Period 2
Organization and Reorganization
Of Human Societies
▪ c. 600 B.C.E. to c. 600 C.E. ▪
Key Concept 2.1. The Development and Codification of Religious and
Cultural Traditions
I. Codifications and further developments of existing religious traditions
provided a bond among the people and an ethical code to live by.
A. The association of monotheism with Judaism was further developed with the codification of the
Hebrew Scriptures, which also showed Mesopotamian influences. Around 600 B.C.E. and 70 C.E., the
Assyrian and Roman empires, respectively, created Jewish diasporic communities and destroyed the
kingdom of Israel as a theocracy.
 Diaspora means dispersion or the scattering of people. Diasporic communities maintain and
preserve their people’s cultural traditions, often in the face of persecution. Buddhists, Christians,
and Manichaeists all found their footing of their religion through Judaism. Zoroastrianism left
teachings that were used by Jews, Christians, and Muslims. These religions believed that an
omnipotent and beneficent deity was responsible for all creation. The idea that a purely evil being
worked against the creator God was also in their beliefs. In addition, the conviction that the
forces of good will ultimately prevail over the power of evil was part of their belief system.
B. The core beliefs outlined in the Sanskrit scriptures formed the basis of the Vedic religions — often
known as Hinduisms — which show some influence of Indo-European traditions in the development of
the social and political roles of a caste system and in the importance of multiple manifestations of Brahma
to promote teachings about reincarnation.
 Aryans migrated to India between 1400 B.C.E. and 900 B.C.E. They left behind the Vedas. The
Vedas were religious poems and songs that are the only known historical evidence left from the
Aryans. These collections of religious hymns defined the era (Vedic Age). During the Vedic Age,
the Aryans defined 4 vernas: Brahmins (priests), Kshatriyas (warriors), Voishyas (artisans and
merchants), and Shudras (peasants and slaves). Later on, towards the end of the Vedic Age, the
Aryans added the Untouchables (people who performed unpleasant tasks. The Aryans had many
ritual sacrifices. The believed if they sacrificed animals, they would win the favor of the gods.
During the sacrifices, the gods visited the earth and joined the worshippers. Also, they believed
that pleasing the gods would give divine support to military success, large families, a long life, and
abundant herds.
II. New belief systems and cultural traditions emerged and spread, often
asserting universal truths.
A. The core beliefs preached by the historic Buddha and recorded by his followers into sutras and other
scriptures were, in part, a reaction to the Vedic beliefs and rituals dominant in South Asia. Buddhism
changed over time as it spread throughout Asia — first through the support of the Mauryan Emperor
Ashoka, and then through the efforts of missionaries and merchants, and the establishment of educational
institutions to promote its core teachings.
 Buddhism was founded by Siddhartha Guatama. It was a threat to the Vedics. Guatama gave up
his princely life to search for enlightenment. He wandered for six years. Guatama (AKA:
Buddha) came up with the Four Noble Truths, which included the Eightfold Path. Buddhism
spread by Ashoka and by missionaries and traders along the Silk Road. As it spread, it split into
different variations of Buddhism, including Theravada Buddhism and Mahayana Buddhism.
B. Confucianism’s core beliefs and writings originated in the writings and lessons of Confucius and were
elaborated by key disciples who sought to promote social harmony by outlining proper rituals and social
relationships for all people in China, including the rulers.
 Confucianism emerged towards the end of the Zhou Dynasty. Confucius’s goal was to reform
Chinese society by showing rulers how to govern wisely. Confucianism is NOT a religion.
C. In the major Daoist writings (such as the Daodejing), the core belief of balance between humans and
nature assumed that the Chinese political system would be altered indirectly. Daoism also influenced the
development of Chinese culture (such as medical theories and practices, poetry, metallurgy or
architecture).
 Daoism emerged from a Chinese thinker named Laozi, who believed only natural order was
important. Laozi said that a universal force called the Dao guides all things, and only humans fail
to follow the Dao. Daoism’s followers, filled with knowledge and understanding of nature,
pursued various scientific studies. Daoism is a philosophy, not a religion.
D. The core beliefs preached by Jesus of Nazareth drew on the basic monotheism of Judaism, and initially
rejected Roman and Hellenistic influences. Despite initial Roman imperial hostility, Christianity spread
through the efforts of missionaries and merchants through many parts of Afro-Eurasia, and eventually
gained Roman imperial support by the time of Emperor Constantine.
 Christianity is a child of Judaism. The founder of Christianity was Jesus of Nazareth. Jesus
claimed to be the Messiah. Christianity was widespread because of missionaries on Roman
Roads. Paul was the most responsible for the early spread of Christianity. Christianity embraced
men and women, gave hope to the powerless, and promised eternal life after death.
E. The core ideas in Greco-Roman philosophy and science emphasized logic, empirical observation, and
the nature of political power and hierarchy.
 The Greco-Romans were very prominent in their education and philosophy. The type of
education that you received was based on your class. Some of the greatest philosophers that ever
lived were from Greece. A few examples are Aristotle, Socrates, and Plato.
III. Belief systems affected gender roles (such as Buddhism’s encouragement of a
monastic life or Confucianism’s emphasis on filial piety).
 Women in all belief systems were mainly lower class in comparison to men, except for
Christianity & Buddhism. Buddhists saw women as an art form and women as art models for
sculpting and painting. Christians stressed the idea that all genders are equal. A special
exception was Ban Zhao, a woman scholar from the Han Empire; she is one of the very few known
women that were important in the advances of a culture.
IV. Other religious and cultural traditions continued parallel to the
codified, written belief systems in core civilizations.
A. Shamanism and animism continued to shape the lives of people within and outside of core civilizations
because of their daily reliance on the natural world.
 Shaminism is a practice that involves a practitioner (Shaman) reaching altered states of
consciousness (trances, often achieved with mind-altering drugs) in order to encounter and
interact with the spirit world. Animisn is a religion in which spirits play an important role in
regulating daily life. Animists believe that spirits are present in animals, plants, and other natural
forces. Also, they can take the form of the souls of their ancestors.
B. Ancestor veneration persisted in many regions (such as in Africa, the Mediterranean region, East Asia
or the Andean areas).
 Ancestor veneration is one reason for the pronounced influence of the Chinese family. Ancestor
graves are diligently tended to. The spirits of ancestors are passed into another realm of existence
from which they hold the power to supports and protect their surviving families if the
descendants displayed proper respect. Valued materials were buried with the dead. A family
could only prosper if all members (living and dead) worked cooperatively.
V. Artistic expressions, including literature and drama, architecture, and
sculpture,
show distinctive cultural developments.
A. Literature and drama acquired distinctive forms (such as Greek tragedy or Indian epics) that
influenced artistic developments in neighboring regions and in later time periods (such as in Athens,
Persia or South Asia).

Greek literature, like The Iliad and The Odyssey, exemplified that trade through the sea was very
important, and that the legacy sea trade lived on in the Mediterranean basin, Europe, and
Southwest Asia. The Greek’s tragic drama lived on; even we have evidence of some of the Greek’s
plays. Greek drama taught lessons about gods and humans.
B. Distinctive architectural styles can be seen in Indian, Greek, Mesoamerican and Roman buildings.
 Indians had distinctive Buddhist monasteries and stupas. Greece was well-known for their
marble buildings (example: Parthenon). They had a desire to express harmony, symmetry, and
balance. Mesoamericans built ceremonial centers with temple pyramids and Olmec ceremonial
axe heads. The Romans incorporated some Greek aspects in their architecture. They were best
known for the Coliseum and aqueducts. They also built a lot of stadiums and theaters. The
Romans incorporated a lot of arches.
C. The convergence of Greco-Roman culture and Buddhist beliefs affected the development of unique
sculptural developments, as seen in the Gandhara Buddhas, which exemplify a syncretism in which
Hellenistic veneration for the body is combined with Buddhist symbols.
 The Gandhara Buddha was the Buddha, but he dressed in Greco-Roman clothes.
Key Concept 2.2. The Development of States and Empires
I. The number and size of imperial societies grew dramatically by imposing
political unity on areas where previously there had been competing states.
NOTE: Students should know the location and names of the key states and empires below.
A. Southwest Asia: Persian Empires (such as Achaemenid, Parthian or Sassanid)
 Cyrus was Persia’s first ruler who redrew the map of western Asia, conquering the Lydians. He
established the Persian practice of ruling in a tolerant manner. Darius extended the Persian
Empire eastward to Indus Valley and westward into Europe. He developed maritime routes and
canals. His organizational structure was superb. He allowed many ethnic groups into his empire.
The Persian Empire had satraps. A satrap is a governor of one of the many provinces in Persia.
He was usually related to the royal family. The satrap was obliged to collect and send tribute to
the king. The Royal Road was constructed in order to facilitate trade and fast communications
among the empire. It was 1,677miles long.
B. East Asia: Qin and Han dynasties
 Qin Shihuangdi embraced legalism, which is a highly authoritarian, centralized rule. He believed
that opponents of the regime should be punished/executed and books should be burned. The civil
service system was a system in which any young men could rise in the state hierarchy through
merit.
C. South Asia: Maurya and Gupta Empires
 The Mauryan Empire was founded by Chandragupta Maurya. He conquered the kingdom of
Magadha. Mauryan control eventually extended over the entire subcontinent except the Tamil
Kingdoms. They had a very strong military and an extensive trade network. The best known
emperor, Ashoka, actually promoted Buddhism. The Gupta Empire was founded by Chandra
Gupta. It was more decentralized and smaller than the Mauryan Empire. Its government was a
“theater-state.” They came up with the concept of zero and “Arabic” numerals. The role of
women deteriorated throughout this empire.
D. Mediterranean region: Phoenician and Greek colonization, Hellenistic and Roman Empires

Historians refer to Syria-Palestine as Phoenicians, but they called themselves Canaanites. This
area was densely populated, so they used seaborne commerce. They are also known as Carthage.
As for the Greeks, a huge population explosion occurred in the 8th century B.C.E. because of more
intense agricultural practices, increased food, and raw material imports. Greece had a lot of
Poleis (city-states) that were emerging as centers of political organization in Greece. The absence
of a pro military class led to a democracy. The Hellenistic Empire had lands in northeastern
Africa and western Asia that were “Hellenized” or profoundly influenced by Greek culture. The
Roman Empire started out as a republic, but the republic failed. The empire occupied all the
lands around the Mediterranean and stretched from continental Europe to the Middle East. They
were culturally influential and stable and long-lasting.
E. Mesoamerica: Teotihuacan, Maya city-states
 The Maya (in Mexico) organized politically into scores of small city-kingdoms with ceremonial
centers (pyramids, palaces, and temples). Constant state of warfare led to captives being kept as
trophies, slaves, or sacrificial victims. Teotihuacan was located in the basin of Mexico. They built
many pre-Columbian pyramids and had a distinct pottery style.
F. Andean South America: Moche
 The Moche dominated the coasts and valleys of northern Peru during 300-700C.E. There were
other civilizations around there at that time, but none of the others were able to impose order on
the entire region or dominate it for very long. They all came together under the Mochica State.
II. Empires and states developed new techniques of imperial
administration based, in part, on the success of earlier political forms.
A. In order to organize their subjects, the rulers created administrative institutions, including centralized
governments, elaborate legal systems and bureaucracies (such as in China, Persia, Rome or South Asia).
 Throughout the eastern hemisphere during the classical era, public life, and social structure
became much more complicated than they had been during the days of the early complex
societies. Centralized imperial governments needed large numbers of administration officials,
which led to the emergence of educated classes of bureaucrats. Stable empires enabled many
individuals to engage in trade or other specialized labor as artisans, craftsmen, or professionals of
various kinds. Some of them accumulated vast wealth, which led to increased distance and
tensions between rich and poor. Meanwhile, slavery became more common than earlier times.
The prominence of slavery had to do partly with the expansion of imperial states, which often
enslaved conquered foes, but it also reflected the increasing gulf between rich and poor, which
placed such great economic pressure on some individuals that they had to give up their freedom
in order to survive.
B. Imperial governments projected military power over larger areas using a variety of techniques,
including diplomacy; developing supply lines; building fortifications, defensive walls and roads; and
drawing new groups of military officers and soldiers from the local populations or conquered peoples.
 Throughout the eastern hemisphere during the classical era, public life, and social structure
became much more complicated than they had been during the days of the early complex
societies. Centralized imperial governments needed large numbers of administration officials,
which led to the emergence of educated classes of bureaucrats. Stable empires enabled many
individuals to engage in trade or other specialized labor as artisans, craftsmen, or professionals of
various kinds. Some of them accumulated vast wealth, which led to increased distance and
tensions between rich and poor. Meanwhile, slavery became more common than earlier times.
The prominence of slavery had to do partly with the expansion of imperial states, which often
enslaved conquered foes, but it also reflected the increasing gulf between rich and poor, which
placed such great economic pressure on some individuals that they had to give up their freedom
in order to survive.
C. Much of the success of the empires rested on their promotion of trade and economic integration by
building and maintaining roads and issuing currencies.
 Long-distance trade grew rapidly during the course of the Persians and linked lands from India to
Egypt in a vast commercial zone. Trade traveled both over land routes, including newly
constructed highways such as the Persian Royal Road. The Royal Road was one of the ways in,
which societies build and maintain emppires is by establishing system of communication and
transportation. The Royal Road, built by the rulers of the Persian Empire connected Susa in
Persia to Sardis in Anatolia. Relay stations were equipped with fresh horses for the kings
messengers, to the royal messengers could cover the length of the Royal Road in seven day.
Normal travel time along the road was longer. Trade was also over sea lanes through the Red Sea,
the Persian Gulf, and the Arabian Sea. Long-distance trade became especially prominent during
the reigns of Alexander of Macedon and his Seleucid successors. The cities they established and
the colonists they attracted stimulated trade throughout the whole region from the Mediterranean
to northern India.
III. Imperial societies displayed unique social and economic dimensions.
A. Cities served as centers of trade, public performance of religious rituals, and as political administration
for states and empires (such as Persepolis, Chang’an, Pataliputra, Athens, Carthage, Rome, Alexandria,
Constantinople or Teotihuacan).
 Like the Phoenicians and the Greeks before them, the Romans established close links between the
various Mediterranean regions. As they conquered new lands, pacified them, and brought them
into their empire, the Romans enabled merchants, missionaries, and other to travel readily
throughout the Mediterranean basin. The Romans differed from their Phoenician and Greek
predecessors, however, by building an extensive land empire and centralized the administration
of their realm. The Roman Empire also served as a forum for the communication of philosophical
ideas and religious beliefs. Educated elites often embraced sophisticated Hellenistic philosophies,
particularly Stoicism, which found adherents throughout the Roman Empire. Over the long term
Christianity was the most successful of the popular religions of salvation. The early Christians
encountered harsh opposition and persecution from Roman officials. Yet the new faith took
advantage of the Romans’ well-organized imperial holdings spread rapidly throughout the
Mediterranean basin and beyond. Eventually, Christianity became the official religion of the
Roman Empire, and imperial sponsorship enabled Christianity to spread more effectively than
before.
B. The social structures of all empires displayed hierarchies that included cultivators, laborers, slaves,
artisans, merchants, elites and caste groups.
 The caste system helped to maintain order in local communities by providing guidance on
individuals’ roles in society and their relationships with others. The caste system closely reflected
changes in Indian society. It adapted to the arrival of migrants, for example, it helped to integrate
them into Indian society. The system established codes of conduct both for the regulation of
behavior within their own groups and for guidance in dealing with members of other castes. The
caste system also accommodated the social changes brought about by trade and economic
development.
C. Imperial societies relied on a range of labor systems to maintain the production of food and provide
rewards for the loyalty of the elites, including corvée, slavery, rents and tributes, peasant communities,
and family and household production.
 Lords and retainers supported themselves and their families principally on the basis of the
surplus agricultural production that they commandeered from a subject peasantry. Political and
military elites obligated local peasants to provide labor services and payments of rents in kind,
such as a portion of the harvest. Male peasants typically worked for three days a week for their
lords while also providing additional labor services during planting and harvesting season. The
lords provided peasants with land to cultivate and often with tools and animals as well, peasants
had little opportunity to move to different lands. They were only able to do so only with
permission from their lords.
D. Patriarchy continued to shape gender and family relations in all imperial societies of this period.
 Patriarchy is a fluid and shifting set of social relations in which men oppress women, in which
different men excessive varying degrees of power and control and in which women resist in
diverse ways.
IV. The Roman, Han, Maurya and Gupta empires created political, cultural
and administrative difficulties that they could not manage, which
eventually led to their decline, collapse and transformation into successor
empires or states.
A. Through excessive mobilization of resources, imperial governments caused environmental damage
(such as deforestation, desertification, soil erosion or silted rivers) and generated social tensions and
economic difficulties by concentrating too much wealth in the hands of elites.
 The Aryans recognized four main castes or classes of people: Brahmins (priest), Kshatriyas
(warriors and aristocrats), vaishyas (peasants and merchants), and shudras (serfs). Beyond
encouraging further development of the caste system, economic development in the subcontinent
generated tremendous wealth, which posed a serious challenge to the social order that arose in
India following the Aryan migrations.
B. External problems resulted from security issues along their frontiers, including the threat of invasions
(such as between Northern China and Xiongnu; between Gupta and the White Huns; or among Romans,
Parthians, Sassanids and Kushan).
 Peasant rebellion—those developments provoked widespread unrest, particularly among
peasants, who found themselves under increasing economic pressure with no means to influence
the government. Peasants discontent fueled an immense uprising known as the Yellow Turban, so
called because the rebels wore yellow headbands that represented the color of the Chinese earth
and symbolized their peasant origins.
Key Concept 2.3. Emergence of Transregional Networks of Communication
and Exchange
I. Land and water routes created transregional trade, communication and
exchange networks in the Eastern Hemisphere, while separate networks
connected the peoples and societies of the Americas somewhat later.
NOTE: Students should know how the typical trade goods, the ethnicity of people involved, and factors
such as the climate and location of the routes shaped the distinctive features of the following trade
routes.
A. Eurasian Silk Roads
 The Eurasian Silk Roads- the silk roads were trade routes that linked much of Eurasia and
North Africa. High quality silk from China was one of the popular trade items. The silk road(s)
ended around where the Taklamakan desert was, it is one of the most dangerous and inhospitable
regions on Earth.
B. Trans-Saharan caravan routes
 Trans-Saharan caravan routes- Nomads have been living in the Saharan desert for a very long
time. Camels quickened pace and communication. Ghana became the important commercial site
in west Africa because it was a trade center fir gold. Islam was a popular religion in this area.
C. Indian Ocean sea lanes
 Indian Ocean Sea lanes- Indians planned trade routes a head of time. Fine cotton textiles were a
popular trade item for Indian artisans. Sugar refining, leather tanning, and carpet weaving were
also popular. Iron and steel production also emerged. China also traded here, and produced silk,
porcelain, and lacquer ware.
D. One of the following: Mediterranean sea lanes; American trade routes; or the north-south Eurasian
trade routes linking the Baltic region, Constantinople and Central Asia
 Hellenistic trade- Hellenistic trade traveled from Bactria and India to the Mediterranean basin in
the west. Popular trade items were spices, pepper, cosmetics, gems, and pearls.
II. New technologies facilitated long-distance communication and
exchange.
A. New technologies (such as yokes, saddles or stirrups) permitted the use of domesticated pack animals
(such as horses, oxen, llamas or camels) to transport goods across longer routes.
 Overland trade traveled mostly by camel caravan, Camels travel much better than oxen, horses,
and donkeys. Camel saddles spread throughout Arabia, north Africa, southwest Asia and central
Asia. Large stable ships came to use in the Indian Ocean Basin.
B. Innovations in maritime technologies (such as the lateen sail or dhow ships), as well as advanced
knowledge of the monsoon winds, stimulated exchanges along maritime routes from East Africa to East
Asia.
 Indians kept track of the monsoon cycles in order to plan their trade routes. Dhows had lateen
sails, and carried goods.
III. Alongside the trade in goods, the exchange of people, technology,
religious and cultural beliefs, food crops, domesticated animals, and
disease pathogens developed across far-flung networks of communication
and exchange.
A. The spread of crops, including sugar, rice and cotton from South Asia to the
Middle East, encouraged changes in farming and irrigation techniques (such as the development of the
qanat system).
 Quanats were underground canals. They led to enhance agricultural production and population
growth. The spread of crops including sugar, rice, and cotton from south Asia to the Middle East,
encouraged changes in farming and irrigation techniques.
B. The spread of disease pathogens diminished urban populations and contributed to the decline of some
empires (such as Rome or China).
 Disease spread with trade. Trading items between two places brought in infectious and contagious
diseases that sparked ferocious epidemics. During Augustus rule the population of Rome was
about 60 million. During the 2nd century C.E. epidemics reduced Roman population to around 45
million. Chinese population was around 50 million in the beginning of the millennium and rose to
60 million. After epidemic and disease had hit, it fell back to 50 million.
C. Religious and cultural traditions, including Chinese culture, Christianity,
Hinduism and Buddhism, were transformed as they spread.
 Disease spread with trade. Trading items between two places brought in infectious and contagious
diseases that sparked ferocious epidemics. During Augustus rule the population of Rome was
about 60 million. During the 2nd century C.E. epidemics reduced Roman population to around 45
million. Chinese population was around 50 million in the beginning of the millennium and rose to
60 million. After epidemic and disease had hit, it fell back to 50 million.