machine invented in Gaul, the area now known as Germany.
Varro - (116 - 27 BCE) Roman scholar; Varro's intellect led him to study with great
teachers in both Athens and Rome; in the civil wars, he sided with Pompey, but was
granted a pardon from Caesar; however, after Caesar's assassination, he was
politically threatened by Mark Antony so he left Rome; he wrote nearly 500 works
and exhibited extensive knowledge.
Varus - Publis Quinctilius Varus; a soldier and a politician; he held the office of
consul in 13 BCE; he famously fought Arminius in the Teutoburg Forest in Germania
and lost the battle in 9 CE; when Varus realized that the battle would be lost, he
committed suicide.
vates - (Latin) a priest; a religious authority figure.
vector - (Latin) a carrier, one who bears; can also be a passenger or rider.
velarium - (Latin) an awning found in a theater.
Velleius Paterculus - (ca. 20 BCE - 31 CE) Roman historian; he held various military
and political offices before he focused on writing; his subject matter ranged over the
entirety of Greek mythology and history through the time of his writing; however he
condensed all of the material into two volumes.
velum - (Latin) sail for a boat usually made from linen but also from cotton; generally
large pieces of cloth were sewn together leaving a visible seam that can be seen in
ancient artwork depicting ships.
venatio - (Latin) a hunt or wild beast show conducted during gladiatorial games in
which bestiarii fight wild animals in an arena for sport; condemn criminals who
committed capital crimes participated in the venatio without weapons to carry out
their death sentence.
The Roman Gladiator
vendo - (Latin) to sell.
veneratio - (Latin) respect, honor, veneration.
ventosus - (Latin) windy; this word relates to the Latin word ventus, meaning “wind”.
Venus - an ancient Latin divinity; goddess of love; mother of Aeneas; identified with
Aphrodite.
Bullfinch's Mythology: The Story of Venus & Adonis
Encyclopedia Mythica: Venus
ver - (Latin) spring; the opposite season of autumnus, or autumn.
verbum - (Latin) word; in the singular, this word refers to individual words; in the
plural, it refers to speech in general.
vereor - (Latin) to respect, to fear, to be afraid.
Vergil (Virgil) - Publius Vergilius Maro, Roman poet; lived from 70 to19 BCE; the
son of a farmer, Vergil studied Greek and Roman literature and rhetoric; he was a
contemporary of and friend to Octavian (Augustus), Gaius Cornelius Gallus, Horace,
and Lucius Varius Rufus; author of the Aeneid, the Georgics, and the Eclogues; Virgil
is one of the greatest Latin poets and his works had a lasting effect on Latin literature;
Virgil’s fourth eclogue, published in 40 BCE, forecast the coming of a child who
would usher in a “Golden Age” and has long fascinated readers; the Aeneid was a
long epic poem, begun in 27 BCE, written in dactylic hexameter that followed the
flight of Aeneas from the fall of Troy to Carthage and then onto Italy; in the epic,
Virgil included references to Rome’s political situation, grafting together the Homeric
Trojan tradition with the foundational story of Romulus and Remus as well as the
history of Julius Caesar and Augustus; he was able to weave together these different
stories of Rome with an implication of divine fate, making it seem as though
Augustus’ rule was pre-destined; the poem can also be read against the grain to see
anxieties about the new political situation of Rome; Virgil had not finished the Aeneid
before his death and Augustus had the poem published posthumously.
Netshot: Vergil's Aeneid
Resources for Students, Teachers, and Readers of Vergil
Mr. J's Vergil Page
vergo - (Latin) to bend, to draw to an end.
veritas - (Latin) honesty and truthfulness, a Roman virtue.
Verres - Caius Verres; born ca. 120 BCE; Roman statesman and administrator;
served as governor of Sicily from 73 to 71 BCE; during his term as governor, Verres'
corruption and extortion of free and stipended cities was so notable that he was placed
on trial in 70 BCE; Cicero prosecuted Verres and delivered his Verrine Orations
against which Verres' lawyer, Quintus Hortensius, was unable to defend his client; in
the face of Cicero's colorful and politically motivated oration, Verres was convicted
and fled from Rome to the city of Massilia, modern day Marseilles; Verres died in 43
BCE.
Cicero's Verrine Orations
Vespasian - (9-79 CE) Roman emperor from 69-79 CE and founder of the Flavian
dynasty; during the Year of the Four Emperors, Vespasian was the last to take on the
emperor’s position; he was a skilled soldier and fought in Britain, Germany, and
Judaea; he was appointed the commander in Judaea in 66 CE; he moved through the
political ranks, becoming praetor, quaestor, and consul; as emperor, he was able to
close the doors of the temple of Janus, a symbolic gesture that meant that Rome was
no longer at war, and began a period of peace; he died in 79 CE.
Vespasian
vespera - (Latin) evening; this word also came to mean the direction west, referring to
the direction in which the sun set in the evening.
Vesta - Roman goddess of the hearth.
Vestal Virgins - six priestesses of Vesta, Roman goddess of the hearth; they were
chosen by lot and given the task of keeping the sacred fire in Vesta’s temple in Rome;
the Vestal Virgins were members of the priestesshood for thirty years, after which
they could leave and marry; if they did not remain celibate while serving the goddess,
they were punished by being buried alive; in 273 BCE, the Vestal Virgin Sextilia was
buried alive because she was suspected of having committed adultery.
vestitor - (Latin) tailor; a vestitor was charged with making clothing, or, in Latin,
vestio.
viaduct - a bridge comprised of a number of short spans that support aqueducts to
deliver water from a higher point outside the city to the city, i.e., Rome, and
neighboring villages.
Roman Living
viator - (Latin) traveler; this word is linked to the Latin word via, which means
“road”; a viator is someone who travels along the road systems, including the Via
Appia.
victima - (Latin) a sacrifice, such as an animal who is sacrificed.
victum - (Latin) to bind, conquer, win, excel.
vigintisexvirate - six groups of magistrates that governed in the late Roman republic;
if a male Roman citizen wanted to be a quaestor or in the senate, it was generally
considered a springboard to participate in the vigintisexvirate.
vilicus - (Latin) the manager of a Roman estate who supervised the farm work;
usually a slave.
villa - (Latin) a country estate and the most preferable form of Roman housing; the
villa was surrounded by lush colonnaded gardens and often had spectacular views of
the countryside or sea; opulent art, the abundant foliage, and the open space of the
villa were a result of Hellenistic influence of the 2nd century BCE; the villa urbana
was a luxurious, expansive retreat from the city combining the amenities of the city
with the beauty of the countryside.
Roman Living
villica - (Latin) person in charge of the Roman household; usually a slave.
Vinalia Rustica - a Roman festival in honor of Venus and Jupiter, which was begun in
293 BCE to celebrate the victory of the Latins over Mezentius.
vinco - (Latin) To conquer; one of the verbs in the famous phrase attributed to Julius
Caesar: “veni, vidi, vici”; the past tense of the verb vinco is vici.
vinctus - (Latin) food, living, nourishment.
vinea - (Latin) a roof under which people who were besieging a city could protect
themselves from stones, arrows, and fire that were being thrown down upon them by
the people who were being besieged.
viridis - (Latin) green.
virtus - (Latin) excellence; derived from the word vir (man), this word generally
connotes “manly” greatness and bravery.
Vitellius - Aulus Vitellius, Roman emperor born in 15 CE; Vitellius was consul in 48
and proconsul of Africa; in 68 Galba made him the commander of the army in
Germany; Vitellius became emperor by means of a military decision in Germany;
however, much of the army in other places wanted Vespasian to be the emperor and in
69 Vitellius was killed by Vespasian’s soldiers; Vitellius only was emperor for three
months.
Vitruvius - Marcus Vitruvius Pollio; a Roman military engineer and architect, born
ca. 90 BCE; author of De Architectura Libri Decem, Ten Books on Architecture; in
the ten books, Vitruvius discusses pavement techniques, building materials and dyes,
town planning, temples, civic and private structures, amplification in ampitheaters,
water supply, geometry, astronomy and civil and military machinery; his texts is the
forerunner for text on individual engineering disciplines, e.g., material science,
chemical engineering, civil engineering; Vitruvius' engineering handbook was used
for centuries after his death in 20 BCE.
Vitruvius the Engineer
Roman Roads in Britain
Vitumnus - Roman god who gave life to children in the womb.
voice - the dominating ethos or tone of a literary work. The voice existing in a literary
work is not always identifiable with the actual views of the author. [Contributor: Dr.
Ismail S. Talib, National University of Singapore.]
votive relief - a sculpture type offered or dedicated in accordance with a vow; for an
example, see Berlin 709A (image).
Vulcan - Roman deity worshiped at the festival Vulcanalia, where little fish and other
animals, representing humans, were sometimes thrown into a fire in order to preserve
the human lives they represented; god who made armor for Aeneas; identified with
Hephaestus by Romans.
Encyclopedia Mythica: Vulcan
W
white-ground - a type of vase on which figures are painted on a white background; for
an example, see the essay entitled "The Achilles Painter" by John Oakley.
X
Xerxes I - king of Persia from 486-465 BCE; his military invasion of Greece, the
Persian Wars (480-479 BCE), is chronicles in Herodotus' Histories; according to
Herodotus, Xerxes led an immense army of Persians and mercenaries into Greece in
order to conquer the territories; the Persians were beaten back by united Greek forces
at the battle of Plataea; Xerxes I was murdered in 465 BCE.
Xenophon - (Perseus Encyclopedia entry 4) ancient Greek author; wrote the Anabasis,
the Hellenica, the Cyropaedia, the Oeconomica and other works.
Xystos - a gymnasium at Elis where runners and pentathletes trained one month prior
to the start of the ancient Olympic games.
The Ancient Olympics
xystus - (Latin) a walkway decorated with trees or a walk through a colonnade.
Y
ymber - (Latin) rain storm, pouring rain.
Z
Zeno of Citium - (335 - 263 BCE) Greek philosopher and founder of Stoicism; arrived
in Athens in 313 BCE; having lived and studied in Athens for about 12 years, he
opened his Stoic school of philosophy at the Stoa Poikile there, which specialized in
paradoxes in 300 BCE.
Zeus - son of Cronus and Rhea, brother and husband of Hera; defeated Cronus to
become the greatest of the Olympian gods; read the Homeric Hymn to Zeus to learn
more.
Longman's Classical Mythology online: The Twelve Olympians: Zeus, Hera, and
their Children